Jefatura en Lévi-Strauss

, I1G rn.
1(mxOULTV~
NtW PILHI
OF THE
NEW YORK ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES
SERIES II
VOLUME 7
\~m,' IllII
Nl'~W YOltK
}JUIlY T",m J) IlY TilL AOADLMY
1945
Editor
ROY WALDO MINER
CONTENTS OF SERIES II, VOLUME 7
PAGm
Title page
Contents .•.................•......•..•..•..........••..................• iii
Imagination in Petroleum Geology. By IRA H. CRAM... . . • . . • . . .. • . . • . . . . . 1
On Factors Affecting Pigment Migration in the Retina.. By S. R. DIIl'l'WEILBB 9
The Social and Psychological Aspect of Chieftainship in a Primitive Tribe:
the Nambikuara of Northwestern Ma.to Grosso. By CLAlmm LEVI-STRAUSS 16
Conf('r<'nc(' on "The Diffusion of Electrolytes and Macromolecules in Solu-
tion" ..............•.....•..................•..•.............•....•.• 33
New Members ..................................... 34, 56,103,132.157,198,238
The Physica.l Evolution of the Rocky Mountains of Southern Wyoming.
By S. H. KNIGHT •...........•.•.•..•..........•..•..•....••.•..••.•. 37
New Facts in Visuo.l. Perception. By WOLFGANG KOEHLER........ •.•... ....• 39
Psychology in the War. By DONALD MARQUIS.............. ................ 43
Cultural and Psychological Features in English Intonation. By STANLEY
NmWMAN •.•••..•........•.•••.••........•....•...•.................• 45
Conferf'nc(' on "Animal Colony Maint('nance"... . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
The O<'olol1:io and BIologic Significa.nce of the Evolution of the Fusilini-
dae. By CARL O. DUNBAR ............................................ 57
The Biodynamics oi Expelimcntai NeurOAOs and Alcoholism. By JULlilS H.
MASSER MAN •......••..•..••.......................................... 61
Rep()rt of the Annual Meeting. By EUNICIll THOMAS MINER. .. . . . . . . . • . . . .. 72
Polymers and Light. By PETER DEBTm (Abstra.ct).......................... 77
The Eff('ct. of Activit.y on the I.o.tcnt Period of Muscular Contraction. By
ALEXANDER SANDOW. (Abstract) A. Cressy Morrison Prize Winner, 1944 78
A Hithorto Und('monstrated Zoogll'al Form of Mycobacterium tUb6T®losis.
By ELF.ANOR ALIIlXANlIEII-JAOltSQN. (Abstract) A. Cressy Morrison Prize
Winner, 1944 •......................•...•..•.............•........... 81
Respira.tion and Germina.tion Studies of Seeds in Moist Storage. By LIilLA V.
BARTON. (Abstra.et) A. Cressy Morrison Honorable Mention, 1944... •. • 83
An Flo.rly Site in Co.yup;a County, N!:'w York: Type Station of the Frontena.o
FOCUR, Archaic I'ILtwm. By WILLIAM A. RITOlIll\l. (Abstract) A. Cressy
Morrison Honorablo M!'ntion, 194.4.................................... 85
InlC'ctric-II.l PI111!1~1i()l1l1 in tho Human Hro.in. By T. C. BARNES............... 87
Morn!. Valu(,I:!, lMuwiorism., and tbe Worlcl Crisis. By CLAR1t JJ. HOLL.. . .• • 90
IntA'I")'Il'('taUmlll or And('an Arch!:'olop;y. By WIDNDl!ILL C. BmNNlIl'l"l',......... 95
iii
Announcement, A. Cressy Morrison Prize Contest,l945 ...................... 101
Geology of Ceramic Materials in New York State. By JOHN C. BROUGHTON 107
The Role of Conflicts in Neuroses. or Modern Psychoanalyl!is. By KAREN
HORNEY. (Title only) ............................................... 109
The Logical Foundations of Culture and Personality Studies. By GEORGE
DEVEREUX •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 110
Conft'r('nce on "ExpC'riIn('nto.l HypE'rt('nsion"............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 131
Aerial Photogmphs liS nn Adjunct to Arctic and Sub-Arctic GC'ologic R(lcon-
no.issance. By WALLACE M. CADY........ . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .... 135
The M('('hn.niHlll of Fln(lrgizing Muscular Contrnction. By ALEXANDER. SANllOW 139
Psychologicnl CritcrilL for an Inil'rcultural Comparison of l'l'rsonILlity. By
A. I(ARDlNER (Title only) ............................................. 153
Conference on "Non-Projective Personality Tests" ......................... 154
Announcement of Publications for 19~ .................................... 156
Sedimentary Maps and Oil Exploration. By WILLIAM C. KRUMBEIN. . . . . . .. 159
Some Aspects of Military N('uropsychiatry. By S. BERNARD WORTIR ......... 167
The AHainment of ConcC'pts-A Psychological Int(lrpr('tation. By EDNA
HEIDBREDER ........................................................ , .. 171
The Biology of the Population of the Unit(ld Stat!'lI. By UARltY I" SHAPIRO 189
Conferenc(' on "Lymph" ..... " .... , ..... , ... , .... ,...................... 196
JuraR~ic Straligmphy of Aluska nnd Petroleum Exploration in Northw(ll'It
America. By Ll!lWIS B. KELI,UM ............... , ..... ,., ..............• 201
Antibiotics. olll"r than Penicillin, Produced lIy P(·1Iicillin. By .T. 1:3. Klr.lllt
and J. S. ZELLAT ........................................................ 21()
R<'soai'ch in Aviation P"y(·h()lo~y. By MOllIllS R. VITlal,I~" .•••••••.••••.•.•• 220
Conference on. "Blood Gronping"...................................... . . .. 231)
Announcement of Additional PublicnLions for 191C. . . . . . . . . . . • . • . • . . . . . . . . .• 2~7
iv
Tn.\ :\S.\('TIONH
of
'l'ln~ ~,EW ) on I, .\, 1.\I>I'~l\1 Y O~' HCU~NCES
Hta: n. \ 01 j No.1
1-'1',('1'111:"01 p} Hho{.oc;Y ANI> ~HNIm.ALOnY
:\Iu (II .... II c ·I:A'I. t\~"'U.. tll!1 ('IIII'I I il·ologi:..t, Purl' Oil COlllIlallY, Presi-
cif'llf •. \ !Il1·lif',HI A1Il'l1ll'ial ion (It' Pl'lr(Ilt'llttl O{'(llop;ists, Chicll.go, Ill.:
Im(lfl"IIII',1II ill 1'1fl'(lil'lIm (,'t'OIO{IY
I N'1IlOl11' ( 'flO N
It ,,(mId Ill' 11IIIi"ul! 1.11 rt'ud 11 IllllII ht'f (If mIWl'!pl~P()I'ij and magazineli
Wlthe'lIt, Ilolinl', 'MIW rl'ft'rl'll('(' to p;c'ol()~y. Many ft laymnn who may
hl\v(' (lfl('C' thollJ.tht (If g('olo~it;t..! lUI tholl(' peculiar fellows who spend
t,lwir Ii Ve'1-I hunt 1lI1\ dillOtlllUl' (~'l4 in the Oobi desert or making useless
Uhfl('rVfl.(junH ill tilt' ('rntl'r (.1£ nu ~l,('tiV(' vulcano has probably been sur-
prhwl{ tn It'MIl that g('I)I(I~it-hlllr(' UII{'ful in th(' !!t'lll'ch for oil and othcr
mine'raIN, II III I ('\'I'll in nlud(.·rn warfllfl', '['b(' layman CAnnot be ex-
jlcC'tC'ci tel hnw 1\ ~C1()d utl(l('rl:ltandjn~ of tht' mallY ways geology ('an bt'
appliNi to HI(' lIo1uti()1l of pmcticnl prohlclllK, for the field of applied
g('()lugy ill hrurui h(·ymul hiM, or, for thut mutt.er, any gco}ngist's concep-
tion. (;('(ll(l~ip.;tt~ nrc' huPl'Y to bt' r('co~iz(ld BS more useful citizens,
lind, in t.hil-l willi'l' l'I,t'uf,(lIitiun, tlwy accept l!. ('hnllenge to be still more
11I:1('(ul, to hi' nl(lrt to till' ~'xillt('nc(' (If aU problem!! dealing with the
mat.f'rinlH of till' t'llrtb, to bl' ingenious enough t,o npply geology to the
Imluti()u nf t.lWIII' pl·uhh'IilM. Appli(d g('ol()gy rl'<{uircs the {'xcrcise of
I'very rt'II()\lr('(' nt till' ~(,(II()p;iHt,'!4 ('Olmn:mti. A hovf.' all, it. require!:>
im(~ginILUc IU.
'l'he Jll'tfo}('um itl(hl!4tr~' i", t}1(' h~r~cH{ NlIployt'l' of geologists a.nd
2 TRANSAC1'IONS
the record of applied geology in the industry is one that every geologist
and every other scientist seeking to a.pply his science can study to ad-
vantage. Geologists have sold geology to the industry by applying
their science successfully to the solution of a variety of problema many
of which were once considered to be outside the sphere of geology.
Today, geology p<'rmeates the producing branch of the petroleum indus-
try and is as necessary to it as petroleum products are to our way of
life. It is now obyious that the winning of oil from the earth is essen-
tially a geologic enterprise and that the petroleum geologist is in a posi-
tion to see more clearly than othf'rs in the industry the whole problem
of making ayailable adequate supplies of crude oil. In this position of
opportunity and responsibility, the petroleum geologist can advance
the application of geology as far as his resourcefulness and imagina-
tion will permit him.
SOME PRINCIPLES
There is no discovery formula. In 85 years of experience, geolo-
gists have developed but one fundamental principle governing the oc-
currence of oil deposits,-important deposits of oil are found only in
traps in permeable rocks in geologic sections that are mainly sedimen-
tary. The effectiveness of applying this broad principle to the discov-
ery of new oil fields depends upon the geologist's imaginative use of
hie fund of geologic facts and theories, many of which are widely known.
His fund of knowledge is increased daily by learning a certain number
of the facts on the geology of oil deposits and the geology of the world,
which are furnished at an indigestible rate of each new oil field, each
well (whether dry or productive), and each goological and geophysical
survey. His theories are subject to rapid chango, because any new
fact or group of new facts, or, for that matter, any old faots or group of
old facts, when considered imaginatively and without prejudice, has a
ohance of upsetting several current theories, hypotheses and opinions
and of leading to the discovery of one or more oil fields or provinces.
The petroleum geologist is both scientist and artist. He is a ,mm.-
Nt when he works up the geologic picture or any part of the picture by
ferreting out, assembling and coordi~ating original or other available
data. In other words, he is a soientist when he is doing geology. But
his job as eo petroleum geologist has just begun when he completes his
scientific work, for he has ahead of him the more important task of ap-
plying his geology,-of appraising the economic significance of his geo-
THE NEW YOItK ACAD.I!lMY Olt' S(.lIJtJNCl~S 3
logical investigations. He is an artist when he appli('s successfully his

scionce to the solution of anyone of the mnny practical problems of the
petrolt'um industry. The petroleum geo}ogibt's imagination is an im-
portant factor in his Sllccess in eith('r capacity but especially in the
capacity of artist.
IMAGINATION IN TUl!l l:;<'lIJNCE O~' PETROLDUM GEOLOGY
I need not e.tross beforl' a group composed largely of geologists th('

role of imagination in the scil'nce of geology. Anyone who completes a
four-year course in geology must reahze that the science of geology
leaves much to the imagination. Quite certainly, no geologist can map
the surface and subsurface of a sizable area without realizing that hifi!
imagination has supplied many misCling links in the story. Ideally, tht'
geologist's imagination should be suppressC'd until he has exhausted th('
posbibilities of obtaining additional facts. How('v('l', certain considera-
tions, lnrgely ('eonomiC', frequently makC' it d(,Mrable to att<'mpt 0011('111-
sions b('forc (.'xhauflLing the possihihtil's of obtaining additional fltcts.
Bv('ry bit of data ll(,l'tainillg to the ('arth, however obtained, is
ullable in the Hcienc(' of geoloAY and is, in fact, geologic data. Thl' pe-
trol('ulll g('ologiht UX(,H ('Vl'ry R('rap of dutu. h(.' NUl lay his hands on, em-
ploYR all the prinriplcH of geology nnd, urged on by the economics of his
problems, ill vitally int(,J'cHtE.·d ill improvinp; the quulity and quantity of
geologic data. During til(' past 25 y,·ItJ'R, lll:tny inlltrumcnts and tech-
niqu('s· -lllau(' tahle anel u.lidudt'; ('01'(' drill, maJ.,'1l<'tometer, torbion bal-
ance Itnd pondnhun; fl'fm(:ti()ll st'iRInograph, r(·fll'('tion seismograph and
gravillwj('r; (·l(·(,tl'i(', p,mnma ray Im<i mud lO!l,p,ing ([('vi('('s; core anal-
Yl:!is, f1UOl'Ohl'OPl', ('tc'.- hav(' beo11 doV('lop('(l, that 1'1111hll' bhe geologist
t() (lbt,aiu lXum' pr(lriH(' ('arth lUN\RUrt·U1l'n{'1. All tht' inl-ltrulIwnts and
tN'lmiqu('Io1 hM'(' tlwir pllw(' in til(' SUll. All furnish data of geologic
itllportan('(', lUII"'( of whi('h WI'I'(' not ohtlliJmhlc' 2J; YC'ars ago. (1(.1010-
I(ihis 110 hmgl'l' hM'(' t,l) imlt~ill(1 wlU\t the facts nUty he ill certain ill-
t-.tltn(I(·H, but Lh('y htl'l/(' to I~Pllly tht'ir imup;inntionH to t.hl' Rolution of
the new pfoblt'lns raised by the 1l('W data.
Many of th,·sc new gcologic data are acquired by ge()phYl'oicltl
means and arc frequently referred to as gC'ophysical data. Unfol'{,u-
nately, too xnany petroleum gt"ologists arc content to turn ovcr the
geologic interpretation of theh(' gcologir data to the physi<'ists who nO-
quirc the data.. Geologibts ran sqUE'cze a lot more geology out of these
data acquired by gcophye.i(ml mNmA by taking t,h(' trouble to learn thE'
4 TRANSAc'rION~
principles and, morc import.ant, to work with the data, AtJ a matter of
f~j.(IL, glJologibts nre old-timers in the use of geophysical instrumeutH-
the complltJs, the alt.imeter, the uip needle, the alhlndt·, Uw bin()c:ulur
microscopo, the petrographic microscope. By using the pctrogrnphic
microscope, the geologist expands his unucl't:ltunding of tho ('omposition
and structure of u piece of rock. By using the magn<.'tomet(·r, ~ILVi
met<'r and seismograph, he cxpandl:! his understanding of the composi-
tion and structure of the earth. The diffel'cnce is merely one of I:!('nll',
Geologists can and should expand their horizon by treat.ing till'
data acquired by geophysical mcans as gcologic data, worthy of being
worked into the geologic picture, worthy of being subjected to analysis
by the imaginative mind of a geologist. While 1 am urging geologists
to delve more deeply into geophysics, I am at the same time urging
them to delve as deeply into geochemistry, geobotany, geobiology or
any other geoscience that is useful or that may be useful in the discov-
ery of oil. Concurrently, I am urging the physiciRts, chemists, boto.n-
iets, biologists and other scientists to study more geology, As geolo-
gists and other scientists atLain a better understanding of each other's
fields, the results of their combined effol·ts eannot fail to improve.
The intelligent usc of the tools available to the petroleum geolo-
gist is a most important part of his job and requires perspective and
imagination. In laying out his program, he has to make the best use of
these tools, to choose the areas that merit attention first, to choose th('
proper tool 0'1' tools to use in each area. The choice of areas to work,
either in reconnoissance or deta.il, is one of the most serious d('ciRionH
the petroleum geologist has to make, and cerw.inly few dccisiollr:l require
It greater exercise of good judgment and imngination. K(.'en competi-
tion makes it necessary to work the various arC'l\a in tht' (lrdcr of theil'
probable importance. No gcologilli or group of gtlologists has at hiM
command sufficient resources to enable him to work, at the flame timo,
a.ll areas which may be consiUercu prol:!pcctivc. Regardless of his rc-
sources he can dissipate them by tho thoughtless usc of them. Tho de-
oision to explore a new nrea in the attempt to open up a new petrolifer-
ous province may be based upon little else than a few widely known
geologic facts and a lot of inlagination. This decision may be based
on what amounts to a dream. In searching for a new pool in a petro-
liferous province, more facts are usually available, but again a cho;rE'
must be made.
In. the progrel!S of the geological work which follows the decillion
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 5
to explore an area, there is every opportunity to exercise imagination in
the use of the tools. One eXltmple of the expert handling of a reflection
seismograph crew in the Gulf Coast will serve to stress my point. In
this ccrtnin area the shooting of profiles along the roads revealed a
rather inconspicuous structural anomaly. Other companies had also
shot along the same rouds and one of them had drilled a. dry hole on
thC' anomaly. Tho geologist in charge could have passed up the struc-
tm'al anomflly as one of no importance and prooeeded to searoh else-
where for a. more important structural feature. He saw in the picture,
however, the suggestion of an important structural anomaly located
between the lines of control along the roads. He therefore went to the
trouble and expense of shooting lines through the rather inaccessible
country betweon the roads and proved the existence of a sizable closed
structure. SubsC'qu('nt drilling of the closed structure resulted in the
discovery of a good Gulf Coast oil field. The discovery might have
been postponed indofinitely had this geologist ,not been imaginative in
thE' use of an expensive tool.
IMAGINA'l'ION IN TBl1l ART OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
It is the geologist's funetion to detail the geology of each prospect
to the point that the drilling of a wildoat well becomes an economic
venture. When the geologist determines that point, he has appraised
the economic significance of his scientific endeavors and has assumed
the role of artist. I do not wish to imply that the geologist's e1forts up
to this point are ('xclnsively scientific. All along the line he has to con-
sider tho practical nl>plic~ttion of his work. Quite certainly there is
more rut ~han sci('nco in choosing the areas to work. In the capacity
of artist or trnnallLLor 01 geology into economics, the petroleum geolo-
gist is on his own. The machines he used to develop the geologio pic-
ture will not assiat him to read into that picture tho practical applica.-
tion of it. He has only his experience, knowledge, theories, reasoning
powers and imo.ginaticln to guide him. Fortunu.tcly, long experience in
drawing conclusions from a. miscellaneous assortment of data. has sharp-
ened his powers of imagination. Expressing this thought in di:tIerent
words, the petroleum geologist uses only one tool-his head-when h('
applies geology to tho solution of practical problems. Since the most
important prActical problem is the discovery of oil, it follows that the
future of oil discovery lies as much, if nob more, in the minds of geolo-
gists BS it does in the development of new prospeoting tools, the itn-
6 TRANSACTIONS
proveInent of old tools and drilling cquipment, and the ttcquil'litioll of

new data. The burden on the mindK of geologil:!ts promiflt's to grow
heavier rather thnn lighter, bceaul:!c the o.ntieipatcu improvenll'nt in
fa.et-findillg devices will do well to keep pace with the incft'al:!ed dUH-
cuILicl:! of finding Lhe huge quantities of oil neC('l:ll:lal'Y to onf nntiOlUtl
welfare.
The libraries and files of companies Ilnd individuals arc full of
good geology indicating good prospects, a fair percentage of which will
be found productive. That many of these prospects have not bCl'n
conl:!idefed as prospects by the many geologists who have studied thesc
picce!:! of geology is of no great significance, for, in the absence of a
discovery formula, the opinion of the majority does not necessarily ap-
proach the truth. Any geologist at any time may see one or morc' oil
fields or new petroliferous provinces in these libraries or fill'S hy the
not altogether simple process of tearing himself away from orthodox
ccon01nic appraisal of the geology and adopting a fresh viewpoint. The
more imaginative geulogists can ltchi('ve this fresh viewpoint. The I<'Ks
imaginative achieve it with difficulty, for they ar!) more inclined to
search for oil in tho light of the past-tho old story of the generals fight-
ing the last war. Orthodox economic appraisal of geologie fcatur<'s
leads to mental condemnation of those geologic features that are unlike
those upon which nearby or remote oil fields are located. Referring
again to the broad principle that important deposits of oil are found
only in traps in permeable rocks in geologic sections that arc mainly
sedimentary, there is little justification for m('ntally cOlldcmning u
stratigraphic or structural condition affording a trap just h('CltlUl(' this
trap docs not meet the atruC'tural and stratigl'aphi(' spc('ifioatiolll''4 of
nearhy or remotl' oil fields. Only the drill can condemn a P1'()Sp<'ct.
Daring, imaginative intcrpr<,Lation of the oil possibilitit'1!I of geo-
logic features ha.s led dirccLly to the discovery of oil in the past, and it
is well to relate an ()utstanding (·xmnplc-thc ~'ittA 1iold, Oklahomn.
This field, discovered ill 1933, is lo('atcd in the Franks graben, a rela-
tively small pie-shaped graben along the northeast flank of the Arbuckle
Mountains. The geology of the area had heen adequately described ill
a report published in 1924. Between the dates of publication and dis-
covery any number of petroleum geologists had every opportunity to
appraise correctly the oil possibilities of the prominent faulted anti-
cline in Pennsylvania rocks within the graben. Most of these geolo-
gists in their search for oil were looking for geologic features resembling
closely known Oklahoma oil fields, and the geology of the Franks
'l'HI<) NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 7
graben was different. A handful of geologists ignored all current theo-
ricf:! and adopted the belief tha.t the prominent fnulted anticline in
P('nnsylvania beds, together with the westward convergence of the
Pennsylvanian across tho anticline, afforded a trap that was both struc-
tural and stratigraphic, meriting the drilling of a wildcat well. Those
who felt that the prospect was too close to the mountains now can sce
Ordovician oil wells 4500 fcet deep less than a mile from the Ordo-
vieian outcrop in th(' Arbuckle Mountains. The daring, imaginative,
trail-blazing int<.'rpretation of the oil possibilities of a widely known
anticline added over 100 million barrell:! of oil to the nation's reserve
and, more importnnt, it affected profoundly the thinking of hundreds
of gcologists. Prosl)(l('tR W('l'e no longer too clol:le to the mountains, and
geologists who had mentally condemned the areas around the moun-
tains immediately bccumc interested ill them.
You ha.ve perhaps heard the opinion expressed that we have found
and drilled most of the structural traps in the United States. It is more
c()rrect to say that we have found and drilled most of the structural
traps that the majority of geologists think arc good traps in the areas
t,hat the majol'ity of geologistR think are prospective. Fitts was not
considered to bl' thi~ ",ort of trnp in this sort of art'a, and, today, as in
1933, thert' r(.'tnuin any numbl'f of structural traps that do not meet the
I:!jl(.'('ifi<Jo.ti(lns ()f the mnjority but which arc nevertheless potential
oil fields.
You havo also heard that, in order to meet the demand for crude
oil, geologists will have to devote morc attention to the discovery of
IoItrtLtigraphic traps. One cannot quarrel with this statement. There
urc relatively few oil fields owing their existence to stratigraphic trap-
ping alono, but th('rc nrc many oil fields owing thC'ir exil:!tence to com-
bined structllrnt and strutigraphic trapping. In the future, as in the
PCll:'lt, some stratigrnphic oil fh'Icls will b() diAcovcrl'rl by random drill-
ing, but, in the iuturo, the petr()leum geologist will have to develop
more ideas thut cun be turn(ld into strtttigruphie oil fields by a reason-
~lble amount of drilling. In order to develop these ideas the petroleum
geologist has no alternative but to do more and hetter geology and to
usc more imagination in the appraisal of the economic significance of
his geology.
A good example of an excellent oil field located on a combination
stratigraphic and structural trap and discovered through the efforts of
geologists is the East Coalinga Eocene pool in California. The wildoat
well which proved to be the discovery well of this field was located on
8 TRANSACTIONS
the axis of the southeastward plunging Coalinga anticlinal nose, a. well-

known structural feature in Califorma. Eight and one-half miles to
the southeast of the well, on the same line of folding, So well in tht' I{et-
tleman Hills field had rt'vcaled a thick Rection of Eocene sand. Sevell
miles to the northwest of the well and up-dip, the exposed Eocene sertion
contained a poorly developed sand body. The well was located with
the idea of penetrating a substantial sand section as far up-dip on the
anticlinal nose as possible. As a matter of fact, the thick Eoot'ne sand
section in Kettleman Hills had been predicted from the general geologic
considerations in advance of drilling, and leases had been purchas('d
on the Coalinga nose as a play for Eocene production. Highly imag-
inative interpretation of a fund of accurate surface and subsurface data
therefore preceded the discoverY.
CONCLtl'SION
I do not pretend to have presented to you an exhaustive treatise on
imagination in petroleum geology. A great deal more imagination
goes into the discoverY of most oil fields than is evident from a study of
the literature, beeaufle authors seldom describe their mental processes.
If the details were known, I am sure we should find that my attempt
to portray the role of imagination in both the science and art of petro-
leum geology is woefully short of the mark. However, I hope to have
cited enough examples of the economic importance of imaginative geol·
ogy to clarify my conception that imagination permeates petroleum
geology, just as petroleum geology permeates the producing branch of
the petroleum industry.
It will take some new provinces full of oil fields as well as a great
many new oil fields in known provinces to supply the heavy demand
for domestio crude oil. Ideas, the product of imaginative mindA, pre"
cede detailed geological investigations, steer the course of these inves-
tigations and control the economic interpretation of the results of the
investigations. Without good ideas, nothing worth while is started,
nothing worth while results. The quality of ideas is likely to he pro-
portional.to the available quantity of accurate geologic data, and the
quality of the geologist's imAgination. In the search for new provinces
the geologic data. are ordinarily scantj hence, the imagination is taxed
heavily. Let us tax our imaginations, for, by taxing them, we develop
them, and, by developing them, we generate more good ideas, resulting
inevitably in more oil fields in both old and new areas.
THE NEW YORE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 9
SECl'ION OF BIOLOGY
OCTOBER 9, 1944
DOCTOR S. R DETW1LEU, Department of Anatomy, College of Physi~
cians and Surg('ons, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.: On
Factor8 AfJectm.g Pigment M7'gratwn in the Retina. (This lecturE'
was illust rated by lu.ntern Alides )
It has long been known that illummation of the retina in many
animals brings about a forward migration of the pigment in the epi-
thelial pigment layer, contraction of the cones, and elongation of the
rods. In dim light or ItdarkncsEl," th(;' inVerbE' changes occur, viz., re-
traction of the pigment, elongation of the cones, and a shortening of
the rods.
These chang('s have bl'en it'nned "photomechanical," since thC'y
were first observed to occur in rcsponse to marked alteratlons in 11-
lumination. In toleost fishes, amphibians, and birds, the responses
are prominent. In r(.'ptiies, they arc greatly rt'dueed, and in mammals,
including man, their occurrence is questionable. It is generally re-
garded, however, that th('S!) rccpons('s are of gr('at importance in adapt-
ing the retina to changes in illumination, particularly in the lower vcr-
tehl'ates (Walls, 1942). In man and other mammals, where these r('-
sponses apparently do not take place, adaptation to changing illunrina.-
tion must be sought primarily in the physiology of the retinal photo-
pigments in combination with pupillary rcsponsC's.
Despite prolonged invostign.tions (Arcy, 1915; Detwiler, 1943;
Walls> 19(2» tht' tnC'('bttllism by which photomcchanical shifts arc
brought about has nov('r been fully eluoidated. Neither have the vari-
ous theories conc('rning the funotional significance of these positional
altt'rations met all the roquirl'tnents of tIl(' inquisitive mind.
Phototn('chanioo.l changes have heen Eohown to be evoked by fUG-
torI:! athOl' than light and darkness. Ona of these factors is temperature.
Arey (1916a) I working with teleost fish('s, showed that at low (50 C.)
and at high (250 C.) t.emperatures in the dark, the pigment expands,
thus exhibiting a response characteristic of light adQptation. The
conCR, which typically lengthen in the dark, were found to shorten at
low temperatures, and to elongate at high temperatures. The results
of his experiments upon frogs were essentia.lly in agreement with those
10 TRANSACTIONS
ot IIerzog (1905). Their general conclusion was that the pigment in

tht' do.rk-adapt(ld (,Y(ls undergoes striking (lxpnnl';ion b('twN'll 0°_14°
C nnd 19°-33° C.; whereas, at intermediate tempC'fatufC's, it is highly
('(Illiru('tcd. 'rhes(' limits apparently are too rigici, for it. hUE; sin('e
1>1'('11 shown (DetwilC'r and LC'wis, 1926, I.md, mort' r('c('nUy, in unpull-
h..,hcd observations) that, aft('r two hours (.'XPO,",Uf(· to dnrkncsf:1 at t('m-
p<'mturcs as high as 24° C., the pigmmt is u~ually in the contrnctC'd
t-.tatC'.
Recent experiml'nts (D('twiler, 1944) have shown that excitatory
stimuli, such as those occasioned by handling or dumping to a frog
board, will cause exten::llV(, migration of the pigmont in durk-adapt,('d
frogs. The migration is fairly rapid and can take place within twenty
minutes. The exeie.ion of one eye (under faint rC'd light) from a dark-
adapted frog is invariably followed by expansion of the pl!~ment in tht'
opposite eye, following twenty minutC's furth('r exposure to darkness.
This responsE." is not nec(lssarily due to thl' operation, for if a dark-
adapted frog (2-3 hours in darkness) is clamped to a frog board, and
kl'pt in the dark for twenty additional minutes, the pigment is found
to be in the extended condition.
It becomes clear from these and other results that, in any experi-
ments involving the injection of various substanres to test their effects
upon photomechnnieal reactions, the ('xperimenter must be extrl'mely
careful not to ascrib(' cl'rLain rCbults to the subsLanres injected, when
the response may be due to the excitatory state produced by mere
manipulation of the frog. Numerous ('a~('s are on hand to Rhow that
the injection in the dnrk of 1 ('C'. of frog Ringer's holution into th('
ventral lymph sue of dl'\rk-udnpt<,d frogA will ('aURO the pip;nwnt to \111-
dcrgo expane.ion as ('xtensive as that produt'cd by oxcil:ling an eye.
In order to inv('stigatE' the possible natuT(, of this so-call('d eX('it:\-
tory responsc, a number of experiments were performed in which thE'
frog, after dark-adaptation, was anaesthetized. This was s,('C'om·
plished by injecting 1 ceo of a 10 per cent solution of paraldehyde into
the ventral lymph sac. Usually, within three minutefl, the frog became
limp and showed no response to any peripheral stimulation. The left
eye was then excised and the animal re-dark-adapted for 20 minutes.
Despite the obvious blocking of all cutaneous impuls('s, the pigment in
the right eye underwent migration in the dark comparable in oxtent to
that obtained in unanacsthetized animals. The same results were ob-
tamed when anMoesthetizing doses of chloretone were used (1 cc. of a

1-100 solution). *
Wherea.H, the abow ohSerVu.tlOnH show that functioning cutaneous
nerves are not lll'ccssary for the pigmentary response, the question still
remains as to what extent other nerves (e.g. autonomies), the action of
hormones, or other chE'mlcal changes may be involved in the reactions
In order to test these matters further, a series of experiments upon
Amblystoma larvae was carrit>d out as follows: A supernumerary optic
vesicle wali substituted for the oar vesicle in embryos in the early tail-
bud stage of development. One group of embryos containing the su-
pernumerary eye was then hypophysectomized. As a result, there be-
('ame available for study two groups of animals. One group possesRed
the hypophysis, normal intact eyes, and heterotopic eyes lacking con-
D('ction with the central nervous system. The other group, with nor-
JUal and heterotopic eyc8, lacked the hypophysis. The larvae were
raised for 80 to 45 days, when individuals from both categories were
8ubjertcd for four hours to light (60 watt lamp) or, for the same timc,
to total darkness It thus became possible to study the effects of light
or darkness, with or without the presence of the hypophysis, upon nor-
ma.l ('yos, as well af! upon those devoid of nervous control. A micro-
soopic study was made of the eyes from four light-adapted and four
dfUk-adapted larvae with un intact pituitary gland, and of a similar
number which had been hypophysectomized. The findings showed
thtLt the pigmentary I C'spons(' in the eyes of larvae lacking the hypo-
physif! doeR not tliffC'r from that in the eyes of normal larvae. Fur-
tiH'r1l10l'(', ill the> J!,l aftt'd ('Y('I!I Itwking n('rvous ('onn('('tinns, the res,ponsc
is also of the same magnitude as in th(· normal eyes, rogardless as to
wh('th('r the hypophysis iH pr<'L'lt'nt or ahl!('nt. The results clearly point
to th(' C'()nrlusion 1hnt, in this form, the reactious to light and darknc'ss
nrc llutonumoull, and arC' llot suhservlent to llCrvOUf! control nor to
,my inllu('uco on thC' part of the pituitary gland.
Lf\urcns and Williams (1917) showed that, in hetC'rotopic eyes of
Amb~ystomll tig1intttn, piglnent migr!tilOn and cone contraction under
illuminn.tion took place as in the normal eyes, but to a greater extent
Pigmentary responses of similar magnitUde were shown to take place
in the heterotopic eycs of Ra.na j'U8ca larvae (Dctwiler, 1929). The
findings are in support of the generally known fact that, in certain
• Arw (,lea) nl)tl'fi tllal anllC~th~hrlDg dark-adnpted eatfi,b (Amftllffl'). by IDUIIeI1!IlIII tb_
In a 01 IIl'I' (t'nl '1()iullOn of (hlol~IcID~·. dId nnt PIPVC'llt tho ml~IRhl)lI of pllllIent "hC'll the MlIrnals
",pre hroulht Ulto the llflbt
12 TRANSACTIONS
forms, limited positional changes can take place independ('ntly of the

nervous system, despite ('vidence in support of the existence of n super-
imposed n('rvous (efferent) control (Arey, 1916&, 1916b).
That the pituitary gland plays no significant role in r('gulating
photomechanical response is apparent, for the weight of evidence shows
that after hypophysectomy, the retinal responses to light and darkness
Itfe unaltered. An exception to this is the work of Sverdlick (1942),
who ('Iaims that the pigment in light-adapted hypophysectomized frogs
undergoes moderate contraction. In my own experiments with hypo-
physectomized frogs, the responses to light and darkness under other-
wise controlled conditions did not deviate from those exhibited by nor-
InR.I frogs subjected to similar experimental procedures.
In contrast to strong evidence that excision of the hypophysis does
nut ('ff('ct th(> IlJighl" and "dark" re!!lponse of the retinal pigment, tht'
results of experiments involving the injection of posterior lobe extracts
(containing melanophore-stimulating hormone) are not only at vari-
ance, but are, in ma.ny instances, contradictory, as regards the effects
on both dark-adapted and light-adapted frogs and toads. Matuo
(1935) and Dubois-Poulsen (1937) obtained expansion in the dark fol-
lowing the injection of posterior lobe extract. One wonders whether
the supposed influence of the hormonal substance injected, in many in-
stances, is real. This query seems especially pertinent in view of the
fact that the injection of frog Ringer's solution into the ventral lymph
sac of dark-adapted frogs results in a rather striking expansion of the
pigment, and is apparently the result of mechanical manipulation and
subsequent excitation of the frog. This, however, would not account
for the contraction of the pigment in illuminated eyes whieh several
authors olaimed to have observed after injection of posterior lobe ex-
tract (Drouet and Florcntin, 1937).
That the injection of adrenalin causes a mo.rked migration in dark-
adapted eyes is generally agreed upon by those who have investigated
Lhis matter. In 1919, Arey (see also Arey and Jennings, 1943) showed
that the injection of 2 cc. of a 1: 100,000 solution would produce marked
migration in the dark. He found also that extracts of the adrenal
bodies of the frogs were also potent when injected. In view of my own
experiments, it would appear that the marked migration following
adrenalin injection is not all due to the substance injected, for some of
the migration must in all instances be attributed to the sequelae of
internal reactions which are initiated by the act of inj ection alone.
The completion of thesE' reactions is apparently not dependent upon
functional intactness of the cutaneous nerves, for in dark-adapted frogs,
which are ana('sthctized just prior to the injection of adrenalin chloride
(1 cc. of 1: 100,000), a marked migration of the pigment occurs in dark-
ness. This may be maximal within 30 minutes.
Studnitz (1940) found that the injection of phosphoric acid into
dark~adapt,('d fishes caused the pigment and the cones to assume the
"light" condition. He also cites evidence which indicates the migra~
tion of pigment caused by the injection of adrenalin chloride is due to
its acidity and not to the hormonal base. He also claimed that the
injection of alkali (KOH) into light~adapted fishes caused them to
dark-adapt.
A few preliminary experiments by the author have been made to
test the effects of acidosis and alkalosis upon the retinal responses.
Injection of either ammonium chloride (1 cc. of a 5 per cent solution)
or sodium bicarbonate (1 cc. of a 10 per cent solution) into dark-
adapted frogs will bring about, in 30 minutes, migrations as extensive
as those following the injection of adrenalin, but the experiments to
date are too crude to justify any definite conclusions. More refined
experiments employing acids and alkalies are under way. Experiments
are also in progress to tcst the effects of parasympathetic sensitizers
and parulysants upon the retinal responses to light and darkness. It is
hoped that thc~e and still other approaches will yield results which will
be fruitful to a clearer understanding of the physiology of this fasci-
nating, but baBling, problem.
.Are,. L. B.
1915. The occurren!'e and the significance of photomecha.niaal changes in the
vertebrate retina.-an hiatoricalsurvey. J. Compo Neur., 115: 535-554.
191611.. The movoments in the viSUM celle and retinal pigment of the lower
vertebrates. J. Compo Neur., 26: 121-201.
191Gb. The fUnction of the efferent fibers of the optic nerve of fishes. 1.
Compo Nour., 26: 213-245.
1919. On the functional relations of the euprarenal gland and the retinal p~
mont. Anat. Rec., 18: 138.
Arftt. L. B. " W. E. Jennings
194:3. The effects of darkness and temperature on the retinal pipent and visual
ce11fl of the frog's eye when transferred into the belly cavity. J. Compo
Neur., '19; 487-499.
14 TRANSACTIONS
DltwUer, 8. B..
1929. Some observations upon grafted eyes of frog larvae. Arch. f. J4~ntw.
mech., 116: 555-566.
1943. Vertebrate Photoreceptors. The Macmillan Company, New York.
1944. Excitation and retinal pigment migration in tho frog. J. Compo Neur.,
81: 137-145.
Detwiler, S. B.. & B.. Lewis
1926. Temperature and retinal pigment migration in the eyes of the frog. J.
Compo Neur., 41: 153-169.
Drouet, P. & P. Florentin
1937. Revue Medicale de Nancy. 66: 678 (cited from Sverdlick, 1942).
Dubois-Poulsen, A.
1937. Effects de l'extrait hypophysaire et de l'adr6naline sur lea frangos de
l'epitMbum pigment8.1re de 1& r6tine de 1& grenouille. Uomptes ltendus
de la Societe de Biologie, 126: 248-249.
Benlog, B.
1905. J<Jxperimentelle Untersuchung zur Physiologic der Bewegungevorgfillge
in der Netzhaut. Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol., Phylliol. Abt., lIeft. IS u.
6: 413-464.
Laurens, B. & J. W. Williams
1917. The photomechanical changes in the retina of normal and transplanted
eyes of Amblystoma larvae. J. Exp. Zoo!., 23: 71-83.
Katuo, It.
1935. Ueber die Wirkung des Hinterla~penhormons dar Hypophyse auf die
Pigmentwanderung der Netzhautpigmentzellen des Frosch08. Okayama
Igakkai-Zasshi, 4'/: 2387.
von 8tudnltz, G.
1940. Physiologie des Sehens. Reis u. Wetzel. Leipzig.
8verdllck, J.
1942. Influenciu. de II' hip6fisis y de Ie. suprarenal flobre el pigmento retiniano
del Bulo armarum Hensel. Revists. de 190 Soc. Argentina. de Biologia,
18: 207-214.
Walla. G. L.
1942. The vertebrate eye. Cranbrook Inst. Sci., Bull. 19. Bloomfield Hills,
Michigan.
SECTION OF PSYCHOLOGY
OCTOBER 16, 1944
DOCTOR DONALD MABQUIS, Director of the Office of Psychological Per-
Bonnel, National Research Council, Washington, D. C.: Psychology
in the War.
No abstract of this paper has been rec('ived.
16 TRANSACTIONS
SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY
OCTOBER 23, 1944
I' I' ,
DOCTOR CLAUDE LEVI-STRAUSS, Ecole Libre des lIautcs Etudei:l, NeVI'
York, N. Y.: The Social and Psychologica£Aspect of Chieftamship
in a Primitive Tribe: the Nambikua1'a of Northwestern Mato
Grosso.
Few anthropologists would admit today that human groups djspl:~y
ing an extreme primitiveness either in the field of material culture or
that of social organization can teach us something about the early
stages of the evolution of mankind. Primitiveness in one field often
goes on a. par with a great f'lophistication in another, all ~hown by the
Australian refinements concerning kinship. Since these primitive
peoples have their own history, it would be a serious mistake to think
that it may be discounted because we know nothing of it. The partial
similarities which archaeological remains allow us to infer betweon
primitive societies a.nd those of prehistoric man, while they remain
sheer hypotheses, do not preclude the tremendous differences which may
have existed in fields outside of the archaeologist's reach. The above
oonsiderations, whioh are only a few among many others, have led most
anthropologists in recent years to consider eaoh human group as a par-
ticular case which should be studied, analyzed and described from tht>
point of view of its uniqueness, without any attempt to use th~ TC'lsults
for a better understanding of human nature.
However desirable this attitude may have been after the evolu-
tionist orgies, and however fruitful the results obt ained, ther~ art' many
dangers in it which should l'ail:!ll inrrl'mling ('onrrTn. Ar(' WI! ('ondlmmcd,
'like new Danaids, to till endlessly the sieve-like bttakct of anthropolog-
ical science; in vain, pouring monographs over monographs without
ever being able to collect a substance with a richer and derumr value?
Fortunately, primitive societies have not to be considered as illusory
stages in the evolution of mankind to teach us a truth endowed. with a
general validity. The fact that they are (at least some of them and
all of them in some respect) simpZer societies than our own does not
need to be taken as a proof of their archaism. They still throw light,
if not on the history of mankind, at least on some basic fonna of activity
which are to be found, always and everywhere, as prerequisites for the
('xistcnco of human soci('ty.
The simpler organisms may provide a better field for the study of
organic functions than those which exhibit tbe same functions, although
under a more complex form. Simple human groups render the an-
thropologist the same kind of service without any need of surmising
that they represent survivals of older types of organization. Now, to
call upon the notion of function in the field of anthropological science~
is no discovery. This notion, first introduced by Durkheim in 1894/
has been only too much exploited since then, sometimes in the most
abusive way. There arc indeed functions of the social life as well as
functions of the organic life. But neither in one domain nor in the
other does everything correspond to, nor may it be justified by, its
functional value. To state the opposite view could lead to only two
results: either an anthropological come-back to eighteenth century
Providentialism, where culture would play in relation to man the same
utopian tutelary part which was attributed to nature by the author of
Pam et Virginiej2 or th(' reducing of the notion of function to a mere
tautology-to say, for instance, that the function of the notched lapel
on our coats is to gratify our esthetic feeling would be meaningless,
since, here, obviously, the feeling results from the ('ustom, and not the
('ontrary. The custom has a history which explains its existence. It
docs not, under present circumstances, possess any function.
The preceding roay appear to be a very ponderous introduction to
nn address dedicated by its title to the psychological aspects of chief-
tainship in a small Brazilian tribe. But I do not believe that the data
which I am going to present, if considered only as data on chieftain-
ship among a hitherto littll' known group, would honestly deserve one
hour of attention. Similnr fnctH have h('cn recorded ulany times,
either joined or separately. The particular interest offered by the
Nambikuara ill that they ('onfront us with ont' of the simplest conceiv-
able forms of social and political organization. Chiefs and chieftain-
ship exist, aroong all human groups, under very different forms, but it
would be vain to assign a special functionltl value to each of the modali-
1 In ilLes n~es de 1& Methode Sociologique": "The function is the corresp()ndenoe
between the considered fact o.nd the general needs of the social organism." p. 117.
IIEl his "Etudes de 180 Nature" (1784) Bernardin de Saint Pierre suggested that
Nature devised melon ribs to make the fruit easier to divide on the family table.
and that it made fleas black 80 that they could morc eo.'3ily be caught on white
skin.
18 TRANSACTIONf'
tiel! down to tht'ir blmtllt'!lt detnils. Th('rl' il:l, undonhlt·(Uy, t~ Cunctiul1 in

(·hieftainship. This can, however, he rcnclll'd only throujl;h unulysil! aN
the underlying principle (If the institution. In other words, tht· diff('r-
ing structure of the digestive organs in mun, ox, til:lh lIud {'lum do not
point toward different functions of the <li(:1;(ll:lti\"(1 t-ystem. The fuxwt,ion
is always and everywhere the same, and cnn 1)(' b(·tter studi<>d, and
more fully underl:ltood where it exists under a simple form--for in-
I:!tanec, in a mollusc. f:;imilnrly, and as PrOfe(;HOr Lowie on('e WrotE', if
anthropology is to be considered as a I:!ci('nt.ifir study, itt! subj(,(·t mattf"r
cannot be individual cultures, but, culturf' takt'l1 UH 11 whole; the rOlE' of
individual cultures being to offer, according to their ()wn ('haracteriHtics,
special angles from which the basic functions of culture, although uni-
versal in application, can be more easily rcaehed.
This will perhaps help us to eliminate pr(lliminary questions whinh
otherwise could have proved very difficult. Anthropologists in South
America and elsewhere have been eagerly df'buting thE" qu('stion of
whether these South American tribes-nomvdic, relying mostly on col-
It''eting and gathering, with little or no llgri(lUlture, little or no pottery,
and, in some cases, with no dwelling other than cfudt.' shelt,tlfl'l- Mhollld
be considered as truly primitive and a.s having pl't'served their ('XC(IP~
tionally low cultural level through tarrillnce, or whether they did not
previously posfless a higher type of socinl and ma.terial organizA.tion and
have regressed to a pseudo-archaism under unfavorable circumstances.
The Nambikuara. are one of those tribes which, along with the Siriono,
on the other side of tht' Ouaporc valley, the Cayapo, Bororo, Ko.rajlt of
r.entral Brazil, the so-called Ge of U('ntral and }t;astern Brazil, and some
others, together form a kernC'1 of primit.ivcn('sflsurroundt'<i, in the WC'l:lt,
by the high('l' tribeH of thC' upp('r Amazon, th(' Boliviaxi plain and the
Chaco, and from the Oronoco's t.o the LIt Plata'll ('Htu:ll'ies, by It coalttul
strip inhabited mOijtly by i,he Arnwak, Unrib nnd Tupi-Ouarani !ill-
guistic families. An indt'll('ntl('nt linguistic stock divided into fltlveral
dia.lects, the Nambikuara st'f.'m to display one of the more backward
cultures in South America. At lcaHt, some of th('ir band!:! do not build
huts and are wholly ignortmt of pottery and, even among the others,
these two arts are exceedingly poor. There is no weaving, except for
the narrow arm and leg bands which are made of cotton; no dress what"
soever, either for the men or for the womenj no sleeping contrivances,
such as hammocks or platforms; the natives being used to sleeping on
the bare ground without the protection of blankets, mats or hides.
Gardening cxists only during the rainy SeltROn and does not free the
Nambikuara. from wnndering during the seven months of the dry sea-
son, looking for wild roohl, fruits and sel'ds, RmaU animals such as
lizards, snakes, batA, spiders and grasshoppertl and, generally speaking,
anything whirh mtty pn'v('nt them froID flt:,rving. AF!, a matter of fact,
their geographical surroundings, which arc IO(,I,ted in the northwestern
part of the state of Mato Grosso and include the headwaters of the
Tapajoz, Rio Roosevelt nnd Rio Gi-Parana, consist of a desolated
savanna with few v('getal resources and still less gamc.
Had I approachf'd my subject from a. point of view other than the
one outlined ftbovc, I could not have avoided a long discussion in South
American cultural history, aimed at clearing up this apparent primi-
tiveness, on the question as to whether the survival of early conditions
of life in South Ameri<'a ill genuine or whether we should consider it as
a more recent-although undoubtedly pre-columbian-result of culture
clashes and proceasel'! oi' ac('ulturation. Whatever the answer may be,
it cannot substantially rhange our problem: whether tarriant or reces-
sive, the N ambikuara society functions, in the present, as one of the
simplest forms of human society to be conceived. We shall not seek
information from the particular history which kept thE'm in their ex-
ceptionally crude organization or brought them back to it. We shall
only look at the experiment in social anthropology which they now
('nact under our very eyes.
This holds cspE'cially true in respect to their social and political
life. For if we do not know what was the material culture of the
Nambikuura forty years ago (they wer(.> discovered only in 1907), we
do know that their nunlbcrs became tremendously reduced after their
contact with white civilization. General (then Colonel) Candido
Mariano dn Silva Rondon, who discovered and I:Itudied them, first stated
that their number waR about 20,000. Thil:l wal:l uround 1915. I ta.ke
this figure as greatly exaggerated, but even if reduccd by one half, it
l'onsidcrably exceeds tho present number which is hardly more than
2,000. J:t)pidomics have taken care of the difference. What does this
mean, from tho point of view of our study? During the dry season, the
Nambikuara live in nomadic bands, each one under the leadership of a
chief, who, during the sedentary life of the rainy months, may be either
a village chief or a person of position. General Rondon wrote that,
at the time he was exploring the country, it was not rare to see bands
averaging two or three hundred individuals. Now, sixty or seventy
20 TRANSACTIONS
people are Eleldom met together, the averagt> size of the banns being
twenty individuals, women and children included. rrhiR d('\lllogrl.l.phic
collapse cannot possibly have taken place without affecting the sLruc-
ture of ttl(;' band. But h('re, too, w(.' do not nc(\d (,0 COliC ern ourl!('lves
with such questions as the type of political organization in earlicr times.
It is probably mor(.' difficult to unders~and Nambikuara so('iology now
than it was thirty yen.rs ago. Perhaps, on the contrary, the much re-
duced Nambikuara band offers, better than in the past, a privileged
field for a study in social anthropology. My contention is that, pre-
cisely on account of its extreme impoverishment, Na.mbikuara political
structure lays bare some basic functions which may remain hidden in
more complex and elaborate systems of government.
Each year, at the end of the rainy season, that is, in April or in
early May, the semi-permanent dwellings laid in the vicinity of the
gallery-forest where the gardens are cleared and tilled, are abandoned
and the popUlation splits into several bands formed on a free choice
basis. Each band includet! from two to about ten familio!! uRually tied
by kinship. This may be misleading when a band is met, for one eas-
ily gets the impression that it is formed as an extensive family. It
does not take long to discover, however, that the kinship tie between
two families belonging to separate bands may be as close, and even-
tually closer, than between two families inside the same band. The
Nambikuara have a simple kinship system based on cross-cousin mar-
riage and the subsequent dichotomy betw('en ucross" and uparallcl" in
every generation. Therefore, all the men in one generation are either
((brothers" or ubrothers-in-law," and men and women are to one an-
other either siblings (true or classificatory) or spouscs (true or classi-
ficatory). Similarly, children are, in relation to the adults, either sonR
and daughters (true or classificatory) (Ir nephews and nicces, whioh ilS
the same as actual or potential childr('n-in-law,J As a result, thore il:l
no great choice of terms to express kinship, and thif! explains why kin-
ship inside the band may appear closer than it actually is, and kinship
between people belonging to different bands more remote than shown
by genealogies. Furthermore, So bilateral cross-cousin marriage SYfI-
tem functioning in eo relatively small tribe must produce a progressive
narrowing, and even a multiplication, of the kinship ties between any
two individuals. This is a supplementary reason preventing family
'C. L6vi-Strauss. "The Social Use or Kinship Tenns among Brazilian Indians."
American Anthropologist, 41 (3) 1943.
relationship from becoming really operative in the constitution of the
band. It can h(' baid that, inside the ba.nd as well as between the dif-
ferent bandfl which are the offspring of the same temporary village,
everybody is everybody's kin, in pretty much the same fashion.
Why then the flplitting-up process? Two different considerations
must be brought forth to answer this question. From an economic
point of view, the scarcity of wild food resources and the subsequent
high square-mileage needed to feed one individual during the nomadic
p('riod make the division into small bands almost compulsory. The
real question is not why there is a division but rather on what basis it
takes place. I have said that this is done by free choice, but this free-
dom is not arbitrary. There are, in the initial group, several men
acknowledged as leaders (who likely acquired this reputation from
their behavior during the nomadic life) and who make the relatively
stable nuclei around whirh the different aggregates center. The im-
portance, as well as the permanl'nce of the aggregate through successive
years, depend largely upon the ability of each of these leaders to keep
his rank and eventually to improve it. Thus, it may be said that lead-
ership does not exist as a result of the band's needs, but, instead, that
th~ bund r('('('ives it!'! flhape, its flize, and evC'n its origin, from the poten-
tialleader who antedates it.
There is, however, a continuous function of leadership, although
not permanently assumed by the same individual. Among the Nambi-
kuara, chieftainship is not hereditary. When a chief grows old, or is
taken ill, and when he does not feel able to fulfill his heavy duty any
morc, he himself designates his successor. IIThis one-this one will
be the chief ... " he says. It seems likely that this autocratic power
to insure one's own succession is more apparent than real. We shall
('mphasize later on the SlnaU amount of authority enjoyed by the chief
and, in this (,I1oSC' as in muny others, the final decision is probably pre-
ced('d hy 1\ cu,reful ~UI'V('y of public opinion, the designated heir being,
at 1he same thnc, the one with the greater support from the members
of the band. Tht" appointment of the new chief is not only limited by
the wishes or disapproval of the band; it needs also to correspond to the
plans of the individual to be chosen. Not seldom, does the offer of
leadership meet with a vehement refusal: HI don't want to be the chief."
Then So new choice must be made. As a matter of fact, chieftainship
docs not seem to be coveted by many people, and the general attitude
of the different chiefs I happened to know was less to brag about their
22 TRANSACTIONS
importanee and authority than to complain of their mnny duties and

heavy responsibilities. What, then, art' the privileges of thE' chief,
and what arl' his obligations?
When, about 1560, the grl'at French lllortllil:lt of th€' l:IixtN'nth cen-
tury, Monta.igne, MC't in Rouen with thrc(' Brazilian I ndhtIls brought
there by some navigator, he asked onE:' of them what were the privi-
legE'S of the chief (Montaign(.' said, "the King") in his country; and the
native, himself a ('hier, answered: "To walk. ahead on the warpath."
Montaigne related this story in a famous rhapter of the Essays where
he wondered a great deal about this proud definition·; but it was a
greater wonder to me when, almost four centurics later, putting the
flame question to my informants I was ~ven tht' same answer. Civil-
ized countries are ('crtainly not a('('ustomed to such constancy in tilt'
field of political philosophy! Striking as it may be, this answer ifl less
significant than the name by whieh the chief is designated in the Nam-
bikuara language. Uilikande, the nativ(> word for chief, seems to mean
lithe one who unites" or "the one who joins together." This etymoloror
suggests that the native mind is fully conscious of this extremely im-
portant phenomenon which I have pointed out from the beginning,
namely, that the leader appt'ars as the caul:I(.' of the group's willingness
to aggregate rather than as the result of the need for a central authority
felt by a group already ('onstituted.
Personal prestige and the ability to inspire confidcnc(' are thus
the foundations of leadership in Nambikual'a society. As a matter of
fact, both are necessary in the man who will become the guide of this
adventurous experiment: the nomadic life of the dry s('I\i!On. For six
or seven months, the chief will be entirely responl:!ible for the manage-
ment of his band. It il:l he who ordertl tht" start of the wandering period,
selects the routes, chooses the stopping points and the duration of the
stay at each of them, whether a few days or several wc('ks. !It" also
orders and organizes the hunting, fishing, ('olleeting and gathering ex-
peditions, and determines the conduct of the band in relation to neigh-
boring groups. When the band's ('hier is, at th(' SI\me time, a village
chief (taking the word village with the restricted meaning of semi-per-
manent dwelling for the rainy season), his duties do not stop there.
He will determine the moment when, and the place where, the group
will settle; he will also direct the gardening and decide what plants
«l!Ilichel de Monta.igne. "Des Cannibales." Essai~, Livre I, XXXI (End of the
chapter).
are to be cultivated; and, generally speaking, he will organize the occu-
pations according to thl" s('asons' needs and possibilities.
These rather vcrsl1tiil· duties, it I:!hould be pointed out fronl tht,
start, are not facilitated by any fixed power or recognized authority.
Consent. is at the origin of ll'udcrship, and consent, too, furnishes tile
only measure of its legitimacy. Disorderly conduct (according to the
native standardl.-l) and unwillingneflA to work on the part of one or two
discontented individuals may seriouE>ly jeopardize the chief's program
and the welfare of his bmaU group. In this eventuality, however, the
chief has no coercivitive power at his disposal. The eviction of the bad
people can takC' place only in so far as the chief is able to make public
feeling coincide with hib own opinion. Thus, he must continuously
display a skill belonging more to the politician trying to keep hold of
his fluctuating majority than to an over-powering rulE'r. Furthermore,
he docs not only need to keep his group togeth('r. Although the band
lives practically alone and by itself during the nomadic period, the
existence of the other bands is not forgotten. It iA not enough to do
well; the chief must try-and his people count on him for that-to do
better than the others.
No social fltructure is weaker and nlore fragile than the Nambi-
kuara. band. If tht' chief's authority appears too exacting, if he keeps
too many women for himself (I shall later analyze the special features
of the chief's polygamy), or if he does not satisfactorily solve the food
problem in times of scarcity, discontent will very likely appear. Then,
individuals, or families, will separate from the group and join another
band believed to be better managed. For instance, this band may get
better farc from the discovery of new hunting or gathering emplll.Ct'~
tn('uts; ()I' it mny hav(' become rirhcr in ornaments or implementb,
through trade with neighboring groups, or more powerful as a result of
I:l. successful war expedition. The day will come when the chief finds
himself heading a group too small to face tht' problems of daily life,
and to protect his women from the covetousness of other bands. In
such cases, he will have no alternative but to give up his command and
to rally, together with his last followers, a happier faction. There-
fore, N ambikuara socilll structure appears continuously on the move.
The band::s take shape, then disorganize, they increase and they vanish.
Within a few months, sometimcs, their composition, number and dis-
tribution cannot be recognized. Political intrigues within the same
band and conflicts between bands impose their rhythm upon these flue-
TRANSACTIONS
tuations, and tilt' abcent or decline of individuals and groups follow

each other in a. rather surprising mannf.'r.
!low will the chief be able to overcome th('se difficulties? The
first instrumental foree of his power liell in his generosity. Generosity
-un all important fcatUl'o of ('hicftainship among most primitiv('
peoples, especially in America-plays an ou~tandinp; part ('ven on
those crude cultural levels where worldly goods arc limited tC) the most
primitive weapons and tools, coarHe ornam('nts ma<i(' of f('t\tht'l'b, bhclh-,
and bones, and raw materials, su('h ali! lumps of rO!o.iu nnd W(\,."(, hl\nkl'>
of fiber and splinters of bamboo for arrow-making. Thf.'f(, ('annot be
great economic distinctions between families Nlo('h of which ('an pack
all of its belongings in the haskets carried along by the women during
the long travels of the dry season. But, although the ('hief docEl not
seem to fare better, in this rcspect, than the others, be must alway!:!
hav(' at hand burplubf.'s of food, tools, w('apont'l, ornaments which, whilt!
b('ing I:llnaU indecd, o,('quirc grt'at value bC(,l:l.ut3c of the I:l('arcity whi('h ib
the prevalent condition. Wll('n an individual, a family or the band itself
needs or covets something, the ('hief is ('RIled upon to secure thl" de-
sired article. Generosity is the quality, much speculated on, which is
expected of a. new chief. Generosity is the string eon&tantly struck
which makes the general consent to one's le(\dcrsilip sound clcar or out
of tune. There is little doubt that, in this respect, the chief's ability
to give is exploited to the utmost. Band chiefs used to be my best in-
forlnants, and, well aware of their difficult position, I liked to rt'wu.rd
them liberally; but I seldom saw one of my many gifts rNnain in their
hands for more than a few days. EMh time I took leave of '" band,
after a few weeks or a few months, its members had time to bccom('
the happy hoarders of axes, kniv('s, beads, and so on. As A. rule, how-
ever, the chief was exactly as poor as at my first arrival. Everything
he ha.d received from me (and this was ('onsidcrably more than the
average) had already been squeezed out of him. This oollective greedi-
ness not seldom drives the chief to an almost desperate position; then
the refusal to give plays about the same part, in this primitive democ-
racy, as the threat to resign followed by a vote of confidence in a
modern parliament. When a chief reaches the point where he must
say: "To give away is over 1 To be generous is over 1 Let another be
generous in my place 1", he must, indeed, be sure of his power and pres-
tige, for his rule is undergoing its severest crisis.
Ingenuity is but the intellectual form of generosity. A great deal
of skill and initiative are the prerequisites of a good leader. It is he
who makeR the arrow-poison, although the preparation of curare among
the Nambikuara il:! a pur(>ly profane activity surrounded by no cere-
monial taboos or magic prescriptionl:l. It is he, also, who makes the
rubber ball used in the head-ball games which are played occasionally.
The chief must be a good sing('r and dancer, a merrymaker always
r('ady to cheer up the band and to brighten the dullness of daily life.
Thil:! could eaRily lead to shamanism; and, in some cases, I have met
with chiefs who were at the same time healers and trance addicts.
Mysti('allife, however, is kept in the background among the Nambi-
kuara, and, wherever they exist, magical functions are only secondary
attributes of the leader. More often ('hieftainship and sorcery are
divided between two different individuals. In this respect, there is a
strong difiercnC'c between the Nambikuara and their northwestern
neighbors th(' Tupi-Kawahib among whom the chief is, first of all, a
shaman, usually a pbychotic addided to dreams, visions, trances and
impersonations.
But although they are oriented in a more positive direction, the
N ambikuaro. chief's bkill and ingenuity are none the less amazing. He
must have a p('rfc('t knowledge of the territories haunted by his and
other groups, be familittr with the hunting grounds, the location of
fruit-bearing trees and the time of their ripening, have some idea of
the itineraries follow(>d by other ba.nds, whether hostile or friendly.
Therefore, he must travel more, and more quickly, than his people, have
a good memoryI and sometimes gamble his prestige on hazardous con-
tuctl:! with foreign alld do.ngerous people. He is constantly engaged
in foIornC' ta6k of f('cfJllnoit('ring and ('xploring, and seems to :Butter
nround his band rather than lead it.
Except for one or two men without actua.l power, but eager to co-
operate and to rc('civc oocasional rewards, tht.> passivity of the band
makes n. strong contrast with its dynamic leader. It seems as if the
band, having rc:>linquil:!hcd certain advantu.gcl:! to the chief, were in ex-
change relying entirely upon him for its interests and safety. I re-
ceived a particularly striking demonl:ltration of this under rather strange
('ircumstances. Aft('r several weeks' discussion, I had obtained from a
chief the favor of taking me, together with a few companions and some
animals loaded with presents, to the semi-perma.nent dwellings of his
band which were uninha.bited at that time. This was a. chance foT' me
to penetrate more deeply into the unexplored Nambikuara territory
26 TRANSACTIONS
and to med groupH too shy to venture forth all the out.('r fringe. The
native band and my own group set out togt·thl'r on a journey supposed
to b<." short; but, becau!:!c of the animals r had tllkC'n, the chief had de-
cided that the u!:!ual route through n d('n!:!l' for('st ('()uld not be used.
He led us through the open (,OUlltry, lost his way tlf.'v(\rul times, and
we did not rea('h our d('stination on the s('ht.'cluit'd day. I::iupplies were
exhaul:lted and llO gtUllC was in sight. The not unlmlliliar PI'OSIW(·t ()f
a foodless day fell gloomily upon the natives. But, this time, it was
the chief's responsibility. The whole project was his own, as well as
the nttcmpt to find an easier route. So, instead of trying to discove1'
food, the hungry natives simply lay down in the shadow of the brush
and waited for their leader to take them out of this most unpleasant
situation, He did not wait or discuss; but, taking the incident as a
matter of course, he simply left the camp accompanied by one of his
wives. At the camp, the day was spent sleeping, gossiping and com-
plaining. There was no lunch or dinner. But, late at dusk, the chief
and his wife reappeared, both heavily laden with baskets filled to the
brim. They had hunted grasshoppers the entire day, and, although the
cxpression "to eat grasshoppers" has approximately thE' same meaning
in Nambikuara as the French manger de la varhe enragce,5 this food
was enthusiastically received, shared and consumed, amidst restored
good humor. The following morning, everybody armed himself or
herself wiLh a. l<."afiel:ls twig and went grasllhopp(·r-hunting.
I have Reveral times referred to the ('hief's wives. Polygamy,
which is practically the chief's privilege, bring!:! him a moral and sen-
tilnental rewnrd for his hNtvy duti('s together with the practical means
of fulfilling them. In t.h~ N amhikuara band, apart from l'aro uxccp-
tiona, only tiu, chief and tIl(> HOI'(IC'rcr (when the~(' functions al'C divided
botween two individuals) may have sC'veral wiv{'I:!. Tho chief's polyg-
amy, however, presents apedal icntureM. It <lm.'s not, (lonstitute a plural
marriage but rath('r a monogll.mous marriage t,o which relll.tions of a
different nature are added. I have already mentioned the fact that
cross-cousin marriage is the usual pattern among the Nambikuara.
Another type of marriage also exists, between a man and a woman be-
longing to the generation following his own, either a wife's Iidaughter"
(true or olassificatory) or a sister's niece. Both forms are not uncom-
mon in South America and, together or separately, they have been re-
'Close'lt EngJi,h equivnlent: lito have a rough time of it, to go through tho mill."
corded among mnny trib(,K. Now, what do we find in the chief's case?
There is first a monogamous marriage of the erol:3s-cousin type, that is,
whc.>rc t,he wife helongs to the same gt'ncration as her husband. This
first wife plaYH tht' 1:1l1111(, part as the monogamous wife in ordinary
marriagel:l. She fo11ow1:3 Lhf' I:!(':xuul pattern of the division of labor, tak-
ing cure of the children, doing tht' cooking, and collecting and gather-
ing wild food. To this marriage are addcd one or several unions,
whieh, technically, are true marriages, but of a different type. Usually,
the secondary wives belong to a younger generation. The first wife
('aIls them daught<'rs or niece!:!. Besides, they do not follow the sexual
patkrn of the divil:lion of labor, but share indifferently in men's or
wOlllcn'!:! activitiel:!. At the camp, they disdain domestic tasks and
ft'rnain idle, either playing with the children to whose generation they
belong or flirting with their husband, while the first wife keeps busy
with the food and the fire. On the cont.rary, when the chief leaves
on an explorution, a hunt, or some other manly task, they will accom-
}lImy him and bring him their moral and physical help. These some-
what II tomboy 11 girl~, ('}<'ctcd by the chief from anlOng the prettiest and
h(>alLhiesL of th(' group, are to him rather "girl-friends" than spouses.
rrlwy live on Lho basis of an amorous fri(>ndship which contrasts
stl'ungly with the Inore conjugal utmosphel'o of the first marriage.
This system exerts a tremendous influcnce upon the whole life of
the group. The p('riodicu.l withdrawal by the chief of young women
froIn the regular cycle of marriages creates a permanent unbalance
within the group, between the number of boys and girls of marriageable
ngt'. Young lllell arc the chief victims of that situation and must
either rcmnin ha(lilolol's for several y<'arl:l or marry widows or old
WOInen discarclC'd hy their husbands. 'l'hus, the right to plural mar-
l'iap;('1j roprt'scmtH 1\ (~()lUleHl:lion of considerable iInportancc mll.{l(' by the
group to its lc·ll<!('r. Wht\t <10('13 it mean from the latter's point of view?
'1'h('ro it! little doubt that urcetls to young and pretty girls bringH him a
much nppl'('ciat('d p,rniifiC'atioIl, not so much frOID the physical sid('
(as the Namhikultfa Hhltre in the quiet dispotlitions of most South
American tribes), as from the psychological and sentimental one. But,
above all, plural mltl'riuge, together with HE! distinctive features, con-
stitutes the toC'lmionl InC'ans and the functional device placed at the
chief's disposal by the group to enable him to carry out his exacting
duties. Leit by himself, he could ha.rdly do more than the others.
His secondary wives, freed by their special status from the customarv
28 TRANSACTIONS
liabiliti('s of their sex, arc his hdpcri:l, comfol't<'rs and assistants. 'fh('y
are, at the same time, l('adership's prize and in&trument. Can il be
said, from til€' native point of Vil'W, that the prize is worth the trouhle?
To answer that question, I shall now have to c()nsider the prol>l(\Ul
from a broader angle, namely, what docs this elemcntnry social iltruc-
tur(', the Namhikul\ru. band, teach us about lendcrship, its basis and
its function?
Thero is a first point which docs not require great elaboration.
Nambikuart~ data contrIbute, with tnany others, to debtroy the belief
originated by early anthropologistR, and temporarily r('vived by psycho-
IlnalYfJis, that the prinliLive chief could find his prototype in a sym-
bolical father, and that the &impler forms of the State could pro-
gresf>ivcly have grown out of the family. We have found at the root
of the crudest forms of chieftainship a decisive step, whioh introduced
something entirely new in respeot to biological rela.tions-and this step
consie.ts of consent. Consent, we have seen, is at the same time the
orIgin and the limit of leadership. Unilateral relations such as right
of age, autocratic power, or others, may appear in groups ha.ving an
already complcx structure. In simple forms of social organization,
suoh as the one I have tried to describe, they arc inconceivable. Here,
on the contrary, the relationship between the chief and the group can
be seen as a perpetual process of arbitration where the chief's talents
and authority on the one hand and the group's size, cohesion and willing-
ness, on the other, constantly react on and influence each other. If I
had the time, und if it were not so far removed from my topio, I would
have liked to show wbat considerable support modern anthropolo"rioal
observations bring, in this respect, to the analysis of the eighteenth
oentury social philosophers. I am well aware of the fact that Rous..
seau's "social contract," which is the step by whieh individuals resip
their autonomy in favor of the General Will, is entirely different from
the nearly contractual relations existing between tho chief and his fol-
lowers. It remains true, however, that Rousseau and his contempo-
raries displayed a keen sociological foeling when thoy understood that
oultural attitudes and clements such as "contract" and "consent" are
not the result of secondary processes, as claimed by their opponents;
they are culture's raw materials, and it is impossible to conceive a po-
litical or social organization in which they would not already be present.
If 1 understand correctly, the recent analysis, by modern Amerioan
anthropologists, of the state~growth significance of military societies
among the Plains Indians leads to exactly the snml' conclusion.6
My second point is but an exemplification of tho first: consent is
the pAychological basis of lead(~rship, but in daily hre it expresses it-
s('lf in, and it! meaEour<,d by, a game of give-and-take played by the
('hit-! and his followers, u.nd which brings forth, as a basic attribute of
l('uIl('t"lhip, the notion of reriprocity. The chief has power, but he
must be generous. Hc bas duties, but he is entitled to several wives.
Betw('en him and th(' group, there is a perpetual balance of pr('stations,
privil('g('s, services and obligations. The notion of reciprocity, origi~
nated by Marcel Mauss, was brilliantly anl1lyzed by Malinowski in
his "Crime and Custom in Savage Society." In reEopect to leadership,
he says: "The clahns of chief over commoners, husband over wife,
parent over child and vice versa are not exercised arbitrarily and onc-
sidedly, hut according to u<,finite rules, and arranged into well-balanced
chains of rcciprocul services."1 This statement needs somewhat to be
completed. Malinowski is right when he points out that the chief-
commoners' relationship, as ('very relationship in primitive society, is
based on reciprocity. In the first case, however, the reciprocity is not
of the same type as in the others. In any human society, wh('ther
primitive or civilized, two difi'('r('nt cycles of reciprocity arc constantly
at work: first, the chain of individual pr('stationa linking the isolated
memb(,r6 of the grOUPi and, n('xt, a relation of reciprocity binding the
group considered as group (not as a collection of individuals) and its
rul('r. In the case we have studied, this is well illustrated by the rules
of marriap;e. Taken in its broadest sense, the incest prohibition means
that everybody in Ul(.> group is ohlig<,d to deliver his sister or daughtC'r
to an individual; and, ('onversely, is ('ntitl('d to receive his wife from
the- lo.ttcr (whcLlwr from the FII.\DlO man, fl.H in ('xchunge-rnalTiagc, or
frllm a diffc.'T('nt on(,'). 'rhus, a continuous ('hain of rt'ciprocal pres-
tationH is dirc(·t1y or in<iirC'ctly 8<.'1. up between all the collective or in-
dividual mC'mbl'rs of Lha group.s This may be called qualitative reei-
procitYi but incest prohibition alRo provides the basis for a quantita-
f:a. H. Lome. 1027. The Origin of the Statc-: 76-107j••Now York. E. N.

LlewellJn & B. A. Boebel. 1941. Tho Choyonne way. Part II, th. 5.
University of Oklahoma Press.
'B. Ma1inowakl. 1940. Crime and Custom in Savage Society: 46. New York.
(Third Printing).
'See the late 1'. B. WUllams' remarkable analysis in. "Papuans of the Trans-Fly":
161-169. Clarendon Press. Oxford. 1934.
3() 'l'ItANSAC'rIONI:!
tiv(' rt·ciprocit,y. We may considtll· it as a "freezing" Dlommrl', which,

whill' it forbid!! the' IL}lpropriution of WOU1C'U who nrc at one'l! ntttuflli
dlHJlosal, pr('pares thl' furmulation of lllnrrittg(\ rule's allowing ('wry
Irum to get a wife. Thl'r(·fore, a cloi;il' rl'lntionl!hip existll in a giv('n
bo(·h·ty bl·tween tll(' fOl'hidtll'n degfl'cl:I t\nd the' (\xt<'Ilt to which polyp;ttlny
is allowed. IIow <10('1! tIll' pfecechng apply to the Namhikuura'l If
they had eross-eoullin marriage associated exclusively with mOllognmy,
there woulu be a p('rf('('lly simple system of reciprocity (from the in-
uivic!.uo.l's point of vi('w) both quulitative and quantitntiw. Thib
th('orctical formultt ill, howcv('r, upset by the ('hid'!, privil('gc to polyg-
amy. The withholding of the bimpler l'ulC', in favor ()f thl' chicf, ('re..
at('s for each indiviuuulun elcml'nt of insecurity whic'h would other-
wise not exist. Ll't us state thib in other terms: the granting of polyga-
mous privilege to the chh·i mNl.DS that the group has (.'xchanged indi-
vidl/at elements of security l'(.\sulting from the nlonogamous rule for
collective 8ecurity provid(\d by leanC'rship. Each man receives a wife
from another man, but tho chief receives several wives from tho hITOUP.
In exchange, he offers to guarantc(:' againHt nC'Nl and dUllg<.'r, not to the
individuals whose sistC'rs or daughters he marrici;i; not to those who will
be deprived of a spouse by his polygamous right; but to the group,
taken as a whole. It'or it is the group, taken as a wholc, whi<·h has
withheld the common law in his iavor. The preceding conl:!idcrations
may have some bearing upon the theory of plural marriage i but, most
of all, they remind Ul:! that the interpretation of the Fltato, ('once'ivcd
as a security system, recently revived by dis('ussions about It nntional
insurance policy (MICh nil the Bev('ridge plan and othC'rH) I is not 1\
modorn ueVdOpm(lnt. It is a return to the bLHlic nature of social and
politiC's.l organization.
So much for the gronp'liI point of view on lC'l.l.dcrl:!liip. What about
the chief's own attitude in rellttion to his function? What il:! his ino(.'n-
tive in assuming duties of which I have given a not too lnvornLlc a('-
count? We saw that the Nambikuara band lead!.'r has a tiresome and
exacting role j that he must exert himself without pause to maintttin his
position. What is more, if he docs not constantly improve it, he runs
the risk of losing what he has taken months or years to achieve. This
explains why many men, as I have already said, shun leadership. But
why do others accept and even seek it? It is always difficult to ap-
praise psychological motives; and the task is almost impossible when
a culture totally alien to our own is considered. 1 venture to say I
howov('r, tlmt tht, polygamoul'l privilege, highly valued as it may be
from the point of view of bl'Xtml gratificlltion, sentimental appeal and
social pn'btige, w(luld not suffice to cletcl'mine a leader's vocation.
Plural nutrriagc il:! but lL technical prerequisitc of chieftainship j its
individual value ('an only be residual. There must be something more;
and, going over tIl(' Jnorttl n.nd psychological f('atures of the Nambi-
kuara chiefs I kn('w, unci trying to hold on to thos(' fugitive and irre-
placeable glimpses at th(·ir illtimate s('lvcs (of which no scientific ap-
proach may certify the urcuracy, but whkh gain, from a deep feeling of
friendship and human rOJlununirution, some sort of intuitive value), I
feel imperiously led to this answer: th('re nre chiefs because there are,
in any humlm group, men who, unlike mOl:!t of their companions, enjoy
prestige for its own sake, feel a strong appcal to responsibility, and to
whom the burden of publir affail's brings its own r('ward, These in-
dividual differenceb are r(,l'tainly emphasiz('d and IIplayed up" by the
diJiel'('nt cultures, and to uncqultl dl."b'l'ees. But t1l(~ir clear-cut exist-
ence in a society UK little r()mpelitive as i.h(' Nambikuara strongly sug-
gests to my mind that their origill its('lf is not cultural. They are
rather part of those Jlsychological raw materials out of which any given
('ulture is ma<i('. MC'n arc not all alik('; and, in primitive societies,
believeu by ('arly anthropologists to be overwhelmed by the crushing
pOWl'r of cUl:ltom, th~se individual differences arc as keenly perceived
anu worked (lut as in our so-called "individualistic" civilization.
It is remarkable how fur the practical cxperi~nce of colonial ad-
ministrators lIns outgrown, in relation to th(' previous considerations,
ant hro}lologiAts' thC'oretical studies. During th(' paRt twenty years,
IJowic'll IWsfolimiEltic appraisal of antllr()I)()logirul work in the field of
politicltl insi.itutionsn hILS ('ertainly not lost its value. We have much
to lmrn from the scientifioally untrain(.'ci who deal with native institu~
tiona. [alu\ll nc)t, her(' l't'c()rd TJYltUt(·y's tcntimony without reserva-
tion: "rll every ,",oeidy, th~l'c is a loading elttlill:1 born for It·adcrship and
without whic'h nothing ('1m ho accomplil:;}wd. l1lo What lllay be true for
t.he F!implC'r struoturl'tl cunnot be consid(,rt'd equally valid when consiti·
('ring the compl('x ()m's, where the fum'tion of leadership does not
manifest itself ltny more in .L "pure" state. But let us listen to Eboue
who passed away a few months ago. Himlilclf a full-blooded negro, he
• At the beginning of Cha.pter XIn of "Primitive Society."
10 Quoted in: Governor-General Felix Ebou6'K Memorandum on "Native PoUry,"
issued on November 8,1942.
32 TRANSACTIONS
wrote the following when he was Governor-General of French }l~qua

torinl Africa in special relation to those nomadic tribes which, as he
put it, "live under a regime of organized anarchy." r quote: "Who
is to be chief? I shall not answer, as was the OtlRWm in AthcIlli, 'tho
bel:lt.' There is no best chief, th(lre ill just a ehiefj" and further; lithe
chief is not interchangeable •.. th{' chief pre-cxisUl."l1 Thl!:! il:l pre-
cisely who.t was suggested to us from the start of our analYl:lis of NI\m-
bikuara society.
In conclusion, I submit that, when developing the study of politi-
cal institutions, anthropologists will hnvc to po.y more and more atten-
tion to the idea of "natural leadership." I am well aware tho.t this
expression is almost contradictory. Th('re is no pOt:l~iblc form of ](,1\(1-
erehip which docs not receive its shape and specification insid(· of a
given cultural conk-xt. But. this expression can be taken as a b()l'ch'r-
line case, or as a limit--as say the mathcmaticians. While the limit
can never be reBched, simple social structurcs give us, in the order of
their simplicity, an even closer approximation of it. In Buch studies,
we may accordingly foresee a privileged :field for close oooperative
work between anthropology and individual psychology.
" IbEd.
SECTION OF PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY

OCTOBER 27 AND 28, 1944
Conference on tIThe Diffusion of Electrolytes and Macromolecules in
Solution."
The Section of l)hysics and Chemistry held a Conference on "The
Diffusion of Electrolytes and Macromolecules in Solution," as the first
in the serics for the Academic Year 1944-1945. Doctor Lewis G.
Longsworth, Hock('feller Institute for Medical Research, New York,
N. Y., was the Conferencl' Chairman in charge of the meeting.
The program consisted of the following papers:
"Introduction to the Confcrcnce-A Historical Survey," by Lewis
G. Longsworth.
"Th('ories and Problems of Liquid Diffusion," by Lars Onsager,
Yale University.
I'A Conductance Method for the Determination of the Diffusion
Coefficients of Electrolytes," by Herbert S. Harned and Douglas M.
French, Yale University.
"The Diaphragm Cell Method of Ml'Ctsuring Diffusion," by A. R.
Gordon, University of Toronto.
"Diffusion Constant Measurement in Theory and Pra.ctice," by
Edward M. Bevilacqua, Ellen B. Bevilacqua and Margaret M. Bender,
University of Wisconsin.
liThe Effccts of Conc('ntru.tion and Polydispcrsity on the Diffusion
(Jonstant~ of High Polyrnol's," by C. O. Beckmann and J. L. Rosen-
bE':rp:, Columbia Univcrsit,y.
34 TRANSACTIONS
NEW MEMBT~nS
El(,cLcd from May 16, 1944 to OeLob('r 6, 1944.
SUSTAINING MEMBEltS
.fi'l'inbt.l'lIl, RohC'rt R., InduHtria! lIyp;ien~,\ ChclniRtry, Gludc'n Cill'mibt&, IUCl.,
Ourd~'n City, Long Ibland. Nl'W York, J.'1. Y.
ACTIVE MEMHERH
Ayo, Corrado, M.D., Bn,('trriology. Voiuntcrr in Surgh'lIl Pathology. Collc·go of
PhYlllciuul> Imll HU1'g(>onH, Nl.'w York, N. Y.
Buron, 1I11.rlY, M H., I!I~tl'\U't()r 1n Bioch('mi:.try, Nc'w York MNhc'ui Collcgl'. N(,w
York. N. Y.
Bcrgl'r, HOWIIl'd H., M H., ('hil'f ChNnilil, Middlc!own Rubhrl' ('ompnny. Middh'-
tOWll, ('oun.
Bloch, IIl'ic'n 1., B.A., PhyHil'~ ane! CIU'milllry. Ali1I'iI"tu.nt J,abomtory Ofliccr (1~n
silQl) , U. S. Navll! Ho:.pitu!, Oaklnnd, Calif.
Bola.novich, Danirl Ja('kRon, Moo\.., Appli('d PI>YI'hol()~, Pl'rsonD('1 Planning nnd
R<'sco.rch Sta.ff M('mhC'r, H.ILdIO CorpOl'ulion of Amrric'a, ClulldC'n, N.•1.
.Burk, Dean, Ph.D., Bio(·ht'nllsLl'YI.SrnlOr ChC'miHI. Nahonal Canl'('r IUbtitutC', Na-
tionnl Inlltit.utr of Hl'ulth. uni1cd Ht.ut<'l! Puhli(.' lIf'ulth 1;ol(·I'vicc. BrLhchda,
Md.
Colosi, Nata.ll", Ph.D., Prof<oSllor of Btwtcriolo~ and Public Ilrn.lth, Wugnc'r Col-
lege, Stat.en Island, N. Y.
D'Ale!io, Gaetano F., Ph.D., High Polymc~, Dil'ector of .Rf'H(,llfCh. Pro-phy-Iuo-tic
Brush Company. FIorf'ncr, Muss.
Furth. Jacob, MD .• Exprnmenta.l Medioine, :\.Ii'~oril),l(' ProfctlSor of Pa.thol()II:3',
Cornell University MI,mca.1 CollC'gc', Nrw York, N. Y.
Gomf'z, EIisC'o T., Phn., Phy~iolo)zy, Endocrinology FOrlnl'rly A!I.~il:4hl.llt Phy!.iolo-
Rib!', U. S. Dl'pllrtmC'nt of Agrll'\11turl'; Prlvut.l', \T. S. Army Air .I!'orcc, B()lling
l!'i(>ld, D. C.
Hirnino;, L. OloviH, M.I~.~ Phyrhol()!l:V and Biology, A('ling (,hh,r PH.vohilLtrillt,
GrnHHlnnd.~ Ilospilui, vltlhllllo., N, Y.
l{(>rft!·, Orol'~r 0., ('h.K, M.H" '\~:'lWillt(> PI'O{('~~()r in ('llC'mic'l\! l'lngiuc'('rillg,
NI'wark Coll('g(' of l!1nAinr('ling, N,'wt\l'k. N. J.
r.I"ILI,h(.'J[1I,.!a!llrr! IIui!lJ Ph,])., ":lld(wrilwlugy, AHhiHillnl l'l'l)r(>~()r (If Zou)()gy. Hnt-
"'flll uniVt'1'IIity, J.'1CW B11lDHWick, N. J.
lE'Brll.u, D. S., Ph.D., OolloiciH, R<'foI(,ltf('h Awmt'inil', MIIM">(whuHc'itH llUItitllh' u£
Technology, Co,lllbridg(>. MatlH.
Locwi, Otto, M.D., Biol()~, Ps,r::h()lu)ZY, Hio(·hrruistry. HI'bC'ur('h Profc·hIlor. NI'w
York University C01l0g(.' of !Vlcliir1n(" Npw York, N. Y.
LowcnsteinJ Bertrand E., M.D., Endocrinology and M('lnbolihnl, ROlll'arch If'l''llow
in MeaioinC', New York Post-Gradun,to SChool and llospital. Now York. N. Y.
Mueller. J. Howard, Ph.D" Profer.sor of Bacteriology Bnd Immunology, lIarvard
Medical School, Boston, Mass.
Oglesby, Nicholas E., PhD., Chemistry. Technical Director. Bohr-Manning Cor-
poration, Troy, N. Y.
Patterson, Arthur L., PhD., Physios and Crystallography, .Associa.te Pl'oit'SSor of
Physics, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa,
Posna.nsky, Arthur, Archaeology, Anthropology, President. So<.'iedad Gcografica de
Ia. Paz. La. Paz. Bolivia.
R(M, Arthur 1\1., JI'., Ph.D., l:'hYbicaJ ChC'lUilltlY, Re..C'arr:h (,hl'mi:-t, S. A. M.
Lu.bOl'ntury, Columbia Uuiv(>rsity. N(\w York, N. Y.
t:l('hN'rl'I', Mallin, Ph D., Inl:1tl'uclor in P"yrholol!.Y, Coll('~f' of the City of Nl'w
YOI'k, 1.('('11111'1' m P~yrhulogy. {'olnmbia Univer..ity l.l\te-n.,ion, New YOI'k,
N. Y.
Schmidt, AIm .. X., Vh.E., M.A., I:Ii~h POIYIll('1b, In~h \lctor in Chemi(\ll J.<:n~in('('r
ing, Colle-go of the Ulty of New York, Ne-w York, N. Y.
Sklar, Alfr('d 1.('c, ph,n., Moi(,(,lliar Atrllctlll'c, A"'bi..tant PrOft'l'bOr of Cheullrlry,
Catholic University, Washington.!>. C.
Somberg, l'lthf'1 W., B.A., 131och('mit;try, Abbit,\nnt R('s('al'ch Chemist, V. D. Re-
l>eol'('h ],aborntory, U.}!. Marinp Ho~pital, Stapleton, Staten Island, N. Y.
Steinf!;iser, Samuel, M.S., Physical ChcmiAtry, Magncto-optiM, ASbl ...tnnt (,hemist,
UllivC'1'I:!lty of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.
SupplcC', George C.• Ph.D., Physiological Cllcmil'ltl'Y and BiochemisllY, Pl'c."jdent
and TC('hnical Director, G. C. Supplt'c Reseal'ch Corporation. BainorldgC', N. Y.
Wintcrsteincr, Oskar Paul, Ph.D., Organic Chcmistl'Y, Biochemist~, Head, DiYi-
bion of Organic Chemistry, SqUibb In~tilutc for Medical Re~arch, Ncw
HrunAWick, N. J.
Welf, Willin.m, M.D., M.s., Ph.D., Gon'>ulting I!JndocrinoloAist, New YOlk {Tni\('I-
:-ity ~chool of Dt'nti~tly, and MlbC'ricordla Hoe-pital, New York, N. y,
•\SHOCIA'fB M1.!}MBERS
Armstrong, Uobcl'1. T., Ph.D., Physical-Organic Chemistry, Rcsf'vcll C'hl'lnist,
North American Rayon Corporation, Johnson City, Tenn.
A.<ihby, William Ross, M,A .......M.D., B.Ch., Psychiatry, Psychology, Mathemll.ti~s,
Pathology, St. Andrew'l:l .l1o~pital, Northampton, England.
B('>l'Dfltcin, Jack, Ph.D., Organic Chcmititry, RCI;(>8.l'ch ARSOciateo, Division of
Me-weinal Che-mi~try, The Rquibb Illstitute fo!' Me-dicll.l ReSC'arch, Nl'w Bruns-
wick, N. J.
Brice, Brooks A., Ph.D., PhYllical Chemistry, Scnior Chemist. Eastern Regional
ResclU'Ch Laboratory, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Philadelphia, Pa.
Daviee, Philip W., Ph.D., Biophysics or the Nervous System!,.., Fellow in Bio-
physic!!, Johu:;on Foundation, Univerbity of Pennsylvania, rhill1delphia, Pa.
n()ughcl'ty.~ Thomn.s F .• Ph.D., IIllcmatoiogy, IllIltructor, Departml'nt of Anatomy,
Yale univt'rtlity, N('w IIaven, Conn.
J:!JngE'l, Frank L., M.D., l~hysiologi.clll Chcmiatl'y, Medicine, Research Assistant,
D(lpartmcnt of l'hYl'liologiral Chcmistry, Yale University School of Medicine,
New llaven, OeM,
Flow(>r, RO\ll!Scau H.~ Ph.D., Invertt'hratc ralcontology, Stratigraphy, Temporary
J!Jxp"rt, Nt'w YorK State MW1(IUlll, Albany, N. Y.
l~rnzit'r, Ch('r:twr North, M.D'1 Professor of Dermatology and Syphilology, Uni-
vC'lljity of 'l'('XII~ Scho(11 01 Medicine, Galveston, Tex.
Fry, Editll G., M.s., RiocbemiHtry, Research Assistant, Yale School oC Medicine,
New IbvUll, Conn.
Grainger, Thomas n., Jr., Bacteriology and Public Health, Bacteriologist. U. S.
Army.
Hofmann, Klaus R., Ph.D., Biochemistry, Asilistant Research Professor and Senior
Research l1'ollow, Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh. Pitts-
burgh,Pa.
Hottlei GE'orge A., Ph.D., Biochemistry, Formerly Studt'nt, University of Penn-
ey vania, Philadelphia, Pa., now Captain, Army of U. S.
Mosher, William Allison, Ph.D,:!y.Chemistry, Assistant to Director of Research.
Hercules Powder Company, wilmington, Del.
Shaw, Elliott, Ph.D., Organic Chemistry, Squibb Insti1ute for Medicinal Chemis-
try, Now Bnmsw1rk, N. J.
11i\\"t\( IIO\"'t
i-hll' 11111111 \1111111 lit-> \l \ PIi, 1111 { "'t ))lpIIIIlJrIlI III \j.t11(1I1t III
\ III till ( ilil
:-,1, I III III (Ii III Ph I) I'll, I I "Illultid od [I \Iltlllllill (11111111\. III
Ii III i\ .1
Mlollp' \\' i\ Ph () f-I\lllhl'I' III"h }'ohlll h HI I 1111t (I 1111 I ( IIhll!( {lnd
( I h( n t (111'111 II 1011 r-ol.t Ii c.. heidi '011, \\ \ I
1"1,\.1'1 1)011.111 [t, I'll II (lilllll'tn III ( Illiil)u(( llil I h, I oil II \ Ill!' II ('011'-
11111, 1111('.1, OhIO
\\ Jilt hn \III( dl (IJ'h I \"~I I lilt 1'1 I 'til (I 1'111 1111 1,11 tI ( 111111 t I i
( III II I" '" III "I 01 \1111 11111 \ r" II 1'1 II ( I II I
TRANSACTIONS
of
TIlE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
SElL II, VOL. 7 DECEMBER, 1944 No.2
SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY

NOVEMBER 6, 1944
DoCTOJl S. H. KNIGHT, Professor of Geology, University of Wyoming,
Laramie, Wyoming: The Physical Evolution of the Rocky Moun-
tains of Southern Wyoming. (This lecture was illustrated by
black-board diagrams.)
The Rocky Mountain Region was pictured as it existed prior to
the fll'st ol'ogenic dlsturbances in Late Cretaceous time. The rocks in-
volved in this disturbance consisted of (1) a thick succession of fine
textured Mesozoic &edimcnts resting conformably upon \2) a thinner
succession of Paleozoic rocks which in turn rested unconformably upon
(3) the pre-Cnmbrian complex, The Mesozoic rocks were deseribed
a.s an altt'rnating succession of marine and continental sediments which
were dcriv('d from highlands lying to the west of the Rocky Mountain
Region. Cl'ustal wal'ping was pictured o,s having produced elongate
islands which rose in the Late Cretac('ous sea which was thereby broken
into a seri('s of embaymcnts and estuari('s. The i&land uplifts were at-
tacked by erosion and the resulting fin(.' textured rock debris derived
from th(' older sediments waf:! deposited in the adjacent downwarped
b!l.l:!infl. The upper portion of the thi<'k MCl:!ozoic buc('el:lsion now ex-
posed on the batlin floors was pictured Ill'! having been reworked sedi-
ments locally derived from the rising In()untn.in flanks Conglomerates
derived from the lower part of the Mesozoic and ullderlying Paleozoic
rocks which occur flo few hundred fe('t ahove the last mn.rine Cretaceous
TRANSACTIONS of the New York Aeo.dPlllY 01 SCIC'lltl"l. Senl't:l lIt VolUlllll 7. No. S.
DeceIIlber. 1M4.
ThIS publleatlOll 1.8 dIStributed to Mf'Illbera and IB pubhahl.'d mOllthlv !rom November to JUDe,
fIIoIU8I.ve. at 109 Wes1, Cheetllut fltl(.et.r...Lancaqtw~.I'n. t bv The New York Arademy of Scll'llCfS,
Seventy.nmth Street aud Central Park west, New lork City.
Editor: Ro~aldO Miller.
Executive taey: EUIUIlQ ThollUl8 MmPl.
Entered as eecond.c1aa matt.er D_mbl'l' 2, 1938, at tilt> poet office nt Loncaqter. Pa. UIIdl\l'the
aot of Aupat 34. 191:1.
37
38 TRANSACTIONS
faunas were given as evidence that the mountains had suffered pro-
longed erosion before the final withdrawal of the Cretaccolls sea. The
time of the final withdrawal of the sea, with respect to the depth of
erosion in the mountains, is not known.
Uplift and erosion of the mountainl::l continued throughout Pnleo-
cene time and coarse-textured debris composed of mixtures derived
from the pre-Cambrian and the flanking sediments were deposited
along the flanks of the mountains while finer sediments were laid down
in the central portion of the basins. The mountains gradually gained
elevation with respect to the basin floor throughout Paleocene tim('.
Intense orogenic movements at th(' close of Paleocene time resulted in
extensive folding, thrust and tear faulting. The mountains were pic-
tured as having rcached their greatest relative height at this time.
During Lower Eocene timc extremely coarse-textured conglomerates
which grade rapidly basinward into fine scdiments were deposited upon
older rocks. The marked unconformity between the Lower Eocene
rocks and underlying rocks was shown to become less apparent when
traced basinward. The last compressional movements which folded.
the rocks occurred following the deposition of the Lower Eocenc suc-
cession. These rocks were locally folded although they remain in
nearly a horizontal position over large areas.
Middle and Late Eocene rocks are absent, and the record of events
is therefore less well documented. The following conditions were il-
lustrated: (1) Erosion greatly reduced the mountains and broad ero-
sional surfaces were cut on the pre-Cambrian rocks. (2) The basins
were deeply cxcavated and the mountains were dissected. During
Oligoccne time, reworked volcanic ash partially filled the basins and
the mountain canyons. Thesc deposits covered the lower mountain
drainage divides. Some coarsc-textured debris from the mountains
was intercalated with the fine ash deposits. The Oligocene ash beds
were covered with conglomeratic and arkosic debris mixed with ash in
Miocene time. The region was pictured as having suffered regional up-
lift in late Miocene time with the acoompanying superposition of the
drainage. Little is known of the Pliocene history. Some Pliocene sedi-
ments were deposited. Mention was made of the occurrence of local
erosional surfaces cut at various elevations and at various times during
the final excavation of the basins.
SECTION OF PSYCnOLOGY
NOVEMBER 20, 1944
DOCTOR WOLFGANG KoEIILEB, Department of Psychology and Educa-
tion, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa.: New Facts in VisuaZ
Perception.
In 1935, J. J. Gibson discovered several "figural after-effects." He
found that when the middle of a slightly curved line had been fixated
for some time, a straight line in the same location and orientation ap-
peared curved in the opposite direction. From this and similar obser-
vations he concluded that, under conditions of prolonged inspection,
lines which deviate from a norm, for instance, from the straight line,
change in the direction of the normj and that, as a result, the norm it-
self is correspondingly distorted if it is shown in the same part of the
visual field.
Morc recently, Dr. Wallach and I have shown that, after prolonged
inspection of any specific object, the metric characteristics of the visual
field, both within and around the area of that object, are temporarily
changed. The only condition which must be fulfilled is that the bright-
ness of the object differs from that of the ground. It is not necessary
that the object represent a deviation from a visual norm. Inspection
of norms themsolvctl gives rise to after-effects when proper test objects
are chosen.
Within a given inspection object, various after-effects can be dem-
onstrated, depending upon the choice of the test pattern and of its
position relative to tho area of the previously inspected object. This
makes it advisable to distinguish between two facts: (1) Satiation.
After inspection of an object, the parts of the visual cortex in which
this object is physiologically represented are in a changed condition.
It is here assumed. that a visual figure is associated with a specific
figure process, and that continuation of this process in a given area
causes the changed condition of the medium. (2) FiguraZ after-effects.
The figure process of a test object reacts upon that changed condition
so that the appearance of the test object is affected.
Apart from minor symptoms, figural afterMeffects consist in dis-
placements. Test objects are either displaced as wholes, or parts of
40 TRANSACTIONS
these objects are shifted. Tn the latter callie, test objects may suffer
changes of siz<', or they may also be distorted. 'I'he direction of the
effects is that test obj<'ct(i (or Illlrta of such objcrts) l'('ccdc from highly
satiated regions of the field into less affected regions. Batiation is
lllaxiuul.l within, and in the neighborhood of ron tours or outlines. If
the inspection object it:! a circle and the test object a smaller concentric
circle, this small!.'!' circle will appear too small. Its contour moves in-
ward, away from the lno.xhnally affected zone. Converscly, if the in-
spc(ltion object lit·~ within the area of the teRt object, the latter will for
the same reason appear too large. The changes are observed and
measured by comparison ,,'Hh like ohjc-cts in n.n unaffected region of
the field.
When a teRt object is uisplnccu, the UCgl'('c of itR diApla('cment de-
pends upon its distance from the previously inspceted object. Within
certain limits, a teAt object r('cedes less when it lit·s nt'urer the inspec-
tion object than it docs at gr('at(.>r distances. In othcr words, the cffect
grows as the test object is placed in pOl'litions which are more and more
on one side of the affected area. Howevl.'r, sinrc, at very great dis-
tances, the process of the test object becomes in<i('pc.'ndent of the af-
fected area, displacements are maximal at a certain distance.
From this, it follows that if the parts of a straight test line lie at
varying distances from an inspection object, such a test line must turn
in space. It may turn as a whole, or its parts may turn in varying
degrees so that a curve results. Both effects can be easily observed.
In fact, Gibson's observations arc exalnpl(>s of such effects.
Oibson's further finding that during prolonged inspection figures
may change their own shape, cun also be derived from the same prin-
ciples: If satiation is greater on one side of an inspc('tion line than it
is on the other, the line will move in the lattl.'r direction. As a conse-
quellce, great caution is indicated, whenever for Lhe purpose of accuracy
in measurements visua.l patterns arc shown a great many times in suc-
cession. Under these circumstances, the size, the shape, and other
characteristics of the patterns are likely to undergo a gradual change
by sell-satiation. Thus, the disappearance of many visualllillusions"
under conditions of repeated observation neeu not be a "practice" ef-
fect; for, in such patterns, satiation must be expected to operate against
the asymmetries which constitute the illusions.
Quite recently, we have found that figural after-effects occur in
the third dimension of visual space just as they do in the first two.
Practically any effect which has been observed within a plane parallel
to the observer can also be demonstrated as a distortion at right angles
to this plane. The only major difference is that, in the latter case, the
phenomena tend to be more conspicuous. Where the order of magni-
tude of an effect, in the former case, is a few millimeters, the corre-
sponding effect in the third dimension amounts to several centimeters.
It takes no more than a few seconds to establish a satia.tion which
causes a figural after-effect, and the amount of the effect does not grow
if the inspection period is prolonged beyond a few minutes (Gibson).
By a summation technique, it can be shown that some satiation origi-
nates within a fraction of a second. On the other hand, satiation per-
sists during periods which are enormOllS in comparison with the inspec-
tion time during which it was established.
Satiation can not be interpreted as a retinal change. Although
somc such effect may oc('ur at nny level, the main effect, undoubtedly,
has a more central location. If, during the satiation period, only one
eye s('es the inspection }>uttern, a cloar after-E'ffect will be observed if
the test pattern is showll only to the other eye (Gibson). At the same
time, the effects are localized in the sense that distortions occur only
within the affected ar('a or in its neighborhood. The spatial coordi-
nates which are here decisive are those of the retina Of, rather, those
of the visual cortex. This holds also for the effects in the third dimen-
sion.
Measurement!! show that individual diffE'rene<'s as to the amount of
the distortions are very great. 'l'his amount also varit's from one part
of the field to ll11othC'r. For instal1('e, it seems to be greater in the
periphery.
We do not hdi('ve that an cxplano.tion of figural after-effects can
he given in tcrmH of tranitionall1('urophysiology. An interpretation in
leas eonservlltiw terms hall been suggested elsewhere (4,5,6). Quite
apart from any purticular th('ory, the cxisten('e of figural after-effects
seemR to prove that spe('ific ohjects in visual space are associated with
specific processcs (figure processes) , which alone cause satia.tion. This
Iaet appears to be incompatible with the notion that specific objects are
established by learning, i.e., that they have no genuine visual existence.
Similarly I the OCClUffcnce of strictly analogous after-effects in the third
dimension excludes all theories according to which this dimension has
an indirect origin ann iR therefore not actually a visual datum, Again,
the so-ca.lled "eueR" for localization in the third dimension seem to
42 TRANSACTIONS
operate just as dirccLly as doC's binocular parallax. For, so long as

dcpth is clenr, fiAural Mtcr-cff('cts in thc third dimension can be easily
dClllollstratl'd wlll'n pttrallax is absent during tIl(' inbJ)('('tion p('riod.
REFERENCES
1. Gibson, J. :r.
1933. Jour. Expl'r. PAy('hol. 16: 1.
2. Gibson, J. J. & M. Radner
1937. Jour. Exper. Psychol. 20: 453.
S. Gibson, J. J.
1937. Jour. Expt'r. Psychol. 20: 553.
4. KCShler, W.
1938. The Place of Value in a. World of Facts. Liveright l'ubl. Corp.
6. KUhler, W.
1940. DynamiC's in Psychology. Liveright Publ. Corp.
6. KUhler, W. & B. Wallach
1944. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 88: 269.
THE NEW YORK AC.A.DEMY OF SCIENCES 43
DOCTOR DONALD MARQUII'i, Director of the' Office of Psychological Per-

sonnel, National Research Council, Washington, D. C.: Psychology
tn the War.*
The growth of psychology since tho last war has provided a much
wider opportunity for its contribution in the present war. The major
task of professional psychologists in the Armed Services is research
on the human factor in connection with the following problems: (1)
the analysis of military tasks and occupations; (2) the development of
tests and procedures for selection and classification of personnel; (3)
the development of training programs and methods of evaluating train-
ing; (4) the design of instruments and weapons from the standpoint of
the traits and capacities of the personnel using them; (5) the develop-
ment of clinical techniques and procedures for individual examination
and consultation services; (6) the study of psychophysiological factors,
such as vision, hearing, fatigue in the performance of specialized mili-
tary tasks i (7) the developOle'nt of techniqu('s and procedures in the
orientation program, in morale services, and in psychological warfare.
Military psychologil:lts also undertake the supervision of the adminis-
tration of practical programs arising from the results of their research
investigations. Houtine duties of group-tel>~ administration and scor-
ing, interviewing, classification, and assignment, are carried out by
commissioned and non-comnlisbioned personnel receiving the neces-
sary special training in service schools in which psychologists partici-
p:tte as ins~ructors.
When preparation for the present war was undertaken in 1940, the
S('l'viccs were without qualified Ilsychologists or established research
programs in this field. Beginning with a few individuals in key posi-
tionl::l, the Army, Navy and Air }!'orecs now utilize more than one thous-
and qualified psychologists in specialized work and some 250 more are
serving in civilian &tntus in the War and Navy Department& and in the
work of the Office of Sci~ntific Research and Development, In addition,
the Army has trained 1300 enlisted men in advanced personnel psychol-
ogy in the Army Specialized Training Program in the universities.
The nature of modern warfare mllkes it essential that research on
military service problems be maintained at a high level of efficiency
• ThIS IIddl'ellll Willi cleliV«1'd at thf moetins of the SertloD of PsychologyI October 16, 1944.
44 TRANSACTIONS
following the pr('scnt war. Serious cOllilidcration must be ~ivcn to the

promotion and organization of military psychology in the postwar
period.
Sl~CTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY
NOVEMBER 27, 1944
DOCTOR STANLEY NEWMAN, Language Section, Information and Educa-
tion Division, War Department, New York, N. Y.: Cultural and
Psychological Featu1'es in English Intonation.
The purpose of this pap~r is not to present a picture of English
intonation for its own sake, but rather to use the intonational phe-
nomena of English as an illustration which can provide us with some in-
sights into the functioning of language. The intonations afford a very
convenient kind of illustration. They can be neatly, though arbitrarily,
fenced off from other kinds of language phenomena. By focusing our
attention on them, we can sec in miniature and in tangihle detail how
language can function on sev('ral different levels.
When a person is talking I~nglil:lh, a gr('ut many thingb are going on
at the snme time. On one level, he mak(,1::l usc of the lint,ruistic system
of English. The linguistic system, as the linguist describes it, is a
purely formal sYbtem. It is made up of the phonetic pattern of the
language, the ('hnng('s that the sounds of the language undergo in word
formation, the sequences in which these sounds can be placed. The
bOU11dR he useR nrc clements in a configuration of sounds that is peculiar
to English and to 110 other language. In the linguil:;tic system ru:e also
included the meaningful clements of the language, and the processes
which govern the combining of these clelllents into words and sentences.
The configuration of mNmingful clements, too, is part of the linguistic
sYHtem. When a perRO;n talks Englir:.h, he draws upon the configuratcd
linguistic systom of J~nglish, which it! dil:ltincLive for the English lan-
J?,l1ll.gt', differentiating it from nIl oih()r languages.
As he is talking I~ngliHh, how('ver, he is doing more than just
uc'iunlizing the linguil:ltie system. In his speech, he is also actualizing
patterns of behavior which he expreSFlCS in other, non-speech areas of
activity. To take an obviouR example, a hyper-active person, whose
bodily mOVClnents are energetic, will usually have an energetic and
,'igOl'OUS manner of articulating sounds. A slow-moving person will
usually ha.ve a lax articulation in speaking. The vigorous or lax char-
:locter of artieulation, in other words, is not a part of the linguistic
system of English, even though we have vigorous and lax speech in
English. This feature of articulation, however, is a part of the indi-
46 'l'RANSA(J'l'IONS
vidual ]wri'lOlmhty I'IYf.tl'm. It i!l rdl~tl'd to otlwr f('atun'!I of that,

individultl's bdmviol'.
In till' l'lllll\(' vmy I ('\11(,u1'I\11'('1I tllJ'<'H nll'lo liuel ('''pr('t-l:'Iion in lanp;ul\Il,C.
H('I't' WI' nml'lt \w It int more ('ltutlOUH. I n (lUI' own ('ulhll'l', it. iH nu
aUri(lllt and hil!,hly l'l'RIW(·t(\d 1l1'IU·tit·(, t() muk(· t'ulturul "tutclllI'nts ab()ut,
hmgungc ttb if they W('I'(' 1,.tri('Uy liIll!,llll'lt,il' I'Itatl'mmtF.. 'l'hiH })t'IW-
ti('(' is Ntl'l'icll on hy our Iwhool!:!, whit'h al'e ll('('('hl'larily ('OIl('{'tlWU with
tCIt<'lllllg ('ulLurally approved attitudes toward th(' UA(' of hmgl1n~(' amI
with d('vcloping ('ulturally useful skills ill langnagl', bl1('h tth r(\uding,
I:'Ip<'llillg, and Wl'lting All of us ute ('xposed to t.his h'u<iitioll, C'f:lpC'C'inlly
from the time we cntC'r bf'hool. And, UnlpHf:l w(' are' on our p;ultrd, wo NUl
bc eusily IC'd into 01(' fttlhwy of uHfllgning, culturally cldim'd featul'ct! to
the linp,uisLic SYbt(,ln.
To t.ukC' an example of this type of fallMY, the Htull'IUC'nt iEl 111ad('
that using t.lw word ain't is not f,!,ood gngli!lh. III our s('h()oIR, we nr<'
not only to.ught notions of thi,,; sorl., hut we an' made to helieve that
these notions form an essential part of gnglil'oh p,rammar. To the
linguist, of course, forml:! t\re neither good nor badj thl'Y ml'r(\ly exist
or do not <,xist, His linguistic d('scl'iption would atklllpt to place the'
word ain't in its proper configuration of formR. II<, would ~ay that,
among the irl'('{};lrlar verbs of English there is one which hrts th1'<'o formA
in the prcsmt (or nOll-par:.t) tensC': am, i", are. The n<'gtttivc is formed
by inserting not after the verb form or by I~ cont I'nction of th<' v<'rb with
the ncgtttive, H(' might find that in tln'('(' clifi'<'l'ol1L diaIC'd!o1- (lial!'C'ts
A, B, and C-the ('ontru.ct('(l n<'gatives of thili '\'t'rb W('1'(' puLl (\I'l1(\d in
the following way:
A n c
not
11.111 !lin't IIm't
is not lm't IIm'l, 1.,11'1
a.r(' not urpn't lIIu'l IIrpn'l
To the linguist, there is nothing about. UIl' wOl'd (dn!t tJwt would
lead him to rcjo(.'t it n.s an aecC'ptablc part of the EngliRh lillAlliflii(' SYH-
tem. All of the sounds in ain't are perfectly good rCnglish 80un(18.
There is nothing in the verb paradigm that conflicts with its pOAition in
that paradigm. As a matter of fact, its absence (as in diul('ct C)
leaves a vacuum in the pa.ttern of forms.
To state that ain't exists and that it is a perfeotly acceptable
form, on linguistio grounds, in the structural system of English docs not
dispose of the ain't problem. But it docs clarify the problt'1D, It
TUE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 47
presents the linp,uistic sidl' of the ras('. The sto.tcment, on the other
hand, tho.t ain't it! not p,oo(l EngliHh fails to makE' linguis.ti(' sense because
it is not tt linl,!,UIRtic' I:>tlll('U1<'llt at n.Il. It il:l u ('ullmal fliatemcnt. It
has r(>fc1'<'11cc' to the fad thnt ('l'rtnill glOUPt! in our society considE'r
at'n't to be n. Hymbol of \'ulgmiLy. OUr(' the e,tatC'meut is recognized as
having a cultural rl'lcvnl1ec, noL It linp,uisti(' 011(.', it makes !;rnsc and
takE'S on meaning. In tC'l'lllS 01 culturally definrd aLtitudes, m'n't
belongs with gum-chewing and 'With other practices tlmt are e.upposed to
indicate It lnck of refin('lllont, not with the linguibtie 101'ms 1sn't and
aren't.
Cultural evaluations of this kind htLy(' n 1'C'ulity an(l a lrgiti111tlte
place in a culLural frul1lc of l'('[el'('n('('. :;l1ch (·vn.iuatiolls cannot be
argued out of cxiht('ll('e by )lointiul!, to the linguil:,tic v:tlidity of ain't or
to the phYl:liological validity of ~'1.lln-rllCwing, which may aid the diges-
tive process and ('o.s(' nervous t('llsion. Cultural vlIliditics very often
do conflict with otl1(']' kind!! of v!\li(litiE'~. In spccifi(' Rocio.l situations,
we arc constantly being ('uIled upon to r('solve such ('oll'fiicts. The
growing child gOt'S thl'oup,h 3 long nuel often painful Pl'O('C'bS of learning
how to adapt his physiologicll.l dE'manns to ('onfiicting ('ultural demands.
The cultUl'lll definition of am't nnd gU111-('h(ming fits quite natur-
ally in a I:ltrahfieu so('it'Ly, whel'e ('cl'tnin groups (,OllbHl.t'l' themselves to
be sup(,l'iol' to oLh(lt' p;roup'l, wh<.'l'(..' pt'ttotic~s ill tulking, eating, modes of
dres!:! :.tnu groomine" hOllSiug, (Itr. h('('OlllC ('h::tl'p,ed aid symbols of status.
811rh prttoticcs may indh'uit', nob only i he Rorial Rtl'uilllll to which W(I
hdollg, but. n11-0 our ttffilintion ill t('l'IllH 01 scx, It (~~-gl'Ol1P, H.nd oLh('l'
tYP(I'" of ('ult 1I1':~lly dclhwti cllthsifiraiionR.
The (.Ivu.hwlioll of lillgUit-,ti(' fOl'llU'I, I:lurh ab ain't, 011 the basis of
(lulLllrnl (llm~l-Ijti(llLtiOlIH, i'1ouly Oltl' itt'llllll :l hiU;hly ('hthol'ut(.' network of
(Iullul'u lJy d('fiIwd llo(iom, :thouj, Imlgtmgc. Thi'1 rullul'e ('olnplex with
l'('gl1l'd to !ungul1!-!,(' iH 110t, lilllit('d, of ('OUl'I:W, to I-IIWulwl'''' of l!jllgliflh. It
i:-. IOlUul Hm()n!!: ::'l)('al~('l':- of Chill('I-I(', oi Al':! hie' lind 1hnd u.., Lnm, as W('I1
as nmong I:lp(mkcl'l:! of tilt' 1~t1r()r>(lun hmgtt:lAt'I-. It i!:l b}ll'('o.d ovel' a cul-
ture m'cl~ that ill<llmk's th(' l:lo-I'a.llt'd riviliz('d Ol' non-prhmtive cultUl'(,s
of today, and it has a. history tIlab mUbt ue mcasur('d in millenia, not
merely in centuries. It inchtdl's many I1.flsociatcd ideas about language:
that the way ill whi('h the spoken language is used, not only indicates
the social strt~tum of th(.' sp<.>aker, bub also his education and learning;
that a nati ve flpeukct, docs not really know his language unless he has
learned the folklol'e of grammar and rhetoric Q.bout hislnnguage, with
4S 'rUANAA()1'lO~fI
1111 it" pl'llhihitiOlll'l UU(ll'lI.hortntiolll'lj that tIl(' r('all:tuguag(' is the writN

t I'll form, tilt' I'>pok('n form h('ing mort'ly n pall.' l'('fiection of the writing;
thnt, t h(' ('SSl'tl('C of It ltm~"utg(' is to be found in its literaturo, parti('u-
Inl'ly in ltl'! 1I1.'1k... I(,Ul'(\R; and thnt, th('l'o£o1'<', II aO('l(·ty whirh has no
VI l'lttt'll lilrl'uturt' hltS no l'('allauguage.
To tUl'n 110W io the> intonation!! of Englibh, I waut to give first a
(\(~bcl'ipti()n or tIw linguistic patterns of pitch phenonl('na in Ellglish and
tiwn pal's on to th(' psychoiogi('al and <'ultural fNl.tUl'l.'S of these phc-
nomt'nn. Ellglii-h has foul' tlistmdivc intonation patterns that can be
dC'l(,l'ihcd in linguil:lLic terms.
1. JUsino mionation. A ri::.(' in pitch o('curs on the laRt primal'Y-

sln'bEoC'd syllable of questions which call. bo answe>red by yes or no. For
('xaruple:
Is his name John?
Do you live in Mahattun?
Is this the way to the railron.d station?
Note that the nucleus of the riRing tont' is the last primurY-IMci:!sed sylN
lablc-John, Nhat-, and rail- in lhl' &t'ntences abow.
2, Jl'aZZtn!1 intonation. A fall in piLch occurs on the last primary-

stressed syllabIc of statements and of que&tionl'l that contain int€'rroga-
tivc words, su('h as WhC?'6,1!,hcn, ho'IJ.', why, etc,
I live in Manhattan.
Wht're is the railroad station?
3. FaLling-rising intonatl'on. A fa.lling tone occur!:! on tho la.st

)1l'unnry-sLroAscd e.yllabic followed by 1.\ rising lone on the fina.l syllabIc
of the scutt'nce. Thill intonation has the function of expr('ssing BUl'priA(,
01' doubt, a.pology, and tho Hk('.
You live in Manhattanl
I won't be able to drive you to Boston, but I can take you
to the railroad station.
If these sentences are spoken with the intonation that is indicated, they
will differ in pitch from the preceding two sentences only in tha.t the
final syllables of Manhattan and 8tation will have a rising tone.
4. FinaL-rising intonation. A rising tone occurs on the last sylla-

ble of the word or word group, regardless of stress. This intonation is
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OJ!' SCIENCES 49
found, among other place~, in certain English tag constructions that can
appear at the end of sentences.
I'll be able to do that, I think.
"Where do you hve?" he demanded.
Close the dool', Albert.
In these sentenccs thc rIse in p1tch occurs on the final syllable think,
which happens to be prilllary-stres~ed, and on the final syllables of
demanded and Albert, WhICh do not have the primary stress.
There are two general characteristics that should be noted about
this linguistic description of intonation. First, these intonations are not
only described in terms of pitch contours, they must also be described
in terms of the location of these pitch contours with reference to the
primary stress and to syllabic pos1tion. In other words, these intona-
tions are correlated with the stress pattern of English and with the set-
up of syllabic positiolls. The stress pattern, in its turn, 1S correlated
in certain describable ways with the vowel configuration of English,
with the consonant scqU('nces of English, with the behavior of certain
English prefixes and suffixes, with certain syntactic relations in English.
The linguistic system that we call English is a close-krut structure made
up of inter-related formal features. The Intonations described above
ure linguistic features by virtue of the fact that they are related to
other linguistically relevant features and are woven into the total
linguistic system.
The second general point is that these four intonations do not de-
scribe all of the phenomena of pitch which orcur when a person talks
English. They merely represent the formal, linguistically definable
constants of intonation. l!'or example, the description of the rising
intonation does not state how much of a pitch interval this rise covers.
Some speakers of English habitually use a wide span of pitch; others usp
a relatively narrow span; still others vary considerably from day to day
or even from one response to another. Tho point is that such differ-
ences in pitch span do not count for anything in the linguistic picture.
They are linguistically non-significant variations on the same theme.
Whether your rise at the end of the question is wide or narrow, it still
functions linguistically as the same type of question intonation.
These two general criteria can also be applied to the psychological
features of pitch phenomena. It is necessary to select those features of
intonation which correlate with other psychologically relevant phe-
nomena. It is likewise important to omit those intonational features
50 TRANSACTIONS
which are psychologically Ilon-sihrnifklLnt. I shall try to indicnte how

the pllychological ie:,turcs 01 intolH,Uoll shape up by giving a summary
of an investiglttion conducted in collnbornt,ion with Dr. Vera Muther,
of the Psychiatric Servic<.> of the N('w llttv<.'n HORpitnl. 'rhe purpose of
this study was to dct<.>rminc· what spc('('h dltu'ut't('l'iI:;tics were I.l.shocilttC'd
with certain types of clinically dcfin('d Ilymp{omf:l. In ordE'r to limit the
problem, the study was confined to paticnts with disorders of afIect-
patients who showed clear symptoms of luotor r('tal'dation or accelera-
tion, and deprf.'ssion, ('uphoria, or irritability. About 40 patients with
manic-depressive and allied llyndl'orueH w(,l'e flt'lected for this study.
Phonograph r('cordings w('re ronde of the ptttients' spontaneoUl-1 Rpeech,
in conversation with the psychitttrist. In a few casell, where it was
possible, recordings of the sallie plttient were made at intervals to sec
whether changes in his clinical manift'Rtations were reflected in corre-
sponding changes in hil:! speech.
A list of spocch characteristics waR drawn up to serve as the criteria
for description. In addition to pitch phenomena, this list also included
some of the phenomena of articulation, accent, tempo, resonance,
vocabulary and phrasing, syntax, etc. Only the features of pitch, how-
ever, will be dealt with here. The pitch characteristics which turned
out to be significant for this psychiatric study were the following:
1. Range of pitch: wide, narrow,
2. Pitch changcs
a. Character: gliding, step-wise
h. ]'requ('ncy: frequent, infrequent.
The patients W01'O c!tlstdfh'cl illto three cliuically defined gl'OUpN.
One was the group I:Ihowing symptoms of the clal:lsical deprellflion, burh
as motor retardation, sadn(,HR of mood, insomnia i and, in some (,I\HC'S,
agitation, and self-accusatory or suicidal tJ.·cnds. Some of th(,H() pa-
tients had experienced similar illneslles before. A few had had previ-
ous manic phases.
The second group was made up of patients showing a chronic I:!t,atc
of dissatisfaction, self-pity, and gloom. This state, unlike the classical
depr~ssion, was not a circumscribed illness. It did not follow a definitc
course. Patients in this state showed some changes of mood in response
to changes in the situation, while patients of the classical depression
group showed no such adaptive responsiveness in mood. Furthermore,
there were no clear-cut somatic symptoms associated with this condi-
tion, in contrast to the insomnia, anorexia, and constipation which were
usual in patients with classical depressions.
The third group, the patienLs with manic symptoms, was charac~
tcrized predominantly by moLar acceleration and euphoria or irritabil~
ity. Many of these patients had had similar attacks before or had ex~
perienced depressive phases.
The features of pitch were found to be distributed among these
three clinical types as follows:
Classical States of Manic
deprrs8ions dissatisfaction syndromes
Pitch range narrow wide wide
PIteh ehangt's
Character Atf>p-wib<' gliding gliding
Frequency Infrequrnt frequent frequent
On the basis of pitch characteristics, patients suffering from states

of dissatisfaction were morc like the manic than like the depressed pa~
ments. It should be remembered, however, that only the characteristics
of pitch are being described here. By themselves, they give a skewed
version of the total sp<'ech picture. In terms of other speech charac-
teristics, patients in states of dissatisfaction showed more resemblance
to the depressed patients. For example, patients in this state, as well
as depressed patients, used a level of stylc that was a simple colloquial
type of spoken English i manic patients, on the other hand, used a more
involved and elevatcd style, often verging on the oratorical.
For some of the patients in the depressive and manic groups, two or
three recordings were made at intervals of several weeks. Clear-cut
changes in the clinical picture can generally be observed in patients of
these types. Over a period of weeks or a few months, many of these
patients undergo a hospital recovery, as their symptoms of motor
retardation or aaceleration, of sadneRs or euphoria, of agitation or
irritability bocome less marked. Changes are also manifested in
speech. To take an example, three recordings were made of a depressed
patient during his recovery perio~ of about ten weeks. His successive
recordings showed a widening range of pitch and a more frequent use of
pitch changes; in the last recording, taken on the day of his discharge
from the hospital, a few gliding tones appeared, whereas this patient
had previously used only step.wise changes of pitch. A manic patient
showed corresponding changes in the opposite direction during a rapid
recovery period of about six weeks-a narrowing of the pitch range, less
52 TRANSACTIONS
frequent changeI'! of pitl'h, nnd the usc of sbort glic1ing tones in place of
the previol1s1ung-drawl('d glide!:!.
'rhe characterit.;tics of pitch selectrd in this psychiatric study must
not be over-interpreted. Thry should not be regarflcd as b('ing repre-
sentative of the totality of Sp('('('h, or at! the most important char-
nctf.'ristics or the beat diagnostic cluel! in speech. 'rhey ar(' a.n arbitrarily
selected set of spee('h charactcril:!tics. I wunt to avoid misleading an
unwary reader who might be tempted to believe that it is possible to
psychologize a person merely by describing his intonations. }I'urther-
morE', in the group investigation just desC'rihed, the characteristics of
pitch could be shown to correlate very clrarly with certain clinical
syndromes. The uniformity of speech characteristics is the result of
the type of subjects UHM and of the h'1'OUP nature of the investiga-
tion. A more complex and, in many ways, a more rewarding picture
emerges from a detail('d individual study, in which non-psychotic per-
sons are used as subjects. Here, the speech material may fall into sev-
eral functional sets of characteristics, which are related, not on the basis
of uniformity, but rather on the basis of congru('nce or even opposition.
This type of speech picture can reflect the compensatory relations, the
conflicts and ambivalences, in the character structure of the individual. *
The culturally significant features of intonation shape up in quite
a different way. When I began working on English intonation, as part
of a larger linguistic study of English, I proceeded in the accepted
inductive manner, recording and collecting the various intonational pat-
terns that I heard. ~everal curious patterns turned up. It'or (>xample,
one of the patterns I heard was that used by children who would make
it into a chant for teasing or taunting other children. It would occur in
8u('h sentences as IlJolmllY if'! 8. slow-poke, Johnny is It slow-poke."
Another peculiar pattern was the onc used in military commands.
When commands such as "Attention!" or 1I}1'orward, march I" are given
with this intonation, the final syllable is spoken with a sharp high tone,
and the preceding syllable is drawled on a low tone. In the discussion
of the linguistic features of intonation it was pointed out that these fea-
tures were an integral part of the linguistic system, correlated to the
primary stress and to the position of syllables. The peculiar nature of
the taunting pattern used by children and the pattern of military com-
* TbR reJl(!rt of the plI)'ohlatrio study wlll be found in staDle;y .ewmaD. If Ven G.
:Mathe:.:, Alia.!um of apoken ZonD1lClll8 of pat_tI Vlleh GffectllVll dIBQI'd.r8. AmmclIon Joumal of
PlWChlatry S., 913-9i2. January, 11138. The individual stuily referred to is dE'lll'ribl'd in my pape:&'.
Behovior patt_ in li""""Uc 8tructure: 1& CObe 8tudv. ~. Culture and Pel'IIOIiaIity:
94-106. Heuaaha. Wisconsin: Sapir Memorial Publication Fulld~ 1»41.
mande lay in the fact that neither of these patterns seemed to be re-
lated to the genuint'ly linguistic patterns of intonation or to any other
formal features of English. In the taunting pattern, the fixity of the
pitch intervals an(1 the constancy of the melodic outline throughout the
sentence was more suggestive of a musical melody than of a flexible
linguistic intonation. In the pattern of military commands, as a mat-
ter of fact, the normal distribution of stress was distorted. The last
syllable was always spoken with the strongest force of articulation, even
in words such as attention, where the primary stress is normally on the
middle syllable.
It soon became evident that neither of these patterns was part of
the English linguistic structure. The taunting melody is obviously the
same as the melodic theme of the phrase, "a green and yellow basket,"
in the nursery song, "A Tisket, A Tasket." Folk tunes of this kind are
scarcely to be regn.rdcd as an integral part of the linguistic system of
English. '1'I1('y an' probably very old clements belonging to a European
musical tradition that is shared by cultures in which difft'rent languag('s
are spoken. The same melody is used with the same function of taunt-
ing by children who speak German, and it will undoubtedly be found
among children of many different languages.
In the same sense, the military pattern is a cultural item. It is
used, not only in G(.'rman, whi('h is closely related to English linguisti-
cally, but also in Persian, which is only remotely related, and in Tur-
kish, which is not relnted to English at all. This technique of intoning
military commnnds is obviously a part of a military culture complex
which has been spr('ad widt'ly over the world. It crosses linguistic
boundaric'l3 and cannot bo considered a part of the ICnglish linguistic
system.
Two main tY1WS of ('uUuraUy relevant int,onation can bo distin-
guished. On the OlW Iuml.l, there Me the complex intona.tional styles,
involving not only pitch but aIHo ClUml.<ltcristirs of artiCUlation, tempo,
resonance, etc. Here arc ine1ul.lcd the styles of speech associated with
certain personality stereotypes current in our culture-the voice of the
preacher, the doctor, the lawyer, the politician, the silly woman, the
braggart, tho dunce. The stereotype of the dunce 01' stupid fellow ap-
pears in folk-tales all over Europe. I have heard Czech stories in which
the speech of this folk individual is characterized by the same low, long-
drawled glides, the sarne laryngea.l resona.nce, the same hesitation pauses
in Czech that I now henr in English as spoken by "Mr. Finnegan" of the
54 TRANSACTIONS
Duffy's Tavern radio program. lIe repr(,l:Ients an old trnditional folk

Chl\rt\cLer with all old traditional way of tlpeaking, rcgardlcfls of "hut
langunge he happens to be using. In addition, there ure ccrtuin wnys
of tIsing intollation and oih!.'f voice characteristics to indicate culturally
standardized emotional attitudes-to indicate polit('ncsR, impati<>nce,
sophistIcation, anger. 'I'here arc certain styles employed for certain
culturally defined situations-the style used in prayer {mel in pUlpit
utterance, the style which some adults consider appropriate when ad-
dressing small children, and one which some !.'hildren learn to imitate.
In contrast to these styles which involve certain types of methods
of using intonation are the more dibtinctive melodies. These include
the taunting melody used by children and the melody of military com-
mands, mentioned above. There are also calling melodies, used par-
ticularly in calling out proper names. One ean hear these cvery day
intoned by mothers on our city strects. And there arc special mclodies
used by street vendors-the old clothes man, the scissors man, etc.
I !!hould like to sum up this treatm('nt of intonation by suggesting
that the general picture of intonation!! given here may apply not only
to the pitch phenomena of English but to other language phenomena as
well. First, there are the linguistic features that occur in language, fea-
tures that are related one to another and go to form the closely knit
structure that we call the linguistic system. There are, in addition, the
psychological features appearing in an individual's use of language.
These are the phenomena of language that give free play to the indi-
vidual's modes of behavior, which arc also expressed in and correlated
with types of activity other than sp('('ch. Tll(,y reflect his motor habits
and also his mental (emotional and intellectual) hahits. Finally, there
are the cultural features found in language. They arc not a part of the
structure of any particular linguistic system. In their gc()grnphical
distribution, they cut across linguistic boundaries and coincide, rather,
with culture areas and with the spread of culture complexes. They un-
doubtedly, too, ho,ve a history of thdr own, indopcndcnt of the history
of the particular language in which they happen to be used.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY
NOVEMBER 10 AND 11, 1944
Conference on "An1'mal Colony Maintenance."
The Section of Biology held a Conference on "Animal Colony
Maintenance," as the second in the beries for the Academic year, 1944-
1945. Doctor Edmond J. Farris, The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and
Biology, Philadelphia, P(.>nnsylvo.nia, was the Conference Chairman in
charge of the meeting.
"Introductory ltemarks," by Edmond J. Farris.
"Genetic Purlty in Animal Colonies/' Frederick B. Hutt, New
York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University.
liThe Mating of Mammals," by Carl G. Hartman, University of
Illinois.
"F(.>cding Laboratory Animals," by J. K. Loosli, School of Nutri-
tion, Cornell University.
"Infectious Diseases of Laboratory Animals," by Herbert L. Rat-
cliffe, Medical School, University of Pennsylvania and Penrose Re-
search Laboratory, Zoological Society of Philadelphia.
"Remarks," by Edmond J. Farris.
"Infl.uence of Environmental Temperatures on Warm-Blooded Ani-
mals," by Clarence A. Mills, College of Medicine, University of Cin·
cinnati.
"Financing and BUdgeting-Viewpoint of the University," by
Sidney Farber, ITarvard Medical School.
"Financing and Hudg(.>ting - Viewpoint of the Commercial
Broeder," by C. N. W. Cumming and F. O. Carnochan, Carworth Farms,
Inc., New City, N. Y.
56 TRANSACTIONS
NEW MEMBERS
Elected Nov('mbC'r 16, 1944
ACTIVE MEMBI~RS
Katwnhorn, Dorothy HC'IC'u, B.A., Gcoiogiclil Assistant, Columbia. Univonrity, New

York,N. Y.
King~ James C., Ph.D., EntomolofO' and Population Genetics. Private Research in
Entomology (Sphingidae) and Population Gou(·ties, White Pl~ Now York.
Kirkpatrick, Goor~e P., B.Sc., AHtronomy and PhYhilll3, Associate PhYSIcist, Brook~
lyu Polyt.echruc Institute, Brooklyn, N('Iw York.
Mazur, Abraham, Ph.IJ., Biol<?gicul Chrmildcy, InHtnl(.'tor in Chemistry, College
of the Ci~y of New York, Nl'W York, N, Y. (on It'ltv!'); 1tt-f3('arch Biochemist,
Medical RC'sC'ft.l't'h r..aborat OriCH, lCclgcwood ArsC'nal, Maryland,
Welsh, Mark, D.V.M., IllfecliOUIl DiscltAl's of Animals, Director, Veterinary Divi~
mon, Lcderlr Lahoraioril'8, Pf'arl River, New York.
ASSOCIATB MEMBERS
DeFrates, Joseph S'l PhD., Endocrinology, Department Head, Glandulli.r Prod-
ucts, E. R, Squioh and Sons, Nl'w Brunswick, New JCl'Aey.
Long, Charles R., M.S., General SdC'ncetjCormerly, Research Engineer, Westing-
house Lamp Division; now, Captain, • S. Army.
McCleary, Harold R., Ph.D., Physical Chemistry, Rescarch Chemist, Ca.1co Divi-
sion, American Cyanamid Company, Bound Brook, New Jersey.
Robinson, Leslie G., D.D.S.: Osteology, Dental Practitioner, New Westminster,
British Columbia. Ca.na.aa,
TRANSACTIONS
of
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Su. II, VOL. 7 ,JANUARY, 1945 No.3
.JOINT MEETING
AND
SECTION OF BIOLOGY
DECEMBER 4, 1944
DR. CARL O. DUNBAR, Professor of Paleontology and Director of Pea-
body Museum, Yale University: The Geo1,ogic and Biologic Signifi-
cance of the Evolution of the FusuZinidae. (This lecture was illus-
trated with lantern slides.)
The Fusulinidae comprise a well defined family of the Forami-
nifera found in great abundance in the later Paleozoic rocks. They
appeared near the beginning of Pennsylvanian time and lived through
until late in the Permian, commonly existing in such numbers in the
shallow seas of the Northern Helnisphere as to be important rock mak-
ers. They are thus among the commonest and most characteristic
marine fossils of a number of the great coal and oil fields of the world.
Because of their small size and vast numbers, they are easily recovered
from well cores or even from drill cuttings, and so are especially useful
in subsurface cOrI'elationH.
Their usefulnt'sfi in this way stems largely from the fact that their
shells are complicated and, throughout the geologic rangE' of the family,
were undergoing very rapid evolution. This involved, among other
things, a tendency toward greater and greater size and the progressive
TRANSACTIONS of The New York Academy of Sciencea, Series II. Volume 7, No.3, laDuary,
1945.
This pubUcation is distributed to Kembel'll aDd is publisbed monthly from NO'Vember to lune,
inclueive, at. 109 West Chestnut Street,L_LaDcasterl • PR., by The New 'lrork Al'Bdemy of Sciences,
Seven~.lIinth Street and Ceatrel Park west.. New 10rk City.
EdItor: Roy Waldo Miner.
Exeoutive SeIlI'etar:v: Eunice ThomBII Miner.
Entered 118 second·cIus matter December 2, 1938, at. the POSt office at Lencaster, Pa., under the
act of Aua:uat 24, 1912.
57
58 TRANSAOTIONS
change in s(lveral I:Ihe11 features. A knowledgc of thrse evolutionary

tTI'ndl'l, on('c it is integrated to the Htratigraphit' rl'cord, permits one to
rccognizo the geologic horizon and to mnke ('orrelations oV('r great
distaIlN's, even without the identification of spcriC'l:I.
The fusulines nrc rl'lutiv(' giants among the }'oraminiiera, com-
monly rcsC'mbling grains of wheat or oats in I:!ize and I:!hape, but rang-
ing upward to subcylindrical shells as thick as a lead pencil and two
inches in length. Compared with Amoeba or Globigerina, one of these
largest forms would appear like a Brontosau'1"lt.8 of the protozoan world!
Tht.> fUl:!uline shell is planispirally coiled about an elongate axis and
is typically fusiform. Indeed, the original genus, FU8ulina, was so
named because of its shapC', and most of the oth(.'r gt'nera agree with it
in this ret!pect, though with variations ranging to suhcylindrical on the
one hand and to subsphcrical or ev{'n lenticular on the other.
The spiral wall of these shells developed an amazingly complicated
structurc. Moreover, the whorls are I:!ubdivided by numerous radially
disposed septa into slender meridional chambers. These septal plates,
at first plane and simple, display various types of specialization. Secon-
dary shelly deposits tended to form in characteristic but changing pat-
terns; and the meridional chambers, primitively slender and simple,
became subdivided into many chamberlets. All this complicated
internal archite<:ture is invisible from the exterior, and shells that ap~
pear superficially alike may be utterly dissimilar internally. For this
reason, ('ritical study of a fusuline requires at least two carefully
oriented thin sections of the shell, one following the axis and the
other th(· Hagittnl plane, b()th of them pat.1l:ling through the initial cham-
ber. Cutting of such I:l('ctions is a tedious tat.1k raIling for Hkill and ex-
pericncl', and it! one ()f the chief obHtarlcs in the Ht,U<iy of t.lw fURulinefl.
In the evolution from primitivcly 1':11111\11 !lnd l'limplc to r('lntively
large and structurally ('ompli('at(l(l 1:11l('llH, sC'v(.'rnl different Htructures
were involved and each I:!howl:! definit(· ('volutionary tr<>nciH m()rc or less
independent of the otherl:!. Some of tlu.'l'lc indiC'ate n Hloworthogenetic
change persisting throughout a considerable amount of geologic time-
a change of the sort displayed in thc evolution of the horse from his
pentadactyl and plantigrade anccstor to the unidactyl and unguligrade
animal of the modern world. Such changes were transpiring simul-
taneously in various parts of the world and, in the case of the horse,
clearly resulted in more perfect adaptation of the animal to its environ~
ment. One is tempted to infer that the major evolutionary changes
THE NEW YOBE. AOA.DEMY OF SOIENCES 59
displayed by the fusulines also were, in general, adaptive i even though
the environmental factors that gave them survival value are, in some
respects, obscure.
One of the major changes had to do with the mural pores. In
primitive genera-all those characteristic of the lower half of the Penn-
sylvanian system-these are microscopic capillary tubes having a
diameter of only 1 to 3 microns and, therefore, being difficult to detect
in ordinary thin sections. But near the middle of the Pennsylvanian
period (i. e., late in the Des Moines epoch), the mural pores began to
enlarge and, in shells of that age, they are commonly visible though still
tubular. A rapid change followed, in which the main layer of the wall
thickened and the mural pores enlarged into alveoli, like the cells in
honey-comb, remaining fine only in a thin outer film of the wall (the
tectum) . The net result was to produce a relatively thick wall having
the maximum rigidity attainable with a given amount of shell material,
or the lea.st possible weight capable of yielding a given amount of
rigidity. The frequent discovery of specimens that were broken and
healed during life suggests that the strength of the shell was frequently
taxed i and, since all the genera that include large species have the
alveolar type of shell wall, we may infer that lightness of contruction
may have been a factor in limiting the growth of such unicellular
animals.
The gradual development of septal folds is one of the striking
evolutionary trends in the subfamilies Fusulininae and Schwagerininae,
where it results in great strength with a minimum of weight, on the
same principle that makes a corrugated paper carton light and strong.
Curiously, the Oriental subfamily Neoschwagerininae achieved the
same end in a quite different way. Successive stages in septal evolution
can be used to distinguish several stratigraphic horizons.
Secondary Rhell deposits occur in many of the fusulines, but their
characteristic distribution within the shell displayed systematic changes
in the course of time. A knowledge of these changes also oan be effec-
tively used as a check on the geologic age.
At the beginning of the Permian period, two new genera of fusu-
lines appeared, each of which is characterized by a very rapid increase
in the height of its chambers at a certain stage in its ontogeny.
There are PSeudo8chwagen'na, derived out of Triticit68, and Para-
8chwagerina derived out of Schwagerina. In both, the early whorls
are closely coiled as in other genera of fusulines i but, after this ontoge-
60 TRANSACTIONS
netic sta.g(·, th<" next whorl rapidly inCrClloElCB in height and the shell
becomes inflatcd Uoud commonly I:!uhsph('rirnl. Both tht'BC genera were
('normously successful {()r llo time, tipreuding rnpidly throughout the seas
of the Northern Hcmil:!phere. Bach had a. rat})('r short career, dying
out without issue at the end of the Wolfcamp epoch. One is tempted
to think that the sudden inflation of the shell marks an adaptation to
pelagic life, the expanded chambers having been partly filled with gas
as is the final chamber in tho living foraminifer TretomphalU8 buZ-
toides.1 This possibility may be indicated by the fact that the spiral
wall of these inflated genera is much thinner than that of the parent
genera, that these inflated shells are never weighted down with secon-
dary shelly material, as are many species of the contemporaneous genus
Schwagerina, and that they are so widely distributed.
.a7:l..
J.,..III, Biology, Ecology, and Morphology of a Pelalli'lc Forami-
nifer. Stanford tlnlverstty Publlcatlons, Blol. Ser. 8 (1): 1-80. 1948.
THE NEW YORlt ACA.DElIIY OF SCIENCES 61
SEOTION OF PSYOHOLOGY
DECEMBER 18, 1944
DOCTOR JULES H. MASSERMAN, Division of Psychiatry and the Otho S.
A. Sprague Institute, University of Ohicago, Ohicago, Ill.: The
Biodynamic8 of ExperimentaZ N eur0888 and Alcoholism. (This
lecture was illustrated by motion pictures.)
I don't believe it is necessary for me to express in words the deep
appreciation I feel for this opportunity to address the Academy. Oer-
tainly, my presence here, this evening, despite every obstacle of crowded
duties and difficulties of travel, should convey the fact that I consider
this a signal-though undeserved-honor. And I shall try to show my
appreciation concretely by fulfilling, as nearly as I can, the purpose for
which, I presume, I was invited: namely, to present a concise over-all
survey of our work on experimental neuroses at The University of
Ohicago, including the recent studies on alcohol which supply the title
to this paper. With your permission, then, I shall omit technical de-
scriptions of our methods or detailed analyses of our results, in the form
of tables, graphs or mathematical derivatives, which, though entranc-
ingly exact in form, are often dubious in meaning. Instead, I shall
try, later on, to substantiate my statements by employing what is in
many respects the most objective as well as the least tedious way of
presenting vital data: i.e., by showing a motion picture film of some of
the at't ual experiments under discussion.
THE HYPOTHALAMUS
Let me, then, I:lketch as briefly as possible the developmental back-

ground of our studies. About a decade ago, my student associates and
I began to correlate our clinical psychiatric work with parallel experi-
mentation in animal behavior, in the hope of discovering biodynamic
principles broad enough to cover the conduct of both animals and men.
In line with these interests, it was our purpose to study those aspects
of behavior that were of greatest significance from a psychiatric stand-
point, namely: its biologic, motivational and emotional determinants.
Our first experiments, accordingly, were concerned with a so-called
"psychosomatio" theory which at that time seemed to be gaining head-
way among some physiologil:lts and psychiatrists. In substance, this
62 TRANSACTIONS
theory held that motivaUOIlH and emotions bad their orip;in in the neural
and hormonal funrtiollA of ih(' hYllothalamuM-n tiny neural structur~
tha.t thereby ('mhudi('(l the s()lution (ali p('r cirra 1935) of the body-
mind problem Imd, in effect, represented the ('nd of the ancient quest
for the "sent of tht, soul." PurportNI evidcn('(' f(lr this concept of
hypothalamic function was derived mainly from what proved to be
certain unwarranted interpretations of the brilliant work of Karplus
and Krcidl, Cannon and Britton, Bard, Ranson, Rioch and others.
These inv('stigators, in brief, had shown that stimulation of the
hypothalnmus in animals produced the peripheral expressions of what
Bard rightly called the pseudo-affective state of "Hham rag"," whereas
lesions of the hypothalamus rendered the animal for a time emotionally
apathetic. I shall not go into an extensive exposition of our own
experiments in this fil.'ld, since tht'y have already been filmed and
reported in, perhaps, too great detail elsewhere,· but certain of our
results may be briefly reviewed as relevant to the present disrussion.
In short, we found that the dramatic Hsham rage" responses produced
by electrical or pharmacologic stimulation of the hypothalamus, unlike
those in true affective states, were mechanical, unadaptive and did not
interfere with ordinary goal-directed behavior such as conditioned food-
taking; whereas, unlike true rage or fear, these pseudo-affective
responses could not be conditioned to situational stimuli. Conversely,
animals rendered apathetic by destruction of the hypothalamus
regained their normal emotional responses as soon as they recovered
from the metabolic disturbances produced by the initial neurologic
lesions. These and other experiments indicated that motivation and
emotion are not to bc loralized in partiCUlar body structUfCM, nerve
pathways or blood honnancs, but arc expressions of holistic adaptations
to the total field of the organism.
Our further work, therefore, entailed the development of techniques
that would make possible the study of the motivations, field organiza-
tion and general adaptive nature of total behavior-terms that I hope
to make clear as this discussion develops. For this purpose, as you
will see in the films, we designed and built an apparatus that made
possible a wide variety of controlled experimental procedures, such as:
(1) the use of known incentives to action; (2) the employment of field
:rm_.
-Por an e:nellslve bibliography and discussion, see ......
uvior and Neuroms," Chicago. University of Chlcallo Press. 1943.
3 .. "Be-
The ex-
Jlerlments themselves are recorded in several teaching motion picture tUrns
from the Divtmon of Psychiatry of the University of Chicago. dlatrlbuted by
the 1'Q'<lb.oloClCal Cinema Resister. State Collese, Pa.
symbolizations to "condition" specific adaptive patterns i (3) the
interposition of physical obstacles or "social" frustrations j and, finally,
(4) the elicitation of simultaneous but incompatible responses in order
to study their disruptive effects on the animal's behavior. Let me
now describe some of our basic observations with these procedures as
employed with some two hundred and fifty animals during the past six
years.
EXPERIMENTS IN THE BIODYNAMICS OF BEHAVIOR
Motivation and Symbolic Adaptation

In our early experiments we found that a cat or a dog could
easily be taught to lift the lid of a food box to secure a pellet of food,
and then further trained to delay this response until a bell or a light
signal had been given. During this period, the animal readily entered
the apparatus, responded avidly to the signals until it wanted no more
pellet8 and, throughout, remained on the best of terms with the experi-
menter.
Development of Complex Action Sequences in Adaptive Behavior
The animal could next be trained to depress a pedestal switch to
actuate the feeding signals and so secure food at will. Finally, this
adaptive behavior could be made progressively more complex by inter-
posing barriers or by making the switch manipulation more difficult
up to the limits of the perceptive and adaptive capacities of the animal.
For instance, one cat was taught to pass a barrier twice and depress the
switch three times in various positions before attempting to feed,-a
level of performance which placed the animal in the "genius" bracket
of the general ('at population. Significantly, if the circuit was discon-
nected so that the feeding signals were not actuated when the switch
was deprel:ll:leci, the total adaptations of the animal were in most cases
disrupted, so that it did not attempt to secure food freely available in
the box until the proper feeding signals were again interposed. How-
ever, as long as the environment remained organized and experimentally
predictable, the animal went oontentedly about its task of working
the switch, responding to the signals and earning its living in its
accustomed ways.
Effect8 of Frustration
If the food box were locked or barriers were so placed that an
64 TRANSACTIONS
animal was d('pri .... cd of its l'cward ufh'r working the Hwitch, the animal
at firl:!t attacked the obl:lta('}('s in itt! path with an intensity roughly
proportional to its d«~gree of hung<'r motivation. When these attacks
did not succeed, it f:lhowed inoor('sting (.'xplorations in substitutive ac-
til'ity: for instance, it would pres!:! d()wn on ropes or other objects in its
cage instead of the signal switch, or it would reach for the lights and bell
in lieu of the unobtainable food. In this connection, a particularly sig-
nificant form of substitutive aggre!:!sivity between one animal and an-
other appeared in circuml:!tanccs of "social thwarting" which could be
arranged experimentally as follows:
Dominance and Aggre8sion
Two trained cats were placed in the cage together and given only
a single peUet after each feeding signal. Under such conditions, the
more alert and active of the two pre-empted the pellet, whereas the
other, with little or no fighting, soon ceased to respond to the signals
and thereafter surrendered the food rewards to its dominant partner.
In this way, an "hierarchy of privilege" could be set up in a group of two,
three or four cats, so that the second in line attempted to feed only when
the dominant one was removed; the third, only when the top two were
gone; and the last, only when it was alone in the cage. When, how-
ever, an animal accustomed to dominance was superseded by an even
more dominant animal from another group, the displaced animal
ceased to respond to the signals, but appeared to find substitutive out-
lets in the form of violently aggressive attacks on the interloper. Sig-
nificantly, also, the newly dominant animal in the group rarely
responded with counter-aggressions as long as 'it had free access to the
food-rewards, but when it, also, was socially thwarted in this goal-
directed activity, it, too, became dcviantly aggressive.
Other and even more interesting patterns of inter-cat relationships
developed when two animals trained in the use of the signal switch
were placed together, with the apparatus so arranged that the animal
which worked the switch could not secure the single pellet before its
partner did so. In such circumstances, some animals for a time worked
the switch alternately so as to feed each other, but sooner or later this
arrangement broke down and one of the animals began to shirk its
share of the work to become "parasitic" on the other. In most pairs,
however, the "worker," too, later quit for lack of reward, and then both
animals lay about starving rather than attempt further cooperation.
THE NEW YOlUt ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 65
Often, however, the worker, by turning his aggressions on the switch,
learned that if he attacked it violently enough so that many pellets fell
into the box, he could get some before the parasitic animal had consumed
them all. From then on, he generally continued to work the switch
many times, got a part of the proceeds for his efforts, and so once
again stabilized the situation. Observations even at this level of
animal relationships, therefore, seemed to support the sociological
dictum that individuals in groups tend to fall into hierarchies of
dominance-submission and worker-parasitism, and that aggressions
appear in an individual subjected to social displacement and frustra-
tion. Our studies in these respects, then, confirmed and extended the
observations of Mowrer,* and supported the conclusions he presented
before this Academy some four years ago.
Experimental Neuroses
One other aspect of our recent work also has an immediate bearing
on our discussion tonight, namely: the production of experimental
neuroses in animals by the method of inducing conflictful motivations
leading to disparate and incompatible adaptive patterns. A typical
experiment may be described as follows:
An animal is trained to depress a signal switch before opening a box
for a pellet of food. Just as the animal is about to secure its reward,
however, a blast of air is unexpectedly blown across the box, or a mild
condenser shock is administered through the grill floor of the cage.
The animal recoils at this disturbing experience, but, after some hesita-
tion, again essays to feed at the signal. This is permitted a few times
but, later, and again unexpectedly, the air blast or shock is repeated.
Eventually, then, the hungry animal must face a motivationally in-
soluble problem. Each signal indicates that food is available if the
animal were to open the box as usual, but now the same signal also
represents (or "means") an intolerable self-frustration in either feeding
or escape. In this dilemma, the animal develops aberrations of conduct
that correspond so closely to the phenomena of human neuroses that I
have dared the wrath of my psychoanalytic ffiends by describing them
in clinical terms. For instance, the animal develops feeding inhibi-
tions or selective avoidances of such severity that it may starve itself
into a near-fatal cachexia rather than take readily available food in or
• KoW'U', o. B. .Animal Studies in the Geneses of Personality. Tr. New
York Acad. Sct. Ser. II, a (1). 19f1.
66 TRANSACTIONS
out of the experimental situation. Again, it exhibit!'! cv('ry phYbiologic

('vldl'llCC of nnxit,ty in 1I('llHOrialfi('lclH uSbtlciat('d with thl' ('xp('riment-
ally indu('('d confliot. For illstnnce, it &hoWI:l sudden Htartl('d reactions,
tachy('ardia and respiratory disturbnnceH, when subjectcd to light or
bound stimuli reminisc('llt of the f('eding tlignals, or it becomes claus-
trophobically panic-stricken, if ('onstricted into small spaces. Simi-
larly, it may develop peculiarly stereotyped compulsive and counter-
phobic patterns, su('h as starting with blank immobility into the food-
box without app('aring to notice the food, or passing barriers aimlessly
in a ritualized, st,('reotyped fashion. If more sevcr('ly neurotic, it may
become subject to various motor disturbances such as tics, repetitive
movements, regressions to earlier forms of b('havior, or even cataleptic
rigidity. Concurrently, it loscs dominance in its group hierarchy,
while its relationships to the experiment('r become altered either toward
t'xtreme dcpendence or aggressive hostility.
TIlE BIODYNAMICS OF THERAPY
The experimental methods that were found to be effective in

alleviating these neurotic aberrations of behavior in our animals like-
wise seemed heuristically significant, in that they were operationally
successful only in so far as they relieved the motivational confiict basic
to the neurosis. Since there were seven of these "therapeutic" methods,
and I am scheduled tonight to devote particular attention to the last of
them-the use of alcohol and other drugs-I shall not presume upon
your time by dwelling at length on all seveni however, perhaps their
mere enumeration may serve to point out how closely they correspond
to the techniques employed in the clinical therapy of human neuroscs.
Briefly, the methods are thcse:
First, providing the animal with a prolonged va.cation from the
confiict-producing situa.tion amid relatively restful surroundings. This
method, however, is slow, unoertain and does not prevent recurrences
of neurotic behavior when the animal is again exposed to confiict.
Incidentally, the author, his home and his domestic tranquility have
suffered considerably from attempts to provide a rest-haven for
neurotic animals.
Second, affording the animal some physiologic reZief from one of
the confl,ictfuZ driveB. For instance, if the hungry neurotic animal is
fed before replacing it in the experimental situation, its anxiety and
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCmNCEB 67
phobic reactions are considerably diminished.
Third, the utilization of what might be called transference rela-
tionsh~ps to guide the animal out of its motivational impasse. Thus,
an experimenter, whom a neurotic animal had previously learned to
trust, may retrain it in gentle stages to re-explore the feeding situation,
once again respond to signals and, finally, even withstand the conflict-
engendering trauma. Conversely, if the animal's confidence in the
experimenter il:! not first re-established, the retraining is difficult and
ineffective.
Fourth, the use of some environmental preS8 which, for instance,
inexorably forces a starving neurotic animal to eat, despite its phobias
and inhibitions. Again, this method is successful only in mild neuroses
or if the animal is exceptionally well-integrated; in other cases, the
animal may be driven into an almost uncontrollable panic.
Fifth, the employment of "social example." In this technique, a
neurotic animal is placed in the cage with one that is responding
normally to the feeding signals. In such circumstances, some neurotic
animals may slowly overcome their own inhibitions and begin to
emulate the behavior of their normal partners; at first, when they are
together, and finally, when they are apart.
Sixth, and most effeotive, the spontaneou8 working-through of the
conflict-situation. An animal that has learned the use of the switch and
and is then made neurotic will, for a time, show a peculiar amnesia for
the switch-manipulating pattern. However, as its hunger mounts
from day to day, the animal may tentatively re-explore the use of the
switch to secure food at optimum moments; and, in this way, gradually
utilize what control it had previously attained over its environment to
"work through" and establish anew normally goal-directed patterns of
behavior. Once this is donl', moreover, the animal is relatively
immune to further traumata of a similar nature.
The seventh and final mode of therapy is the administration of
drugs that impair apperceptive discriminations and thereby diminish
the acutene8S of the adaptational conflict. This is the method that I
shall discuss later in particular connection with the effects of alcohol
and their relationships to the dynamics of experimental neuroses. Be-
fore doing so, however, it may be well to summarize the significance
of the experimental data so far presented and to correlate them with
everyday clinical observations of what Adolf Meyer has well called
lithe experiments of nature in human behavior." May I, then, submit
68 TRANSA<"TIONS
to you four bio<iYDI.l.Jllit' I!;<'DC'ralizati(lnfl whi('h, I believe, apply to

human beings t1.8 wt"ll as ('xpcriJll('utal nnimalH, und which will be elab-
orated in my book, uPrinciplc's of Dynnmi<l Psy('hiutl'Y," now nearing
completion? IDtlch ('anon, of C(lurl:l<', hns numel'OUS corollaries and
qualifying codiciltl; but, in bricf('st I:lttlte-ment, they are these:
THE BIODYNAMIC PRINCIPLEl-I OF BEIIAVIOR
1. Behavior is motivated by the physiologic needs of the organism.

2. The animal rel:lponds, not to "objective" reality, but to its own
experientially determined interpretations of its milieu.
S. Under conditions of frustration, behavior becomes deviant and
substitutive or "symbolic."
4. In circumstances that produce motivational conflict, behavior
becomes ambivalent, inhibited, vacillating, stereotyped and excessively
substitutive and symbolic-or, in clinical terms, "neurotic" or "psy-
chotic."
• It * It It
This, then, is an exceedingly condensed survey of a decade of

experimental work with hundreds of animals, and of what I believe
to be the biodynamic integrations of our results with clinical and
psychoanalytic observations of human behavior. On the one hand,
I fear that my summary may have been telescoped beyond the point
of adequate clarity a.nd coherence. On the other, it Inight seem a ra.ther
elaborate prologue for the spccial studies on alcohol, were it not for two
saving considerations: firat, that it provided the rationale and the
necessary central observations for these studies, and, second, that their
presentation is to be mainly in the form of a motion picture, which, I
hope, will vivify the actual experiments a.nd their results. It remains,
then, only to outline and, for purposes of accuracy, to qualify statiSM
tically what you will see illustrated.
NmUltOsrs AND ALCOHOL

Technique oj the Experiments. As already described, a cat is
trained in the experimental apparatus to pass various barriers and
manipulate a signal switch preparatory to opening a box for the food
reward. The effects of graded doses of alcohol on these normal adap-
tive patterns is then studied, after which the animal is made neurotic
by a motivational conflict and again given alcohol. Finally, it is
THE NEW YORlt ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 69
permitted free access to alcohol to see if a spontaneous preference for

the drug develops.
ReS'UZt8: Briefly, the results are these. When an animal is given
from 0.7 to 2.0 cc. per kilo of alcohol, its most recently acquired and
complex discrimination-response patterns (e.g., difficult switch-manipu-
lations) are progressively disorganized until only the most primitive
and elemental reactions remain. Conversely, as the animal emerges
from alcoholic stupor, its adaptive capacities gradually become recon-
stituted until the highest orders of learned behavior again appear.
If now the animal is made neurotic and once more given alcohol
in small doses of 0.5 to 1.2 cc. per kilo, essentially the same effects
appear, but in an interestingly deviated form of expression. Thus,
the inhibitions, phobias, 10l:ls of group dominance, compulsions, and
other aberrant behavior patterns-i.e., those which constitute the most
complex reactions to the conflict-producing situation-are again the
ones first disintegrated, leaving the earlier signal-response and feeding
patterns relatively intact. In our experiments, then, small doses of
alcohol, by impairing discrimination and hypersensitivity of reaction,
seemed to have an actually beneficial effect on neurotic behavior,
although, of course, the inhibitions and other neurotic symptoms
returned as the effects of the drug wore off. But here is where still
another unexpected phenomenon appeared: twelve of the twenty-one
animals which had experienced temporary relief of neuroses under
alcohol, and which had previously refused to take alcohol spontane-
ously, now began to prefer food containing alcohol and thus, to all
intents and purposes, became alcoholic "addicts." Interestingly, too,
this preference rapidly abated as their neurosis was relieved either
through spontaneous re-exploration of the conflict situation while they
were intoxicated, or by the use of vacations, environmental press,
retraining, or one of the other therapeutic methods previously
described.
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN MITIGATING THE NJIlUROTOGENIC

EFFECTS OF MOTIVATIONAL CONFLICTS
The next question that naturally arose was: if alcohol, by impair-

ing the acuity of discrimination, disorganizes neurotic behavior pat-
terns, should not the drug also protect the animal from the effects of
the confiictful experience itself? To this question, our experiments
70 TRANSACTIONS
have not y('t giv('n an unequivocal answ(,l", and 1 can only report our
resultl3 to date. Of nine cats giv(.'n 0.5 to 1.5 cc. p('r kilo of alcohol
and then subjc('ted to an air-blast Of e}(.'c:tric IIhock during conditional
rood-taking, only four have reacted with the d('v('}opment of definitely
neurotic symptoms, and, even in these, the b('hlwiol'al aberrations have
been either evanescent or considerably milder than in previous control
animals not given alcohol. In contrast, the five other animals have
bhown a curious bravado and a remarkable immunity to motivational
conflicts while intoxicated. For instance, three of them seemed rela-
tively undisturbed by electric shocks strong enough to produce myo-
clonus, and two of them, instead of running in panic from the air-blast,
would actually approach, sniff and play with the pn('umatic tube.
Howev('r, these few observations cannot yet be taken al3 determinative,
since D<lt only must a larger serics of animals bc investigated, but each
one must later be made to serve as its own control by being subjected
to the traumatic situation when not intoxicated. If then they develop
definite neuroses, the exp('riments will assume significance and definite
conclusions can be drawn.
Permit me now, before pl'o('e('ding to a final brief discussion of
these findings, to illustrate the work on experimental neuroses and on
alcohol by the showing of a motion pi('ture film that may, at last, give
some substances to this dis('ourse.
(Showing of motion picture film "Neurosis and Alcohol."*)
DIl'ICUSSION
Naturally, I rccognize the vast difi'crcnc('s bctw('('n the most intelli-

gent of alcoholic cat", and the humbl(·st of human t(lp<'rs. It scems
hardly necessary to point out h('re thlLt.--<'ven though the hUImm being
has a far greater capacity for complex perceptions, symbolizations and
integrations, and a far larger rep<'rtoire of normal a.nd neurotic adapta-
tions-from an objective scientific viewpoint, he is still an animal whose
behavior conforms to general biologic and hiodynamic principles. It
is these general principles that our work attempts, however remotely,
to approach. And so we can, with considerable relevance, point out
that the human being, too (as, for instance, a combat flier after a
sortie), often resorts to alcohol to diminish the anticipated poignancy
of a confiictful situation, and that, from a psychiatric standpoint,
• Pre~ed by the Division of Psychiatry, Univerility of Chicago; distributed
by the PsychOlo81ca.l Cinema. Register, State College, Pa..
chronic alcoholic addiction is very often a symptomatic escape from
underlying neurotic anxiety. True, dipsomania in the human may
have complex social, libidinal and regressive connotations not present
in the elemental "unconscious" of the cat, but these higher symboliza-
tions neither negate nor conflict with the phenomena dealt with in our
experiments and may, in the labt analysis, be themselves reduceable
to simpler biodynamic terms .....
SUMMARY
Certain biodynamic principles governing the motivations, condi-

tions, expressions, and vicissitudes of behavior may be derived both
from animal experimentation and from the study of human conduct.
Of special interest to the present discussion is the principle that neurotic
behavior appears when motivations are countcrposed so that their cor-
responding adaptive patterns became conflictful. Alcohol, in moderate
doses, disorganizes complex, recently learned response-patterns, whether
normal or neurotic, and thereby releases earlier and more elemental
forms of goal-directed behavior. These ameliorative effects of the drug
are sometimes sought by animals that have experienced them, and may,
in such instances, be of significance in the biodynamic and clinical
relationships bewtecn neuroses Bond alcoholism.
,. For a documental discussion ot this subJect, see .....:rmu. ;t. Neuroses
and Alcohol, Amer. J. Psychlat., Jan. 1946.
72 TRANSACTIONS
ltEPORT Olt' TIlE ANNUAL MEETING

DECEMBEB 14, 1944
The 127th Annual Meeting of the Academy for the election of
Officers, Fellows and Honorary Members, the presentation of reports
and the tran~actioll. of other business was held at The American
Museum of Natural History on the evening of Thursday, December
14.
The Corresponding Secretary reported that there are now 45 Hon-
orary Members upon the rolls of the Academy. The deaths of five
Honorary Members and one Corresponding Member were reported dur-
ing the past year.
The Recording Secretary's report stated that the Academy has
held 30 Regular Sectional Meetings at which 45 stated papers of high
scientific caliber were presented. In addition, two excellent addresses
were delivered on the occasion of the Annual Business Meeting.
Eighteen informal receptions were held under the auspices of the
various Sections of the Academy.
Three two-day conferences, on special subjects of research, were
held during the year and were attended by outstanding investigators in
these fields. The titles of the conferences are as follows: Section of
Biology, "Animal Colony Maintenance"; Section of Physics and Chem-
istry, "Energy Relationships in Enzyme Reactions," "The Diffusion of
Electrolytes and Macromolecules in Solution."
Six Honorary Life Members, 2 Life Members, 5 Sustaining Mem-
bers, 129 Active Members, 56 Associate Mf.'mbers and 6 Student Mem-
bers were added t() the r()lls, of whi('h 200 aro now in good standing
and 4 await qualification through payment of dues. Thus, a total of
204 new Members was a.dded during the year. Two Sustaining Mem-
bers were transferred to Life Membership, having paid duos for twenty-
five years. There are at present upon the rolls of the Academy 2,076
Members, of whom 311 are Fellows, classified as follows: 1 Patron,
92 Life Members, 122 Sustaining Members, 1,163 Active Members, 622
Associate Members, 31 Student Members, 45 Honorary Life Members.
The Editor reported that, since the last Annual Meeting, The New
York Academy of Sciences published 1,022 pages to date. Of this
amount, 474 pages are published in the Annals, 202 pages in the Porto
Rico Survey and 346 pages in the Tra.nsactions. In addition to the
THE NEW YORK ACA.DEMY OF SCIENCES 73
articles already published, Articles 1 and 2 of Volume 46 are in the
hands of the Editor and are being prepared for the printer.
The detailed list of the publications issued during the year is as
follows:
A.NNALS
Volume 44, Article 6-"Psychosomatic Disturbances in Relation to Personnel
Selection" by Lawrence K. Frank, M. R. Harrower-Erickson, Lawrence S.
Kubie.J., Gardner Murphy. Donal Sheehan, and Harold G. Wolff. Pages 639-
624. rublished December 22. 1943.
This completes Volume 44
Volume 45, Article 2-"Lycll.enida.e of the Antilles," by William P. Commock and
E. Irving Huntington. Pages 49-130. Published December 29, 1943.
Volume 45, Article 3-"Ncw Methods in Stellar Dynamics," by S. Chandrasekhar.
Pages 131-162. Published December 31, 1943.
Volume 45, Article 4-"Studics on Fresh-Water Bryozoa. XIV. The Occurrence of
Btolella indica in North America," by Mary D. Rogick. Pages 163-178. Pub-
lished December 31. 1943.
Volume 45, Article 5-IIThe Social Behavior of the Laughing Gull," by G. K.
Noble and M. Wunn. Pages 179-220. Published December 31, 1943.
Volume 45, Article 6-"Expt'rimental Modification and Control of Molts and
Changes of Coat-Color in W(.'ll.IICls by Controlled Lighting," by Thomas B,
Bissonnette and Earl E. Bailey. Pages 221-260. Published April 7, 1944.
Volume 45: Article 7-"The Distribution of the Salamanders of the Genus
Plethoaon in EaRtrrn Unit('d States and Canada," by Arnold B. Grobman.
Pages 261-316. Publish('d Mar 9, 1944.
Volume 45, Article s-uThe Orgallll!ation of The New York Academy of Scienoes."
Revised to AUg1lSt 1, 1944 by Eunice Thomas Miner, Executive Secretary.
Pages 317-356. Published September 7,1944.
Volume 45, Article 9-Cl Energy Relationships in Enzyme Reactions," by Joseph S.
Fruton, Eric G. Ball, Max Bergmann, Herman M. KalckerJ. Otto Meyerhof and
Carl V. Smythe. Pages 357-436. Published November 1u,l944.
This completes Volume 45
POltTO RICO SURVEY
Volume 12, Part 4-"Inseets of Porto Rico aDd the Virgin Islands-Rhopalocera or
ButterBies," by William P. Comstock. PageS 421-622. Published October 12,
1944.
TRANSACTIONS
Series lX, Volume 6, Nos. 1-8t..oonaisting of 346 pages, was completed, printed
and distributed each month from ~ovember, 1943 to Junt',l944 inclusive.
The Librarian reported that, the Academy has distributed, in re-

sponse to requests and orders, 38,993 separate publications and 2,169
complete volumes of Transaotions, Series II, as follows: Annals, 32,943 i
Scientific Survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands, 891; SpeciaZ
PubZications, Volume I, "Climate and Evolution," 121; Volume II,
"Balinese Character," 251; and Transactiona, Series II, Volume 5, com-
74 TRANSACTIONS
pIt,to voluml's, 2,169, and 4,787 billP;I(' ('opi(,l!I.

The Ubrnry of tht' A('uli('my hUH rN'('iwd from (>xdmng(' institu~
tiunH, 1,295 h<'pnrat(' puhlicatiullH.
'I'llt' Tn'Bbur<.'f l't'}lo)"wd thnt til!' A('nd('my hillS just C'omplet(>d the
InOl$t suc('ctlsful financial y<'ttl' in ittl hil!tory, in its r('('('il'tA from mOlll-
bl'rHhip support Itnd I:lttl('H (If puhlicltt,iolls.
'I'h(' totul income rc('<.'iV<.'u from !'tIl S()UrC('H amounted to $26,626.53.
This il:l an inercas(.' (If $1,197.37 aboV<' t.hat of 194a.
The Academy hal:! added 204 n('w nmues to its rolls thus adding a
gaiu of $900.30 to our rcvenue from m<.'nlh(\rElhip ducs, making a total
of $8,745.30 from this 80\11'('0.
Receipts from sa)(.'1:l of pub1iC'lttions amounted to $8,253.66, an in-
crease of $2,830.50 OWl' Lhat of last year.
The income from inv('stmcntR, amounting to $3,696.13 represents
a yield slightly lesl::l than 4.6%.
A contribution of $1,500 was received from Mr. William Otis
Sweet, a Sustaining Member of the Academy, who rcquel:lted the estll.b~
lishment of the William Otis Swect Fund, the exact, definition of which
is to be made later.
Included in the debit balance of $1,905.30 of the Surplus Account is
$633.29 carried over from 1943; $1,001.93 covering advance payments
on publications which will be chnrged against publication funds in 1945;
and, $270.08, the balance remaining when all further payments on ac-
count were terminated by the Bank of United States in Liquidation.
This latter amount WItS written off the Academy's books by Council
authority.
'l'he book value of the Academy's properLy, as of Novembcr 30,
1944, now amountl::l to $84,878.61 j of which $76,615.89 is in stooks and
bonds; $867.25 is a. mortgage bond; and the remainder, $6,567.35 is
represented by ca.sh in bank, a portion of which is awaiting reinvest-
ment.
The books of the Treasurer were duly checked and balanced at the
end of the fiscal year, November 30, 1944, and have boen audited by
the Finance Committee, a.s provided by the Constitution and By-Laws.
The property of the Academy was verified and the Treasurer's
report examined and a.ttested by the Finance Committee, as of Decem-
ber 6, 1944.
The A. Cressy Morrison Prizes of two hundred dollars each, for the
two most acceptable papers in any field of natural science, within the
scope of the Academy and its Affiliated Societies, were awarded to the
following papers, entitled:
"The Effect of Activity on the Latent Period of Muscular
Contraction," by Alexander Sandow, Department of Biology, New
York University, New York, New York.
"A Hitherto Undemonstrated Zoogleal Form of Mycobac-
terium tuberculosis," by Eleanor Alexander-Jackson, Department
of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Cornell University
Medical College, New York, New York.
The two following papers, because of their general excellence, were
awarded Honorable Mention by the Committee of Judges:
"Respiration and Germination Studies of Seeds in Moist Stor-
age," by Lela V. Barton, Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant
Research, Yonkers, New York.
"An Early Aite in Cayuga County, New York; Type Station of
the Frontenac Focus, Archaic Pattern," by William A. Ritchie,
Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences, Rochester, New York.
The Prize Committce begs to congratulate the authors of these
papers, on behalf of the Academy.
The Committee takes great pleasure in announcing that Mr. Mor-
rison has renewed his offer of two additional prizes in Natural Science,
of $200 each, for the two most acceptable papers in a field of science
covered by the Academy or an Affiliated Society, to be awarded in
December, 1945. The terms of competition will be published in the
next issue of the Tramactiom.
The following members were elected to Fellowship:
Thcodorp Mead Abel, Ph.D. J<~th('lBl'ownt> Harvey, Ph.D
Jerome Alexand('r, M.s. }<}lvin A. Kllbat, Ph.D.
M. L. Anson, Ph.D. Vladimir Karapetoft', D.Mus., Sc.D.
Conrad. Arcnebcrg,_ Ph.D. Gcorgn E. Kimball, PhD.
Harriet Babeock, Ph.D. Edwin Kirk, Ph.D
Boris A. Bakhmeteff. C.E., D.E. Maurice E. Krahl. PhD.
R. Bowling Bo.rnt's, Ph.D. Geo~e_Lawton PhD.
Charles H. Bebre, Jr.• Ph.D. Otto Marburg, MD.
Willia.m C. Boyd, Ph.D. Ht>rman F. M8.!.Js Ph.D.
Arthur M. Buswell Ph.D. Valy Menkin M.D.
Eben J. Carey. SeD., M.D. Howard C. Moloy. MD.
Edward H. Cox, D.sc. Hans Neurath, Ph.D.
H. Jermam Creighton, SoD. Willard Z. Park, PhD.
John R. Dunning, PhD. Edith H. Quimby. Sc.D.
Isidore Fankuehen. Ph.D. Marie Reimer, Ph.D.
Joseph S. Fruton, Ph.D. RobertSimha. Ph.D.
Lester H. Germer, Ph.D. Maude Slye. SeD.
E. Newton Harvey, Ph.D. H. B. Van Dyke, Ph.D.• M.D.
76 TRANSACTIONS
Honorary I,ife Memberl:!hip was conferred. upon the following

eminent scientists:
Robert II. I,owi('. Anthropology. Pro{cSRor of Anthropology, Univl'rsity of Cali~
fornia, B('rkt'l('y, California. Ph.D .• Columbia Univ~l'fIity, 1908; Sc.D., Univcr.
I'lity of Chicago. 1941.
PUlIl Ni~li, Min('ralogy, Petrography. l)rofC'liHor. Mint'ralogy. Zurich University
and Federal 1ll8titut.e of T<"ChnololO'. Dij)loma in Natural Sciences; Ph.D.,
University of Zurich; Dr. Fdlg. (H.C.). Ehrenbiirger technische folkschule,
Carlsruh~. Zurich, 1933; D.sc. (H.C.), Technische folkschule l Stuttgart, 1933;
D.sc. (H.C.), Umversity of Geneva, 1935; DoSc. (H.C.). Umvcl'tlity of Buda-
~Ilt. Res('arch Fellow, Carnegie Institution of Washington. Awarded Silver
Medal in Sciences, Federal IIIlItitutt' of TElchnology; Pretlid('nt. Geotechnical
Commission of the Swiss Society for Natural Scit'ncc Research.
Florence Sabin, Ana.tonlY, Pathology. Ml'mb('r, Rockef(,llcr Inl:it.itute for Medica.!
Research, 1921h18 Emeritus Member. 1938-, New York, N.Y. Sc.D., Smith
Colle~, 1910; M.b., Johns Hopkins M('dical School, 1900; SeD., University
of MIchigan, 1926; Mt. IIolyoke College. 1929; New York University, 1933;
Wilson Colle~, 1933; Univefliity of Syracuse. 1934; Oglethorpe University,
1935; Universlty of Colorado, 1935; University of PennllYlvania, 1937; Oberlin
Collt'go, 1937 i RU8I!Cll Sage Collegp, 1938; LL.D., Gouch('r College, 1931.
Awarded NatIonal Achievement Award, 1932 and M. Cary Thomas Prize,
Bryn Mawr, 1935.
The following officers were elected for the year 1945:
For President
WALTER H. BUCHER
For Vice-Presidents
MABSHALL KAy RAYMUND L. ZWEMEB
ANNE RoE JOSl!lPB S. hUTON
HORTENSE POWDJlll'tMAXEB RAYMOND B. MONTGOMERY
For Recording Secretary
MICHAEL HEIDELBERGER
For Corresponding Secretary

H. HEasERT JOIIN90N
For Trea8urer
DONALD BELCHER
For Libra:ria:n. For Editor
BAltNUM B:aowN Roy W. MINma
For 001/,nctlora (1946-1941)
RALPH H. CHENEY
RoBmT CUSHMAN M'O'BPBY HERBERT F. SCBWABZ
For Finance Oommittee
lIABDEN F. TAYLOR, Ohairman.
lIARay B. VAN DY.Dl ADmsoN WJilBB
After the Business Meeting, the following address was delivered
by the speaker of the evening:
IIPolymers and Light"

by
PETERDEBYE
Pro/essor 0/ Chemist1'1l. ComeU Unlversity

(Illustrated)
PoiymcrH arc giant molecules, although in general still too small to be seen
with an ordina.ry microscope. Their unusual size or shape together with a. peculial'
flexible structure, which many of them possess, are mainly responsible for out-
&tandin~ techni('al properties of the finished product (Example: Rubber).
When light passes through a solution of such polymers a small part is'scattered
analogous to the part of the sunlight scattered in our atmosphere, giving us the
impression of a blue sky. The address deals with the aDllWer to the question a.s
to how measurements on the strcngth and distribution of the scattered light from
polymer solutions can be used to determine size and shape of these invisible
particles.
(Ab.tract by the Speaker)
78 TRANSACTIONS
Al,i'.XANmllt HANll()W, })('p!\rt.mC'llt.. (l f Bioloey I WIlllhingt.on Square Col-

l<'g(~ of Arts and Srielloc, New York UnivcrRity: Tlte Effect of
ArtitJity on the IJatcnt Period of MusruLar Contrartion.* (A.
Oresl:IY Morrillon Prize Winner, 1944.) (Abstract.)
Thil:l r~'s('arch (kalA with the ('[et'ts of a lllUbClc'1! activity on the
various f('ltturcs of thut part or the ('ontru('tile response knowll as the
Incchnnicnl Intent period-the tilll(, interval between the instant of
appli('ation of a stimulus to the muscle fiber!! and the instant at which
the first l3ign of tension developmc'nt uppearl:l. In fl'Og skeletal muscle,
thil:1 inwrvallasts about 3 ml:l. Hince fI hurst of ('ontrn('tlle activity of a
muscle not only alLers the latency behavior in subsequent contractions,
but !LIIIO causes mnrkcd and quite well-known ('hangc's in the muscle's
internal chemical milieu, the possibility ILriHes of attempting to
E'lucidatc the nature of the latent period in the light of the correlation
between the activity-induced latency and chemical effects.
The latest period is not, as has been generally thought, a time of
complete mechanical quiescence. It was first demonstrated by Rauh,
in 1922, that a frog skeletal muscle actually relaxes very slightly dur-
ing the latter part of its latent period, just prior to the developnlent of
tension. This ('latency relaxation" (abbreviated LR) involves a maxi-
mum negative tension change in frog sartorii of 10-20 mg., i.e., only
about 0.050/0 of the positive tension at the peak of a twitch. This is
s() minute-the equivu.l<.>nt LR increase in muscle length being only
about 0.1 I'-that ev('n the most sensitive mechll.no-optic·a) muscle
registering levers ('an lu~rdly do more than d(·tect the ('lu-tllge. It has
th(·rf.'fore been n('(,E'l:1sary to clcviAC for the pr('A('nt f('HCI\r('h a new, eleo-
tronic, method for recording till' LR Thill involves the cOllversion of
the Inten(.'y m('('hnni('nl ('vent!! into nn ('l(,(,tric pU)flC 1>y menns of a
piezoelectri(' pickup (at'tually the working unit of it crystal phonograph
pickup) and the amplification of this pulll<' so ns to a('tuate a cathode-
ray oscillograph. The apparatus is in etrect an electronic lever which,
with a magnification factor of about 500,OOOX presents the minute
LR pre-contractile elongation as a deflection of some 5 em. on the
cathode-ray screen. Measurement of photographs of such deflections
permit LR alterations to be determined with a precision of ± 0.1 mg.
tension, or equivalent ± 0.002 f.' length, change. A time calibration
• Researeh supported In part by a grant from the Penrolle Fund of the
American Phllosophical Soeiet).
impressed on ea('h latency re('ord enables time intervals to be read with
a pre('i!lion of t 0 02 nUl.
All th(' eXlwrimelltli of the present study have been done on frog
sartorii sUbpen<il'd, und('r an initial tension of about 3 gm., in the moist
air of a muscl(' rhambt'r at temperatures of from 22° to 25° C. The
muscles have been activated by either a tetanus, a series of tctani, a
series of twitrhcR, or certain combinations of these, and the correspond-
ing latency changC's determined.
It has been found that activity in any amount, even a single twitch,
causes an immediate reduction in R, the depth of the LR. The greater
the extent of the activity, the greater is the decrease in R, so that, after
a series of, say, fifteen 2 sec. tetani, R is reduced to about 10% of its
pre-artivity value. The time interval between the instants of stimula-
tion and of the beginning of the latency relaxation, LR , is not affected by
activity unlel::!s the muscle has been brought to a stage of advanced
fatigue, when La tends to increase.
The rC'sults concerning the latency for positive tension development
-the true mechanical latent period-, LT , are more complex. (Ac-
tually, LT consists of a set of three latencies, each measured from the
instant of stimulation to a particular instant within the time during
which the LR develops and is reversed by the earliest increments of
tension rise. These LT's, however, always vary in parallel and, for the
present needs, it is not necessary to distinguish between them. LT will
therefore be used here to symbolize the duration of the mechanical
latent period.) Due to slight activity, 5 or 6 successive twitches at 3
se(" intervals, LT increases by at most 0.2 to 0.3 ms; further activity,
amounting to 4 or 5 successive 2 sec. tetani, then causes Lr to decrease
by as much as 0.5 ms.; any still further activity results in increases in
LT up to or even beyond the original prc-activity values. All of the
activity changes listed above are, in general, reversed by rest.
It is known that the LR is a function of myosin, the contractile
protein, and the present researoh proves, furthermore, that the changes
in the latency variables caused by activity are not due to e:tiects on the
excitatory aspects of the response, which, if they occurred, might con-
ceivably be reflected in contractile modifications, but are due to the
direct effect of the activity on some feature of the contractile complex
of the musole.
In searching for the particular contractile feature that is involved,
the interpretation of the results concerning R and La have not been
80 TRANSAC'l'IONS
very helpful. The IJ'r r(,Hulttl, however, 1'1'(' v('ry liUggl'l'Itivc. The
(\baugcf:l in LT, duc to nctivit,y lm<i I!ubtlcqu('nt rest, show a striking
correlation with the ('om'sc of the pH changes t,hnt other workers have
dCIllonl:itrat.cd in frog muscles activntcd similarly to those in our cxpcri-
lllcnUi. The genC'rnl conclusi()n d('ri vable from this correlation is that
the tension latency is shorter, the higher the pH of the muscle. It
thus follows that the rate of some proccs!:! that is directly involved in
determining the speed of tenHion ril:ie is greater, the more alkaline the
mUHele. Since the hydrolysis of admosinc-triphosphate (ATP), un-
doubtedly an impol'bmt 80ur<'e of energy for muscular processes, is
known to illcrt"aS(l in rnt.c with increase in pH (up to about pH 9.0), and
since other relevant muscle reactions do not, have this property, it is
inferred that the hydrolysis of ATP is the proress that directly deter-
mines the rate of rise of tension. This infl'rcn('c thus indicates that the
ellcrgization of myosin, the contractile protein, occurs during the ac-
tivation (i.e., latent and contraction) periods of a muscular response,
and not, as some believe, during the recovery phases of the rCl:!ponse.
Furthermore, this inference, and some othol' implications of the data,
are shown to be in accord with a particular con('('ption of the energizing
mechanism in muscle previously pr()posed by the author, that the LR
is a mechanical sign of a tension-induction prO(,(,88 involving coupling in
the form of an enzyme-substrate combination of myosin and ATP dur-
ing the existence of which the energy of the first phosphate bond of the
ATP is transferred to the myosin, thus energizing it and activating it for
contraction.
ELEANOR ALEXANDER-JACKSON, Department of Public Health and Pre~

ventive Medicine, Cornell University Medical College: A Hitherto
Undemonstrated ZoogleaZ Form of Mycobactenum Tuberculo8i8.
(A. Cressy Morrison Prize Winner, 1944.) (Abstract.)
The existence of non-acid-fast forms of Mycobacterium tuberculom
has been recognized at least as far back as 1900, but the reproductive
role played by them has been variously interpreted by many observers.
At the prelSCnt time, there are four main schools of thought.
The first school regards non-acid-fast rods and granules as degen-
erative in nature since they are to be found in old cultures, and the sup-
porters of this view claim that they were unable to observe any mode of
reproduction other than binary fission.
The second school includes those who believe in the filterability of
certain elements of this organism.
The third school includes those who, while unable to demonstrate
filterable forms, are of the opinion that the non-acid-fast rods and
granules are in many instances young organisms which have not as yet
developed acid-fastness, but later on develop into acid-fast rods. The
adherents of this latter group agree that binary fission may be the
common method of reproduction, but find that non-acid-fast granules,
obtained through segmentation, either elongate or sprout into the rod
forms of Mycobacterium tubercul08is.
Finally, there is a group that regards non-acid-fast forms, in many
instances, as artifacts brought into being by injury suffered by the
microtome knife or by manipulative damage with the platinum loop in
preparing slides for staining. The conclusions drawn from their work
are vitiated by the fact that the authors describe a technic so different
from those usually employed in producing stained preparations that no
comparison can be made.
In this paper, the author demonstrates that:
Mycobacterium tuberculom can exist not only as rods or granules,
but also as a zoogleal plasmodium consisting of granules or larger
globoid bodies surrounded or enmeshed by amorphous material.
These zoogleal forms are not revealed by the usual stain technics
(unless acid-fast). They are made observable by a new staining
technic described by the author.
82 TRANSACTIONS
ZoogINt.1 iorIM have been obs('rved rep('atedly in unstained mate-

rial, as well as in preparationR 8tl~ined by the tripl<' stain method.
Aingh.'-c('U studit.'s and ele('tfou mifroscope photographs of maUl-
terial from purC' culturcFI, indi<ltl.te that loogl('ul forms, und('r suitable
envir()nmental c()nditionR, are I\bl0 to rev('rt to rod fonm and vice
ver8a..
It has beC'n ObsCfVI...'<i that diphtheoids are also able U) enter a
zoogleal state, and to revert to rod formH.
The demonstration of forms which are not revealed by the usual
technic, may throw some light on the question of the apparent disap-
pearance of add-falilt bacilli Of their paucity during the course of some
tuberculous infections.
Much additional work with botb PUf€, ('ultures and clinical mate-
rial is n('cessary to understand more fully the part pla.yed by the
zooglesl forms in tuberculouR infer.tion. W(' li!till do not know just
whut happens to the organisms when acid-fast bncilli diHt1Jlpear from
sputum in arrested cases, only to reap}lt.'sr in Inrge numbers with the
return of aetive disease. Are most of thcm destroyed, or does s portion
of them undergo a dissociative change in response to an environment
temporarily unfavorable to the maintenance of the chara.cteristic rod
form of Mycobacterium tl.lberculo.,i.~~ Another mystery is the diffi-
culty, at times, of finding a.ny acid-fast bacilli in staim'd preparations
from pathological material where ono would exp('ct to find lllany. Fre-
quently a definite diagnosis of tuberculosis is dt'lItycd by failure to find
typical r('d-staininp; rods until Flome time aft/t'r the firFlt lahoratory
examination.
In apprOl\(lhing these pTohh'lnll, th€' writt')' iii! oIlly tot) well aware
of the gr('I~t diffi('ultieH which li(' almlj!, til<' Pltt.il, U }lltth mad(l thorny
by th(~ (,V(,l' present dnngcr of (·onfuliinp. tll(' "rolLl thing" with non-
tuberculous elementl:l-in particular, tIl(' diphtlwroids. The utmost
carc, therefore, was taken to exclude their pr(;,l:I('no(', and to maintain a
stoic skepticism until repeat.ed ('}oRe observationH had been made. The
work described above covers a ten-year period.
LELA V. BARTON, Boyee Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Inc.:
Respiration and Germination Studies of Seeds in Moist Storage."
(Honorable M(.'ntion, A. Cressy Morrison Prize Competition,
1944.) (Abstract.)
There are many published reports of seeds that were supposed to
have been buried in the soil for decades and yet remained dormant and
viable. Most of these accounts have been based on the appearance of
plants not common to the region on newly excavated or plowed soil.
Similar observations have been made recently for bombed areas in
Great Britain. Any gardener will testify to the continued reappear-
anee of weeds in his garden in spite of careful elimination of the seed-
lings as they appear year after year. The results of controlled seed
burial tests conducted by several workers have confirmed these general
condusions. This means that the soil is stocked with seeds which are
capable of germination when they are disturbed. Some of these seeds
which possess hard coats finally germinate when fungi and bacteria or
low temperature have caused Lhe deterioration or the cracking of the
impermeable part of the coat. Many other seeds, especially weeds,
which do not have hard coats remain fully imbibed in the soil for long
periods. Amaranthu8 and Rumex are among the latter. They have
been shown to remain viable under these conditions for forty years.
Their dormancy or failure to germinate must be due to a very delicate
equilibrium, for it can be overcome by many factors, such as light,
fluctuating temperatures of the top soil, mechanical disturbance, or
oxygen supply. When seeds take up water preparatory to germination,
their metabolic activities become greatly accelerated. It is evident
that imbibed seeds could not remain viable very long in tlle soil unless
definite curtailment of these activities took place. No actual meas-
urement of this curtailment has ever been reported.
Respiration studies on seeds of Amaranthus retroftexus L., Rumex
obtusifolius L., and Impatiens balsamina L., held moist and without
germination, were conducted. This involved the development of a new
¥chnique to permit the measurement of the oxygen consumed and the
carbon dioxide evolved by dormant seeds. Germination tests, the
results of which demonstrated the delicate nature of the mechanism
imposing such dormancy, are also included.
Gaseous exchange of Amaranthus retroftexus seeds, measured at
intervals of from 0 to 901 days of moist storage at 200 C., showed at
least a ten-fold reduction in respiration. The beginning of this reduc-
84 TRANSACTIONS
t,ion became a.pparent very ('arly (after two days), and was definite
nft.C'r ('ight days in moist storage. })e('rcased respiration was also noted
for Impati6M ba18amina sceds held moist at 20° C. for 28 to 365 days.
With inert'ascd length of time in moist storage, the respiratory quotient
decrenscu.
Beeds of A,naranthu.s retroftexus lwld in moist storage showed a
periodicity in germination which was apparently independent of exter-
nal conditions. This indicated varying degrees of the primary dor-
mun<lY or the induced secondary dormancy of the original lot of seeds.
Moist AmaranthU3 seeds held without germination at 20° C. could be
induced to germinate at that same temperature by rubbing, by drying
for three hours to three days, or by exposure to 35° C. for 2 to 24 hours.
Germination also proceeded immediately after removal to higher con-
stant or alternating temperatures.
Moist seeds of Rumex obtusifoli'U8, held without germination at
30° C., could be made to germinate at this same temperature by re-
moval of the coats, treatment with concentrated sulphuric acid for
two minutes, or exposure to 5° C. for four days. Upon removal from
30° C. to lower constant temperatures or daily alternating tempera-
tures, germination proceeded without further treatment.
Many variable factors which doubtless affect the life span of seeds
in soil were not present in the controlled experiments reported here.
However, these studies indicate some of the fundamental changes which
take place in Beeds during moist storage and mlly serve 801:1 a beginning
for further investigations.
WILLIAM A. RITCHIE, Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences: An

Early Site in Cayuga County, New York; Type Station of the
Frontenac Focus, Archaic Pattern. (Honorable Mention, A.
Cressy Morrison Prize Competition, 1944.) (Abstract.)
This paper constitutes the formal report of two seaSODS (1939-
1940) of excavation work conducted by the writer on an archaeological
site of exceptional richness and significance to New York prehistory.
His previous researches in the state had defined two discrete archaeol-
ogical horizons (Lamoka and Brewerton Laurentian) pertaining to a
prehorticultural and preceramic time-level, designated the Archaic,
with vague suggestions of a partial temporal overlap. At Frontenac
Island, there appeared, for the first time, clear evidence of the contact
of these different peoples and cultures, resulting in a composite new
culture, termed the Frontenac Focus of the Archaic Pattern.
The materials found and presented for analysis included nearly
2,000 industrial artifacts (from midden and graves) , 159 human burials,
and numerous other features, as dog burials, hearths, pits, and simple
stone structures.
Typological studies of the midden artifacts and site histograms to
show their distribution revealed the occurrence of a superficial upper
zone congeries, undifferentiated by physical stratigraphy, which per-
tained to a relatively little known culture termed the Point Peninsula
Focus. The genetically unrelated culture of the much deeper lower
zone proved, on analysis, to be composed very largely of the diagnostic
and linked traits of the Lamoka (28.8%) and Brewerton Laurentian
(25.8%) cultures, with the addition of 20,4% of novel traits. Detailed
distributional studies showed for this complex no variation in typology
as a function of depth; hence, the Archaic level of the site appeared to
indicate, not a succession of the constituent cultures, but an amalgama-
tion thereof, pertaining essentially to one time horizon.
•' The assessing of the mortuary data (belonging almost exclusively
to the Archaic occupation) for their contribution to the interpretation
of the site involved the ascertaining of correlations relative to (1)
mode and order of burial; (2) cranio-Iogical character of the restorable
and mensurable skulls (45 in number); and (3) occurrence and
typology of mortuary or grave goods. The following facts were estab-
lished: (1) All modes of inhumation noted, viz., flexed, extended, crems-
86 TRANSACTIONS
tion, nnd bundl(.", wt'rE' simultau('ouHly prarti(,(·tl throoghout the Archaic

timc rang!', as dt't(."rmincci by multip}(' and t:lupcrimpolilcd burials. (2)
Thrc(' ('ffminl group!4, whi('h mtLy lit' d(,l:lignat<'d the dolichocranial
(group 1), lll<'ho('rnnial (group 2), :tnd hrlt('hyrrnninl (group 3),
wl'r(' m(·tri(·t~lly uncI incli(·u.lly dit:ltingl.liMlwd. The firl:lt is ('haracteristic
of til{' IJamoka It'O('UIiI, tlu.' third of til(' Hr('w('rL()n Laurentian Focus, the
h('('ond S(I('ms to bt' the hybrid pl'odu(·t nf miH(·('gcnatioIl. A morpho-
logical analYl:lis of th(' cntil'(.' l:I('ril' !4 shows two distint>t typCI:l: typc 1,
(.'()nforming to tht' Indian Knoll Hylvidl.i; tyP(' 2, provil:lion(tlly of the
Younge type Sylvidfl (both typC'd by N(·umnnn). Group 1 and type 1
corr('h~h\ p<,rf('C'tly, Ill! clo Il,roul) 3 nnd typr 2. Bot.h type's or cur in the
mCl:locranial, p;roup 2.
A moMraw d('gfl'e of ('()rrt·lation ('Xifltli bctwel'n phYHi(,1t1 type and
burinl mo<il'. Type 1 Ilkulll:l Wertl Il.tII!Ot'iatt:'d with nt'ltrIy twil.'e as many
fiext'd burials all type 2 skullfl, and, ('onv('rs('ly, typ<' 2 ('rlmia occurred
with on('-third more ext<>nti('d tlkelt'tons than did type 1 crania.
Rome correlation also ill evident when burial mode, physical form,
and typology of grave goods are considered. Orave goods of Lamoka
culture were associated principally with flcxed burials and type 1
crania, grave goods of Brewerton Laurentian type occurred almost
exclusively with extended burials and type 2 crania, while grave goods
combining deterministic traits of both the Lamoka and Brewerton
Laurentian foci were found only with t'xt(>nded burials producing skulls
of both morphologiral types.
Several alternative hypotheses wt'rc tested in the light of the com-
plete analytical data, resulting in tIl(> following con('l\lfliona: The lower
component at Frontcna(' IHland reprt'st'ntfl the rmnpoflite pro(luot of two
discrete Archaic (lulturol:l of the N(.'w York t\r('a, llilJllokl\ and Brewerton
JJaurcntian, with their equally dil:ltin('tiv(' (·thllic correlattls; but, within
this mixed populat.i()n, cultural int(>gratioll (as well D.R physical
amalgamation) was not complct.e, old traits and customil still in part
prevailing in combination. There seems also to have been some
dominance of the Brewerton Laurentian complex over the simpler and
probably older Lamoka paradigm.
Not only does the Frontenac Focus bridge the hiatus in our Archaic
sequence, but it also discloses the earliest appearance of a number of
constituent traits of the later Woodland and Hopewellian manifesta-
tions. It may also be compared profitably with the Shell-Mound
Aspect of t,he Archaic Pattern of the southeastern United States.
TRANSACTIONS
of
SER. II, VOL. 7 FEBRUARY, 1945 No.4
SECTION OF BIOLOGYl
JANUARY 8, 1945
DOCTOR T. C. Abso<'iate Professor of Physiology, and DOCTOR
BAUNES,
R. BEUTNER, Professor of Pharmacology, Hahnemann Medical
College and HOI;pital, Philadelphia, Pa.: Electrical Pul8ations in
the Human Brain.
(This lecture was illustrated by motion pictures.)
Elcetro('ncephnlogJ'aphy il:l the study of electrical waves recorded
through wh'cll placed on the scalp. These waves are believed to come
from the (,(·rebml cortex, but deeper brain currents are known to spread
upward to the electrodes as in subtentorial lesions. The normal fre-
quency is 8 to 40 s~onds and the normal voltage, 5 to ';5 microvolts.
The 10 per second waves arc called alpha; slower, deUa; and faster,
beta; but they arc the same waves at different speeds.
A one year old child has wave!:l of less than 4 per second. Foetal
brain waV<'s have been recorued Ull'ough the mother's abdominal wall
and are similar to tlw c('ntml wn ves of the neonate. Electrical ma-
turity it; atLained ut the ttge of 12 in thc visual or occipital regions.
There is slight am·(·leration to the age of 18 in other areas. Brain
wave!:! of V('1"y aged paLic·n1.1:l are p<'rft'cUy normal. Like Peter Pan, we
never grow olel. According to Oolllt, Lhe oc:cipitul waves of women are
faster th:m those of m('n, indicating t.hat women o.re more keenly aware
of their immeuiate AUl'l'oundinp;td.
TRANSAC'rIONS OF The Nrw YOlk ACllUCmy of Sci~OI'I!, Saries II, Volume 7, No.4, Fob-
rnarv, 1945.
ThIS pubhcntion is diHtrlhutt'u to Mt'mbcrs nnu is pllbliHht'u monthlv from November to June,
inclus.IVt', Ilt 109 W<'Ht Chl'lltnut Htll'(·t, Lnncftllter, Pa., by The Now YOI'k Academy of Sciences,
Seventy-mnth Stu'!'I, and CMlhnIl'alk Wl'IIt, New York Ctty.
Behoor: !tov Waldo MlDl'r.
E't~'lItivr HI'Clt'fllfY: J~unic'l' Thomn~ Mint'l'.
EIILf'H'<! 8M second-rla,a matter Vecember 2, 1938, at tho post office at. Laneaster, Pa., under
the 8ct of AugUlit 24, 1912.
NOTE: This numbet' contains the A. Cressy Morrison 1946 Prize Contest
Announbement. (See Page 101.)
87
88 'l'UANSACTIONB
H01111' ('!<'('lr()('lW('pha}op,l'Ilph('rH daim that, ('ort'('lntioll ('xiHts he-

twern ill(' frN1Uf'l\ry of hmin ,\ Un'H awl IwrHmmlity tYIl(·. A('('()r<iing
to tinHI und llltviH, tlw fUkt tYIl(' (If hl'ain wlm' ituli('atp8 It dynamic
prl'f..()llftlity i HI(' hlow typP, a pal'lHiw, d('pl'ncl('nt pNHotutlity.
Tligh alphlLs ttrl' bt ntit:,tit'ully pronc to ~tHtlllnl1 and ul('('r. In
~l'll()()lb()ys, what iii ('OIu:·dfi('rt'd tt poor pcrtl()u:tlity by the te(t('ll('r is
ullually aI:!Ho('iat('d with slow WttV<'S. A hip,h pel'centttge of delinquent
rhildrt'n havc I:!low wa.v('s. Many phYl:!iologi(' ('ouclitionll influl·nc<.' the
br!till wavcs, f.'Hpccially blood Rugal'. We have foun(} a critical valu(' of
130 mg. %. H It normal pl'l'hOn hUR a blood I'IUp,ttr ht'low this, hyper-
v('ntilation will produce d('lta WIW('S in ltlOHt (':IRes. Bloo<ll:lugar I:!hould
b(' tuken with ('[I.rh ('It·(·tl'O(·IW('llh:tlogmm. 'The' vaIu(', at the timc of
th(' test, is significnnt, for it inclient(·s h()w llIuch I>ugar is going to the
braiu. The sugar pro<!ul'(;'1:! tho C'll(,l'ey of the bruin ltnd it may take
place in the carbohydrat<.' cyrie yh'lding u,('('ti(' Mid, which combincs
with choline, forming acetylcholin('.
We have produced artifidal electrical brain waves by bringing
acetylcholine into contact with brnin ('xtraet. This work is a continu-
ation of Dr. Beutncr's lifc-Iong work on phase boundary potentia.ls.
This type of wOl'k has been completely neglccted by neurophysiologists.
For many years, oils, such as nitrob<.'nz('ne, guaiuroI, cresol, were used
in the oil cell to test the electrical activity of drugs and hormones.
In the last few weeks, we have succeeded in establishing a potential
between acetylcholine and cholesterol. Cholesterol is Itn extract from
the spinal cord, but cannot be used in its cryst:1.11ine form. A solvent
had to be found which, in itsclf, would p;ive no ('lcc&rical phasc boun-
dary with acctylt,holinc,-would dissolve cholellu'l'ol, conduct the our M
rent, have a density approximatt'ly thnt of water. Aftt'r a long sNtrch,

benzyl alcohol was found to satisfy thcl:le requirements, but it will not
dissolve more than about 2% chol('stel'ol. But this cholcstorol gives a
definite potential always negative with acctylcholine. It is known
that activity of the brain wavcs probably arises from liberation of
acetylcholine in the brain (stimUlation of the petrosal nerve in the cat).
Also the slowing of the waves during hyperventilation may be ascribed
to the alkalosis of acapnia. It is well known that the hydroxyl
ion hydrolyzes acetylcholine. During hyperventilation, the skin tem-
perature also falls, indicating vasoconstriction with attendant ccrebral
ischemia.
In diagnosis the electroencephalogram is a. valuable aid in the
localization of cerebral tumors. At the Mae.sachusetts General Hos~
pital, their records show un accuracy of 85% in localization of cerebral
tumors by the e.e.g. Th{' e.e.g. is nlso very useful in the study of epi-
leptics. In hend injury, the ('.e.g. will indicate if the brain has been
damaged. In encephalitis, large smooth waves are found. The e.e.g.
will also frequently detect malingering. Faked blindness and faked
amnesia show normal e.o.g.s.
Stimulating drugs, like benzedrine and epinephrine, produce a
slight increase jn frequency, while pentothal and morphine slow the
waves. Dilantin prevents the seizures of epilepsy and destroys the
epileptiform waves. Luminal, on the oth('r hand, has little effect on
the e.e.g.
The e.e.g. is of value in our war effort. Even evacuation hospitals
are now supplied with ('Iectroenc('phalographs. They are useful in de~
termining when a serviceman with h(,l1d injury can return to duty. In
one case, a young sailor WIlS found nsl('('p at his battle station. The
e.e.g. showed that he had sIt'eping sickness and so he was honorably
discharged. At induction centers, the e.o.g., is useful in borderline
cases, more so than in civilian lifo, owing to the attempts of some can-
didates trying to hide C'pilepsy and of others to fake pathologic con-
ditions.
90 'l'ltANSACTJONS
81·X)TION OF P~YClJOL()OY
JANUAlty 15, 1945

Doc'roB CLARK L. HULL, Institute of lIumtm U(>lntions, Yale Univer-
sity, New IlI.I.VCll, Corlll.: MOl at J'altt(s, BchavlOt"I.~m, and the
WorZd Crisis.
Whnt('vcr else it may })t', humnn conflict iuvolvel:! dhmgreelncnts,
and th('b(> ui::.agr(,(,lUclltS, at bottom, eonr('rn valueR in p;enorul and moral
VHlu('1:! ill partirular. 'I'll(' prcl:1('nt armed (·onfli(·t and world crisis is a
symptom, at 10a1:ll" of a moral and cthirul hrl·ttkdoWll on a huge scale.
Why is it. that tnt'u of vurioul:! dviliz('d culturcH ('!m ah'l'CC on matters of
pure science but 110t on ('oncrete mornl issu('s? The at.tempt to un-
derstand this great paradox naturally leads us to go back and reexamine
our ba.sic morlll and ethical principles, on the one hand, and our scien-
tific procedures on the other.
At the outset of our examination of the problem, we encounter the
question of the methodology according to which the investigation shall
be conducted. The methodology of metaphysical speculation will be
discarded at once, because of its historically demonstrated inability to
mediate agreement among men. For similar reasons, religious dogma-
tism will also be passed by in our quest. Upon the whole, history shows
that religion is about as likely to cause conflict as to prevent it. The
methodology of pure s('icn('e has, on the other hnnd, an ex('cllent record
of mcdiating 8I1.r('(·mcnL among the l:l('h'ntists of all civilized nations.
For this rcuson, muny lwo}>10 huw felt that w(' Hhould reexamine the
tnetho<i()logy of pure scicD(I<', to IlCC whItt p()R~ibi1ities it may offer for
understanding the nature of this age-old problem.
It. is at once clear iho.t tho probl<'m before us concerns principles
or theory, mther than fnet. Accoruingly, we turn for guidance in
methodology first to physical theory or mathemath'al physics as the
portion of scientific theory at present most perfectly developed. But
here we find a world of jumping electrons, on the one hand, and of
thcrmodYl'lamic equations, on the other. It is a little hard to see how
an electron could, as such, have any moral obligation to jump in one
direction rather than another. Similarly, it is equally hard to attach
any moral significance, as such, to the flowing of heat from a point of
high to a point of low temperature.
And so we might pass through the sciences, examining them one
by one for light on the problC'm of moral conduct. It is evident that,
somewhere in this hierarchy of the s('ienccs, we encounter the phenom~
ena of value in general and of moral vulue in particular. These phenom~
ena will hardly be found in the theory of heavy water, for example, but
they surely appear sOlllcwh('re among the biological or behavioral sci~
ences, ('ertainly below the level of cultural anthropology. It is my
opinion that ordinary food or "gut" values (incipient economic valua~
tive phenomena) have ('Iearly appeared at the level of lower mam~
malian behavior (e.g., the albino rat), and that moral valuative phe~
nomena have definitely appeared at the level of normal human be~
havior and possibly, to a small degree, among the higher anthropoids.
Since economic values are theoretically considerably simpler and
less charged with prejudi('e than are moral values, let us glance at them
first. Within the last twenty years the more important basic molar
laws whereby organisms come to value, i.e., strive for, certain objects,
substances, or conditions, have gradually become fairly clear. In gen-
eral, any act whieh is performed shortly before the reduction of a
primary need, like that concerned with food, water, pain, optimal tem-
perature, or sex, will be conditioned in such a wny that when the or-
ganism is again in that situation or one resembling it, and suffers from
that necd or one resembling it, that act will tend to be evoked. This
seems to be the basic molar law of conditioning or learning.
After habits have been set up in this manner, the organism, when
suitably motivated, will exert itself, i.c., will strive, not only to attain
food but to attain a stu.te of affairs which will lead to food either direct-
ly or indir(lctly. The consumption of physiological energy in the pur-
suit of such goals or ends may nc('ol'dingly b(' ('haraeterized as work or
striv'l.ng. Thus, g('neral1y Hpeo.king, that may be snid to be valued
which is strivcn for and, utiH'r ihinl,"S bC'ing equal, the maximum amount
of work which an organism will execute to attain a given reinforcing
state of affairs may he taken as an indication of the valuation of that
state of affairs by that organism. Here, then, we have the basis, not
only for an experimental science of value, but also for a theoretical
science of value.
In this connection, there may be recalled the relationship men-
tioned a little while ago between value theory and scientific theory.
For this reason, I shall pause briefly to remind you of the characteris-
tic methodology of scientific th('ory.
TRANSAC'rlONS
1. :-)(licntili(l Uwory bl'Ls uut with a ~(,t (a) of COD('('pts, nnd (b) of
IH'iplcH ()r hypoth(,twS t1(·riv(.'(l in one wuy {lr mlOthcr from observa-
1 of 011(' kind OJ' tLll()thcr.
2. Tlll'Hl' arc ol'V;l\uilwd into It 1:I(.'t 01 ddillitiollS anti postulates; the
,('1', ('sl)(,'cially, in un idt'al d('wlopmcnt, taking the form of equations.
3. If, UH'Il, II. given ~t,t of obscl'vuble dyJUunic conditions is as-
lCU, and the pl'im'iplt,s of the HystCln r<'ttlly apply to them, it is
'ely a tnl\tt<'r of llmthemutic·:.tl tn:mipulation of th(' postulational
.ations to tell whut will 11(' the out<'omt' of Lh(.' situation in question.
4. If, now, un tlctultl dynamhl I:!ituution such ItS was assumed is
oU11tel'(,u, 01' i~ ldeL up t'xpcriuH'ntally, tmu if it, (the situation) un-
Is) u.s the theory has impli(.'d, w(' may Hay that the theory has ac-
red an increment of v(.'rificu,t.iotl or subst.antiation and, in so far, is
e. If, on the other hand, the empiric ttl oUt(,01110 is different from
t prcdictcd by the theory, the latt('r mtty be sui<l, in so far, to be
18. This comparison of dcductiv(.· pr(.'ciiction with fact it~ known as
€dation, and is an absolutely indispenl:lu.blc part of pure &(liencc.
The procedure thus briefly outlined amounts to an operational defi-
on of scientific theoretical truth.
It is quite clear from the abov(' SUlnmu.ry stll.t(.·mcnt of scientific
JJ.odology that there is no a priori impol)lSibility of ultimately attain-
s. molar theory of organismic behavior whi('h will cover all aspects
,he striving of organisms. Moreover, it is equally clear that such a
ory, when worked out, will be capable of heing proved vt\lid or in-
id by the empirical i('st, of ()bs(\rving wlmt really happens, follow-
the occurrence of any dynmuhl conditions to which the theory
llios.
~ow, it is but a st('p from thia to a theory of behavior which will
blo us to predict, on the nvcragCl, what human organisms will do
ler alll:lorts of condiUoDfI. It should even be posl:!ible, ultiml1.Lely, to
diet the vel'bo.ll'eacLions which people make, i.e., what they will say
~rding their approval or disapproval of tho behavior of oLhers as
1as their own. Thus, the methodology of science, presumably, will
mately apply to moral behavior, even including the moral judgment,
Ie this is regarded a.s a bit of verbal behavior concerning people's
l'oval or disapproval of other behavior.
, But here we encounter a critical question, one concerning which
-e is a great deal of current confusion among both scientists and
,oists: Is the capacity of the methodology of pure science to mediate
the prediction, i.e., the logical deduction, of the occurrence under given
conditions of behavior of whatever nature, whether moral, immoral, or
neutral, the same thing as the capacity to characterize certain behavior
absolutely as ethically good or bad?
As so often happens, the clear posing of a problem furnishes us
with valuable clues to its solution. The clue in the case of the present
problem is the distinction between prediction and characterization.
No ethical system that I know about attempts to predict the occurrence
of any event whatever.
Does this difference between ethical theory and the theory of moral
behavior mean that ethical principles inherently can never have the
type of validity that the scientific theory of moral behavior may have?
I fear that the considerations just outlined leave us no alternative. So
lang as ethical theory only mediates the characterization of events if,
or when, they occur, but never predicts the occurrence of anything,
there can be no objective scientific test of its truth or falsity; Le., there
is no scientific means of determining its validity.
But statements which cannot be tested for truth or falsity cannot
be said to be either true or false. This means that such statements oc-
cupy a scientific no man's land, which is practically equivalent to say-
ing that such statements are scientific nonsense. This is, I think, the
reason why men who are familiar with the techniques of science, by
and large, are able, in the course of time, to attain substantial agree-
ment in scientific matters, but as a rule make little progress toward
agreement in regard to matwrs of moral conduct where serious concrete
issues are involved. It follows that the so-called science of ethics, so
far as ultimate ethical values are concerned, is a pseudo-science. *
Meanwhile, this prescnts no impediment in the way of the development
of a true science of moral behavior, including the moral judgment, be-
cause this is concerned with events which may be predicted and pub-
licly observed. Neither does it impede the application of science in
the determination of the most effective means of attaining values of all
kinds, ethical or otherwise, as held by ourselves or others.
By much the same reasoning, it is concluded that the hope of some-
how deriving ethical principles from the innate constitution of the
"mind," on the analogy of the "self-evident" truths of logic and Euclid's
approach to geometry, is also doomed to disappointment. This is be-
"It is to be DOted that here the tenn ethic. is employed in the technical sense of the alleged
science of wbt absolutely i. ~ or bad as d~ed from what particula:r individuals or
t'II!tural groups IOlI'is .00II or bad.
94 TRANSACTIONS
cause thero probably ill no SUdl thing ItS a. self-evident j,ruth in Euclid's
sense. 'fhe primary principl('s of logic Ilnd mnt,hemntics are believed
to be those rules of rensolling (hymbol manipulution) which have been
found by trial to mediute valid (i.e., practically dcp('ndable or adapt-
ive) conclusions. The formulation of these principles has taken cen-
turies and is, by no means, complete ('ven now. Thus, scientific theory
requires for the derivation of valid theorems (1) sound scientific prin-
ciples, and (2) sound logical rules for the mediation of the deductive
process. Therefore, each empirically verified sdentific theorem tends
to validate both the scientific principles <'luployed in its derivation and
the logical rules whereby the scientific principl('s were transformed. into
the theorem. Thus, logical rules are validated in the same way, and
indeed, at the Bame time, as are BC'i('ntific principles. Accordingly, we
conclude that the innate constitution of the IImind" also fails to yield
a dependable basis for the validation of ultimate ethical principles.
THl~ NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 95
HECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY
JANUARY 22, 1945
DOCTOR WENDELL C. BENNETT, Associate Professor of Anthropology,
Yale University, New Haven, Conn.: Interpretations of Andean
Archeology.
In the Andean region of South America, archeological techniques
and methods have be('n largely directed towards field recording and
chronology. The aim of field recording is to preserve an excavation
record for later analysis and interpretation. The ideal record would
be one which allowed laboratory reconstruction of the plan of a grave,
a temple, or a refusc site. The techniques employed for this arc ob-
viously not adaptable to broad cultural generalizations.
The emphasis on chronology has likewise led to the utilization of
spccialized forms of evidence. In fact, many of the archeological
monographs omit such standard topics as grave type, architecture,
weaving and metallurgy. For example, there was, to my knowledge,
no published statement that the Nazca Period lacked significant archi-
tecture until 1944. This is not a criticism, since chronology is a basic
need in Andean archeology. However, it is important to note clearly
the unit being studied since chronology can be both cultural and re-
gional. That is, an established chronology may represent a cultural
continuum with change over time, or the successive periods of occupa-
tion of a specific region. It seems obvious that the potentialities of
arC'heological studies of acculturation depend on having a cultural
chronology.
MostAndean chronologies arc regional in that they refer to sequences
in sites, valleys, or departments. Further analysis and interpretation
depends on the grouping of local sequences into larger regional units
within which the component cultures and periods are interrelated. In
other words, the concept of culture area is introduced, partiCUlarly that
of Kroeber's "intensive" area, which represents "a substantial unit of
historical development, or of a prevailing characteristic current of
culture."
For example, the Central Andean region, that is, Coastal and
Highland Peru and the altiplano of Bolivia, seems to meet the tests of
an intensive culture area. At an early date, a basic pattern was es-
96 TRANSACTIONS
tnblu.,lll'd which not only unitl'u the eOlllponent eultur('s, but also per-
silltt'd with suflicipnt I:ltr('ngth to tLh~orh und remold outsid(' intlucnc('s.
Thill ('nn 11<· dl'lllonstl'utl'd in a numh('r of wuy". The iut('n"iv(' agri-
('ultural Huhbh,tt'u('c il:l a ('onl'ltant. Hudl dom('l::lhrat<·u plants as pota-
U)(,H, (.'orn, quillon, llumio(', bl'ILllH, p('anuts, !tnd many fruits, are com-
mon t.o all of th(' cultur('s in spite- of the fu('t that all the plants do not
grow in anyone local region. The donw!!ticated llamas, alpltcas, and
guinea pigs are found everywhere, and the cultivation technique-s always
include the digging stick, irrigation, terracing, C('rtilizer, and crop rota-
tion. The types of ('lothing and shelter ~how no great variation, and
the arts and crafts Elhow about the same d('velopment, ('ven including
some flpecific design clements, buch as the ray fish, the {('lint', and the
trophy head. In all perioull, populatwn ('on('('Utmtion, ('Inbb distinc-
tions, religious organizution, and politi('al um!s nbov(' til(' local woup,
are- impli('d.
In terms of the ('ulture area ('onccpt, the greatest inconsistency
in the unity of the Cl'ntral Andes might Reem to be th~ ('nvil'onment.
All geographers emphasize the ('ontraE>t of the de-sert ('oaRt and the high
mountain plateaus and valleys. HoweV<'r, in t('rmb of the common
culture pattern outlined above, the environmental contrasts arc not too
great. In both the Highland and Coastal yalleYb, there arE' large areas
suitable to digging stick cultivation j that i::., areas without ('xtensive
forests, swamps, deep rooted grasses, and lear}l('d out soils. Although
the topography is varied, there are no insurmountable barriers. In
terms of trnvel by foot, a sand desert is about as difficult as a moun-
tain trail. In fact, in cultural-gt'ographi('al terms, therE' is a fnr greater
contrast between tht' Central And('s, as a whol(', and the grass cov('rOO
Argentine pampas, thp, Amnzonian tropical fOl'est, the Chilean rnin for-
est, and even the Ecuadorio.n parnm()s which are but littlE' suitable to
herding llamas a.nd alpacas,
Granting that the Central Andes represents a valid intensive cul-
ture area, a relative chronology f(lr the- total region can be established.
At the present time, there appear to be three generally pan-Central An-
dean horizons with intermediate local ue"eJopmcnts. In simplified
form, these consist of an early Chavin horizon, a middle Tiahuanaco
horizon, and alate Inca horizon. Between the Chavin and Tiahuanaco
horizons are local "Early" Periods, such as Mochica on the North Coast,
Nazca on the South Coast, and Recuay in the North Highlands. Be-
tween the. Tiahuanaco and Inca horizons are local "IJa.te" Periods, such
'l'HE NltJW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 97
as Chimu on the North Coast, Ica on the South Coast and Decadent
Tiahuanaco in the South Highlands. The Spanish Conquest marks the
uppC'r timC' limiL of the Inca horizon.
An intC'm,ivC' culture area with its relative chronology can be
subjectt'<i to vurious types of analysis. One may start with the con-
temporary lndiu.ns of Peru and Bolivia and trace aspects of their cul-
ture back through the historical accounts of the Inca into the archeo-
10giC'al past. In such away, new significance is given to much of the
archeological interpretation. Likewise, trends of development within
the area can be examined. It can be seen that art styles change from
realistic in the Early Periods, through stylization in the Middle Periods,
to geometric in the Late and Inca Periods. Habitation patterns can be
sc('n to change from small villages to extended cities, implying at the
.same time a marked increase in population. Technological trends can
be examinC'd. For example, the weaving shows no significant tech-
nological advancement, but rather changes due to local preferences for
designs and techniques, while the metallurgy shows a developmental
technological sequence.
Studies of the culture areas of North America have shown that
the component groups may still differ markcdly from each other. This
seems equally true in the Central Andes, even within the same relative
time horizon. Such differences do not seem to be due to lack of con-
tact with other groups in the area, but rather to distinct patterns of
cultural orientation, particularly reflected by the leisure time activities
of the population. In the Central Andes, leisure time above the
economic requirements of food, shelter, clothing, and protection was
undoubtedly available for some or for all of the population. Archeolo-
gists cannot analyzo all patterns of utilization of such leisure time,
but some suggestions are possible through examination of evidence
of wealth concepts, sharp class differences, religious enrichment, public
work projects, and the like. Two periods are discussed (and illus-
trated) as samples: the Nazca"Paracas on the South Coast, and the
Mochics. on the North Coast. Both arc roughly contemporaneous
and the coastal environment is about the same.
The Nazca and the Necropolis Period of Paracas are closely
related and are treated here as a unit. As such, the materials are
found in the Nazca, lca and Pisco Valleys, all of which are limited
in cultivable soil, so that the absolute size of the popUlation was never
great. Ther~ is no evidence of large scale buildings, pyramids, or
08 TltAN8AC'l'IONS
publiC' work pt·oj(·(·t.,.., wili('h \\ould iudit'/tt<· orgallizl'd lll:t~b labor.

Mdnllul'gy i:.; lilllilc'd to hallll1l1'l'('11 gold obj('('ib, but ('('mmiCR are
wdl dc\\'dOpt'd, ILrld Ih\('ornh'd \\ it II polY('hl'olll(> (i('higUH, l'cpr('s('nting
Ill'nail' :Lnd t'Jahol'llt('cil'('lill.il)lll'> figUJ'(.'K.
'1\'.:\ til(' Wt\UVillg for uUl'l1t1 PIU'POh('H h, t IH' (lilt hian( 1mi', dtlv('lo)llllcnt.
J.ltl'f,!;(· lllullImy hunulel:l ar(' fouud whi('h ('(luLuin immlUl'rahll' pi('ccs
of liIlibhud cloth. Hu('h pi~c('s I:Ihow none of the usual signl:l of wear
frOlll ulle in tinily life, fmel many tu(' made for the> size of the bundle
1'1\1,11('1' than for the l!iz(' ()f the living. Welwing requires a gren.t
a1110unt of time, whcn nll fact.ol'l:! :~re com,idl'rcd, such al::! trade for
raw ml~tl'riulH, spinning, dyeing, th(' actual loom w("aving, und embroid-
ery finish. The te>('hnicu.1 standards ttre high Hnd still it i::; evident that
large numb('rs of wcav(.'1'1O were ublo to Illl.'et tllt'sc t:.tltndnrds. One is
impressed hy the number of man hours of lltbor directed, not towards the
living, but rl1ther towards the glorification of the dead.
In brief, there is little al'chcological evid('ncc for mo.rked class
distinctions, organizcd labor pattcflll3, highly formalized rt'ligious or
political institutions. The Nazca-Paracns pattern might be described
as a. gravo-oriented use of leilOurc time.
The Mochica Period is centered in the Viru, Moche, and Chicama
Valleys, but spreads beyond these in two directions. Many large
pyramids and other public works suggest org:mized mass labor. Weav-
ing is little developed, or at least it has not been prel:!erved, although
ceramic designs indicate weaving under supervision. The grave con-
tents are largely ceramics, the manufacture of which does not represent
the same time factor as docs the hand weaving of textiles.
The ceramic designs suggest rather marked class distinctions.
These arc demonstrated by scenes of swimmers towing a man on a.
raft, honored guests being served by mt'nil1ls, and individuals carried
in litters. There is evidence of many specialized groups, such as
runners, priests, and warriors. The ceramic designs also indicate an
interest in worldly things by faithful portrayal of plants, anima.ls,
scenes of hunting, :fishing, and warfare, and diseases and punishments.
In general, the Mochiaa pattern suggests that leisure time led to class
distinctions and corvee labor.
Archeological observations on these two patterns can be made his-
torically. The Tiahuanaeo style, which marked the Middle Period
time horizon, mixed readily with the Nazca. The potters made vessels,
with new shapes and designs. The weavers turned to ambitious tapes-
'rm: Nl':W YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 99
tries, but still dC'biAnnkd for tiu.· grave. Tiahuanaco style did not mix
with Morhiea, hut, rath!'!' l'l'plu('l'd it, or, lUore lik('ly, drove it tem-
porarily to til(' north. Furtill'I'lUoJ'(', lilt' Nazca I)ntLt'rn did not expand
geographic'lIlly hut r('uHtill('<ilimitt'<i Lo tllf('e valleys. The Mochica, on
the other huud, l'Ipr('ltcl OWl' seWll vnlkys, nut! its influence is noted in
the North lIi~hl:mdH, ~md on I,ht, C('uLl'al Uoust.
The Nazca patLl'l'll dilduPPl'urt'd with the Tiahuanaco, never to be
reformulnted. '1'hl' leu Lnt,c Pc.lriod 011 the South Coast has been called
"Late Nazca" only ht'raus(.;' of the valley in which it is found, but its
ceramics, building!', and wCILving show practically no influences from
the earlier }mtt('rn. The Mo('hica pattern, however, persisted, in
spite of local interruption by Tiahuanaco. The Chimu Late Period is
an extension of the earlier Mochica. The question of this relation-
ship has new!' b('('n rl\ised; the problem, rather, is to express it.
It is interesting to speculate that the persistence of Mochica
may have been due to the corvC>e labor patterns. Ruth Benedict has
suggested that, wherev('r the American Indians have survived in num-
bers up to the present time, the old poliLical patterns were based on
corvce labor. The Mochica pattern seems a case in point.
100 TRANSA.CTIONS
HHlCrl'lON (W PIIYE1IOH AND CI-mMISTRY

,JANUARY 26 ANn 27, 1941)
()(mf(.'r('n('(' on tl~'htrfare Artivc Agents."
'rhc ~(I('ti()ll of Phytlics und Ull<'mistry hrlcl a COllf('rcnce on "Sur-
itL('c Active Agcntl:l," 1\1:1 the third in the &cri('s for tho Academic Year
1944-1945. Doctor M. L. Anson, Contin('ntul Foods, Inc., Hoboken,
N('w Jersey, was the C(JIlfercn('(' Chairman in charge of the meeting.
The program ('oD(03istcu of the following pap('rs:
"Introductory Remarks," by M. L. Anson.
"'rhe Structure and l)roperti(,1:1 of Soluti(lns of Colloidal Electro-
lytes," by A. W. Ualst()ll, Armour Laboratories, Chicago, Illinois.
"Aurfll.ce Active Agents at Interfaces," by Earl K. Fischer and
David M. OaDs, Intcrchemical Corporation Research Laboratori('s,
New York, N. Y.
"Certain Aspects of the Chemistry of Surface Active Agents," by
Donald Price, Interchcmical Company, New York, N. Y.
"Properties Involving Surface Activity of Solutions of Paraffin
Chain Salts," by Leo Shedlovsky, Colgate-Palmolive-Peet Company,
Jersey City, New Jersey.
"Surface Active Agents in Biology and Medicine," by E. 1. Valko,
Onyx Oil and Chemical Company, Jersey City, New Jersey.
liThe Nature of the Bacteriacidal Action of Surface Active Agents,"
by Rollin D. Hotchkiss, Rock(,feller Institute for Medical Research,
New York, N. Y.
"Surfa.ce Active Agents in InduRtry," hy R. R. Ackley, Mellon In-
stitute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
"Surface A('tivc Ag('nis in Or(' Flotation," by M. D. Hassialis,
School of Min('s, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
TBE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 101
TTIE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

announces
THE A. CRE~~Y MORRI~ON PRIZE CONTEST FOR 1945
Two prizes of $200. each, offered by Mr. A. Cressy Morrison,
to be known as the A. Cressy Morrison PrIzes in Natural Science,
will be awarded at the Annual Dinner, Dccembcr, 1945, for the two
most acceptable papers in a field of science covered by the Academy
or an Affiliated Society.
CONDITIONS:
(1) Eligibility. Authors and coauthors shall be members in good
standing of The New York Academy of Sciences or one of the Affiliated
Societies, prior to submission of the manuscript.
(2) Date. Papers arc to be submitted on or prior to October
1, 1946, to the Executive Secretary of The New York Academy of
Sciences, at The American Museum of Natural History, Central Park
West at 79th Street, New York, N. Y.
(3) Papers. All papers submitted must embody the results of
original research not previously published. The manuscript shall be
typewritten, in English, accompanied by all necessary photographs,
drawings, diagrams and tables, and shall be ready for publication.
Papers must be accompanied by a summary of the data presented and
conclusions reached.
(4) Awards. The awards shall be made by the Council of The
New York Academy of Sciences. If, in the opinion of the judges, no
paper worthy of a prize is offered, the award of a prize or prizes will be
omitted for this contest.
(5) Publication. The Academy shall have first option on the
publication of all papers submitted, unless especially arranged for
beforehand with the authors, but such publication is not binding on the
Academy.
(6) Wherever and whenever published, the papers awarded the
prizes shall be accompanied by the statement: "Awarded an A. Cressy
Morrison Prize in Natural Science in 1945 by The New York Academy
of Sciences."
02 'l'RANSACTIONS
Htwh Htatcm(,llt, in huhHtunc(.' InUl-it l~I~() u('compallY !tny formal pub-

lcity init,lah'd by Ih" Iluthor r('g:\l'(lin~ the prhw papPI'. If published
IsewllC'rc, Hix copi('t! of ('I\('h prize pl~l)('r mUKt, 1)(' (h'poHit('d HhorLly after
lubli('ation with the offi('c of '('he New York A('adl'my of ~ci('nct's.
'I'JIE Nli~W YORK ACADEMY (W ~()mNCl!JS,
Central PUl'k West ut 79th Str<'ct, N('w York, N. Y.

l~UNICE TUOMAS MINER,
Exc('uti1J6 Secrctary.
NEW MEMBEHS
Elected J anul1ry 25, 1945
LIFE MEMBER
Edison, Ann 0., B.S., Pharmacology, Biophysics, Nutrition. In charge of Bio-
phYsics D('partment, Merck Instltute for Therapeutic Research, Rahway, New
Jersey.
SUSTAINING MEMBER
Elmendorf, T('n Eyck, M.D. Attending Pediatrician, St. Elizabeth Hospital;
Director, Pediatrics, Seton Hospital; Consulting Pediatrician, Lutheran Hospi-
tal,NewYork,N. Y.
ACTIVE MEMBERS
Albaum, Harry G'I PhD. Biochemist, Medical Research Laboratory, Edgewood
Arsenal, Mary and.
Alfrey, Turner, Jr., PhD., Physical Chemistry, High Polymers. Chemist, Mon-
santo Chemical Company; Instructor, Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute, Brook-
lyn, New York.
Amow, L. Earle, PhD., MD., Biochemistry. Director of Research, Sharp and
Dohme, Glenolden, Pennsylvania.
Avery, George S., Jr., Ph.D., Plant Growth and Development. Director, Brooklyn
Botanic Garden, Brooklyn, New York.
Bailey, Gladys W., M.S., Ornithology. Instructor, American Museum of Natural
History, New York, N. Y.
Bond, W. L., M.S., Physics, Crystallography. Member, Technical Sta.ff, Bell Tele-
phone Laboratories, New York, N. Y.
Bra.ddicks, Robert P., M.s., Physical Chemistry. Research Chemist, General
Printing Ink Corporation, New York, N. Y.
Cohen, Emanuel S., M.D., Medicine. Resident Physician, Jewish Hospital of
Brooklyn, Brooklyn, New York.
Cooper, Gerald R., Ph.D., Physical Chemistry in Medicine. Research Associate
in ExpC'rimental Surgery, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham,
North Carolina.
Cox~Herald R., So.D;,! Bacteriology. Associate Director, Virus and Rickettsial
J.JiseasctI, Ledcrle lJaboratories, Pearl River, New York.
Darken, Marjorie A., M.A., Plant PhYRiology, Antibiotics. Culture Biologist and
Research BiochemiHt, Heyd('n Chf'mical Corporation, Princeton, New Jersey.
DaviRon, Mrs. Dnnit'l F., M.A., Uhild DC'vC'lopmt'nt. Work in ChIld Develop-
ment New York, N. Y.
Denton, l. J'I Ph.D., Organic and Phl\rlUac~nticnJ. Ch!'mistry, Pharmac<.'utical Re-
search Chemil:lt, Ca1(·0 Division, American Cyanamid Company. Bound
Brook, New .Tersey.
Dunham, Wolcott, B., MD., Allsociate in Microbiology, The Squibb Institute for
Medical ReAElltrch, New Brunswick, Nl'w Jers!'y.
Erich Walte>r, M.S. Organic Research Chemist, New York. N. Y.
Friedhofi'er, Mollie, M.S., Micropal<.'ontology. AsHiRtant Tcchnician, Department
of Micropaleontology, American Muscum of Natural History, New York,
N. Y.
Gellhorn, Alfred, M.D. ARSistant Proft'ssor of Pharmacology, College of Physi-
cians and Surgeons, New York, N. Y.
Gingold, Jacob, Eng.D., Physics and Physical Chemistry. Head of Laboratory.
General Ceramics and Steatite Company, Keasby, New JersE.'Y.
104 'rRANSACTIONS
nllrulllntll.~, LouiN. M.H., l\tC'tI·llroIClK,V. Hllpl'nlMn~ Forc c'lIloh'r and Official in

('harf!;(', 11. ~. W('atllC'r Bure·lIl1. I,1I0mmim I"it·ld, Nl'w York.
HIlUM·t·, Art bur .\I'm:;tr(lnl~, Jr., RH., ProwC'j" 1';II~lIU'f'I', RpC'rry GYI'ohc'npc' Com-
pliny, H""p'\r('h (>lvlI"inn, Nl'\\' Yurlc. N. Y.
IInll ...!wr, 1I.IlI·Y II, ».1':, PhYL-oIC'N, BlIJiuK,v. ('hll'f UC'hl'llrc'h It:ngllll't'r, (;c'nc>ral
('1'11111111' Itwl Hle'llhle' ('olllplmv, J{I'II,hy, NC'w ,II'I'IoC·Y.
IIYllIli II, 111'1111'1'1 11.,1\1 H., PhY"lral ('hl'lIIlktl'Y HC'M'lm'h An....()(·mtt' in ('llI'milltry,
l\[c'lILl1uI'KIC'nl Lahomtnry, Ulliv('rHity of ChlC'Il!1;U, ('Im'ugo, lllUlOill.
JILhillUlI, Bt'IIJIUllill, M.D., PhYkinlulI:Y Ilnd Bu)('ill'llllkiry. Alob()('lull' VlI,lting l)hysi-
dUll, (lohlwal('l' Ml'nlorllLI UOHllltul, Nc'w York, N. Y.
,T1Ll'kl-oon. 1%'ll.nnr AI('xltnd('r, Ph.D., BllC't('riolop;y. 1t('>.l'ur(·h I"pllmv, I)('pnrtmpnt
of l'uhli(' lImit h Ilnll Pl'l'venhw Mcdl('iuf', Curllc·1l Uuivl'l'~ity MndlCul Col-
ll'g(', Npw York, N. Y.
I{lIufman, Pnul. M.D., Intf'l'nnl Mrdicinp. AttC'nding PhYlricinn and R<rsuarch
Wurkpr, Oolclwnt<'r J.\.11'1Il()l'illl 1I0HJlItlll, Nco", YOI'k, N. Y.
KUIlDltl'l, Huns, M.D .• l~xp('l'im(·ntnl MC'til('i1w, R(':;('I~rch Ablrorinif', Pt~thology,
l'ohuuhilL Ulllv('!'Hity. NC'w York, N. Y.
Knox, .lmnNI J., C:h{'1ll1~tr'y Imti }'hYl'li{OI'!. HC'M'III'('b ('llt'mil'lt" Pl'C'c'i{)lI~ Metals
HrN'IlI'('h, K I. un Ponl, ell' Nt'1Il0UrH Company, Arlingtun, NI'w ,h'r~('y,
LrHirr, Dn.vid, Ph.D., Biologil'nl Chmliktry. UI'H<'Il.rc'h AAAillhmt in API>lird Pily~i
oiogy; AlrI'IlHtunt 1'1'of('",'or, Ynlt' Univ('l'l-lity. Nc'w Hllwn. UunnNllwut.
LongC'nt'l'k!'r, lll'rhprl, l';ugl'lll', Ph.D., Bior.lwmilltry. 1)e'ltn of RI'HC'lIl'('h in Nnturnl
!;(:il'nc(,R j l'ruf(,NHo1' of Uhrmistry, Univcrhity of Pittshurgh, Pittsburgh, Penn-
IlYlvuniu..
IJowC'nstl'inl 0110, M.D., NC'lIrollhysioiogJ. Clinic'nl NC'urology !tnd PtlYehilLtry.
Clinicl\ Prof('l*!Ol' uf N('urology, New York UniV!'rHily (JollC'IW of Me'dl(,lIlc',
New York, N. Y.
McClure, Harry Bell, M.s .• Chrmistry. Vi('C'-PrrHidmt. in ChnrgC' of Fin(' ChC'llli-
cals Division, CI~rbidl\ anel Carbon Chl'miClo.ll'I Corporation, Nl'W York, N. Y.
Marchand, John F., M.D" Biology. lksoarch Al:ltllHt.u.nt in Physiology, Yal(' Uni-
versity, New nav~, Conneclicut.
Mosier, ltJlizab('th '1'., A.B., Physicv.l and Biochemicnl Rl'flC'll.l"ch. R('HC':Lrch ChC'ID.-
illt, Americnn Cyanamid Company, Stamfc)rd, Connc'ct,icut,
Michcnfclder, Frank, S.M., Gl'oiogy. PetrographC'f, BUrl'RU of Mincl'l, WlJ.I1Ihing-
ton, D. C.
MoorC', Vil'ginia. M" M.D, }):.yl·hin.lrif.,t. Mnnhu.tlnn Childrell!! COUl't, lll'llevuc
J<lv('ninp; Mpntnl IIygi<'nC' Clinic, NC'w York, N. Y.
Mo~k()wjtz, Nathan, BU(,j,C'riol()giHt.. 8('l'on<1 Sl'l'vic(' Command l,nhoraLOl'Y. U. S.
Army, N<,w York, N. Y.
Norih('Y, Jl}hnoro JI"I'h.n., Synt.hC'tic M('dicinnl~. Aliliatl\nf, Dir('('tor of ROHcal'ch,
Culce DiviHion, Am!'rjclLn (lyrmrunid Oompany. Hound Brook, New JcrllCY.
Otle!"1 Monu, B.S" NuLrition, 'roxicolofzy, PIlILl'nlmlolujtv. Aup('fviHor of BioaH.'!aY
,nboml{)n('I!, Foud Rl'H('''I'ch LI~humtoric'", N(lw York, N. Y.
Page, Edgar J., B.S., Mncromoi('(minr, UhC'JJliloliry. ChC'tnisL, H(,]tling, JIeminway
COIllPu.ny, l'tllnn.m, UonnecticuL.
Rnckerl Efru.iln, M.D., Bruin MctnbolilSlU und Virus H.('sl'arch. A..'Iil!t.ant in BIloC-
tenololO", Now York University, New YOI'k, N. Y.
Itizlllolo, At,Lilio, Ph.D., D.sc., M.D., Physiology, BllClcriolo(pl', Pathology. Direc-
tor, Rizzolo Laboratories for Medical Biophysica, Newark, New Jorsey.
Roblin, Richard 0., Jr., Ph.D., Chomotherapy and Organic Chemistry. Director,
Chemotherapy Division. A:merico.n Cyanamid Company. Stamford, Connecti-
cut.
Salisbury, Winfield W.• A.B., PhJ7¢cs. Group Leader and Consultant, Radio Re-
search Laboratory, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Skel!r,.. Joseph F., M.S, Chemical Engineer, M. W. Kellogg Compa.ey, New
lork, N. Y.
TH~ N~W YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 105
Slanetz, Charlcs A., Ph.D., Inrectious DI~eafo(,s, Nutrition, G('nctics of Anima.ls.
Curator of Animal Hur,bllndry, College of Physician!! and SUl'gt'ODS, New
York, N. Y.
Smitl~ MIl.rian W., Ph.D. Vf'plll"lulC'n! of Anthropology, Columbia Univcr~ity,
!~(,w ): ork, N. Y.
Solon, ,Tolm B" !L\., KOI'ial l'Hychology. Chemi:-.t, Socony Vu.cuum Oil ('ompnny,
Int·., Nl'w \ ork, N. Y.
Stohr, Greif', M.D., Pathology, Endocrmology. Pathologist, Director, Dcpart-
mE'nt of Pathology, Woman's HOfopital, New York, N. Y.
Symondtl, Pm'cival M., Ph.D., PSYCllOlogy. Professor of Education, T!'llchers Col-
ll'gf', Cohunhin. UniV('rRily, New York, N. Y.
von DOmartlH, Eilhnrd, M.D., Ph.D., Pmcticing P~ychin.trist, Croton-on-Hudson,
Nf'w York.
Wallis, gverl.'tt S., Ph.D. A. Barton Hepburn Prof('ssor of Organic Chemistry,
Pl'inC'f'ton Univcl'llily, Princeton, New Jersey.
Worthy, MOl'gan, Biology a.nd 1'l:o/cllology. Vohlntary Rescll.rch Worker, New
YOI'k Stat(' PHYclliatflc Inl'ltitutf', New York, N. Y.
Zuck('l', Mlll'jol'ie B., Ph.D., Phylliology. Medical Student, College of Physicians
lind Surgf'OnH, Nf'\v York, N. Y.
ASSOCIATE MEMBERS
Alextlnder, Jam!'s C., Ph.D., Phy:.;ical Chf'mistry and Chemical Thermodynamics.
R!'I:learch Chemiklt, Virginia Carolina Chf'miCl~1 Corporation, Carteret, New
Jersey-.
Bailey, Frances Jj1., M.S., P",ychology. Research AAdociate, Episcopal Home for
Childrl.'n, W cb&Lt'r Groves, MiRllouri.
Bliss, Horace H., Ph.D., Chemistry and Engineering. Rescarch and Development
Engineer, Chrysl('r Corporation, Detroit, Michigan.
Broak, Lester, Micro-Chemist, General EIC'ctric Research Laboratory, Schenectady,
New York.
Bueding, Ernest, M.D., Pharmacology and Enzyme Chemistry. Assistant Pro-
fessor of Pharmacology, Western Reserve School of Medicine, Cleveland,
Ohio.
Cumming, NevillI' W., Experi1llC'utal Biology and Medicine. President, Carworth
FarmA, InC'., Nt·w City, Rockland County, New York.
DanzigE'r, LE'wis, LL.B., MD., Psychiatry. Assistant Chief Senior Physician, Mil-
wlluk('e County Hospital for Mental Diseases Milwaukf'e, Wisconsin.
Diel Cuuseco, Jorge, M.D., Nutrition and Gastro-Intestinal Diseases. Associated
with De{lILrtm<"nt of Nutrition and Gnstro-IntE'stinal Diseases, Johns Hopkins
IlolIJlita • Baltimore, Mnryland.
Gren('U, Robert Gordon, Ph.D., Neuroanlttomy, Neurophy!liology. Instructor in
Neuroanatomy, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, COnDE'cticut.
Kapf'f, S. F., Ph.D., ChemiHt, Distillation Products, Inc., Rochester, New York.
Laufe, Leonard E., B.S., Herlletoiogy. Graduate Student, University of Rochester,
Rochf'l-lt.tlr, New York.
Luisada-OplX'r, Anita V., Ph.D., Chemist, Virginia Carolina Chf'mical Corpora-
tion, Carteret, New J ersl.'Y.
Nicholas, Peter L.t Jr., Ph.D., Organie Chemistry. Research Chemist, Depart-
mC'nt of Agricwture, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Rees, Charles W" Ph.D., Sf'nior Protozoologist, National Institute of Health,
Bethl.'tlda, Mn.rylnnd.
Reynolds, Stanley I., Dielectrics, Research in DielC'ctric Measurement. Chemical
Section, QC'nc1'lll Electric Company, Schenectady, New York.
Robinson, Janice A" Psychobiology. Research Work in Pavlovian Laboratory,
Johns Hopkins Medical School, Baltimore, Maryland.
Rogers, Mary Elizabeth, B.A., Parositology. Junior Zoologist, National Institute
of Health, Bethesda, Maryland.
106 'rnANft\.C'I'lONIi
RuH.~, ~lord, 11., Y.M.])., HlOlo~irlil lint! Ydt'I'mnI'Y MI'(lil'illl'. Bi()logi~t, Hio-
l'llC'lIli('u! HC''''I'nrl'h I~mllldlit lUll, N('\, nrk, I>"llm al'l'.
i:111uth, lIohnrt M., Jlh n., 1I1'f1)('1()1IlRV, Ztl()ge>lllll·nphy. InMhnctoJ', trlli\(lI'"ily of
no('II('~I('I', Hm·lw"lc·r. NI1\V Yurko •
~lli('lwlllllm, HoI, Ph.D., ('"l1l1lar Phy"i()II)I~. .\I>,j:.lllIlt, J)('pllrtuWl\t, of BIl('I('riol-
WW IItlllllmllllnnl(1RV, Wn~hlllgt()11 lJIllHl·~il". 1oIt. i.OUiH, Mi""Imri.
TC'llP('I:UlltII, ,lilY, M.D., 'l\II'taholillill mill !1)Ilt!O(:rlllo)nj.l,Y. Ml'mhl'r (If BiochE'm-
ihl ry Ht'(:tiol\, MNlh'ul RI'I-I('nr('h 1,lIhOl'1I1 OI'V, 1':II~f'\v!)(ld ArMl'nlll. Maryland.
YlIll1dll, 'Wlu'l'c'n Hmold, RH., l'hYHi()!()~i('al C!U'llli"lry, Ornliulltc Stlldent, Yale
Ulli\'pn-ity S"h()()! of l\h'dicinc, N~'\V I1nwn,Oonlll'('timll,
STUD]l~N'l' MI')MB~mFl
Fillhcr, I,ytlb('lh Ann, A.B., GruuUlltc 8t11l1l'nl, Drpul'lml'nt of Geology, Columbia
UniVl'rHity, N('w York, N. Y.
SalUlU'lillO, G. Thomnll, B.A., l~lt.llI'l'illl('nlnl Illmhl'yology. 'rrlwhing Fl'lIow in De...
partnu'ut of niology, N('w Ym'k UntVl'l'l-ity, \VnHhi'ngton SquIII'(' (JolI('~(', New
York, N. Y.
Strum, Annl'tt(·, Anthropology Illld SOI'illl Psycho!ngy. Stu<iC'nl, Brooklyn Oollege,
Brooklyn, N('w York.
TRANSACTIONS
of
Sm. II, VOL. 7 MARCH, 1945 No.5
SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGYl

FEBRUARY 5,1945
DOCTOR JOHN G. BROUGHTON, Assistant State Geologist, New York
State Museum, Albany, N. Y.: Geology oj Ceramic Materials in
New York State.
Certain non-metallic minerals occurring in New York are of
potentially great importance in the ceramic field. The particular
physical properties or firing behavior of talc, tremolite, wollastonite
and diopside fit them for spccialized ceramic applications. Experi-
mental work in this field has been carried on by C. R. Amberg at the
New York State College of Ceramics.
It has been shown that talc from St. Lawrence County, New York,
is satisfactory for ceramic use after some form of beneficiation such
as flotation or electro~static separation. This is necessary because of
the high lime content resulting from intimate mixture of talc with un-
altered tremoiite, the parent mineral. It has been thought that the
tremolite was developed by contact metamorphism of quartz-rich pre-
Cambrian dolomite. Recent work by James Gilluly has resulted in a
new interpretation of the formation of tremolite. His well-documented
field study indicates that silication by solutions of igneous origin took
place along shear zones in the dolomite. This concept of the control as
structural rather than stratigraphic should have an important effect on
future development of the district.
1 No meetiDc of the Sectioll of BioloiY was held In February.
TRANSACTIONS of The New York AoadelD1 of Sei8IICIIII, Series II, Volume 1, No. IS, MIInIh,
1945.
This publication is diBtributed to Members and 18 pubIhshed monthly from Novambar to June,
inclusive, at 109 Wllllt Chestnut Street. Lanoaaterl • Pa., by The New York Aeademy of Saieo.eeI,
SlIVenty~nlnth Street and Central Park West, New lI:ork City.
Editor: Roy Waldo Miner.
Executive Secretary: EUDioe Thomas Miner.
Elltared as II8OOnd-cIasa matter December 2, Iflas. at the pcIIIt ofliee at Lancaster, Pa., 'IIIICler the
act of Auaun 26, 1012.
107
108 'I'UANI:iAC'l'IONS
( 'oul IH't 1Il<'1 lHuol'pliil' 1'1lI'h l'Ollt a iHi II t!; 11l1'~(, hOllit'1:! of wollastonite
alHl I':lnluillit(' diojl:-.ilil' HI'(' fOllnd 111':11' \\ illl.hmo, 1';~l'I(lx County, on the
m:-.II'I'IJ 1-10111' of tli" Adit'OII11:II'!i.l'I, '1'11(',,1' llliJH'I'aiK IlI'I'UI' in bands of
<l1'1'Il \'illl' III IH'''' , Olll')', nnd I'Ikm'UH wit it,ll hll \'(' h(11'1I I'au~ht, up in gabbroic
nnOl'lhol-ik Till' wulla"'(()lIitt' iK HI'II'>IH'iatl'd \\ illl IUHll'Itliitc garuet and
!4:tIitt" 'l'hiK mitH'I'ai H:-~('mhIHAt' hllH HIlP:tl'('utiy dcv('lopt'd from
('(mlal't, mC'inlllm'phil'>llI of Hili('I'OIlH awl lll:lgn('~i:m liltlPstOlll'tl, 'There
iH UIM) CVilit'tl('(1 of :L la!t'l' }ow-II'lIl!l,','ahu'(' hytil'ot)H'l'lllal stage with
inLrorilHltion of il'()ll-l'i('h flolutiom; allfll'('·('I'~'~I:llliz:tLi()ll of part of the
woHm;! onitc.
'I'll(' r:lllUtlllitr dioPHitil' iil IWI'olllpllnil'd hy quartz :md graphite,
Firing t('Ht 1:\ of w(lllu",t (luit (' alld () r diopI"oidl\ mix{\d with Zr02 have
Iil>wlopf'ci illt(,I'('Htill~ j,i1(' hmli('H, HOIIII' of whil'it U)'I' ('xtr('llwiy light in
('(lI()t' null lIu\,(' It htLrlll\(\HI:I in l\tOh'H Hf'all' of 8.
RECTION OF PSYCHOLOGY
FEBRUARY 19, 1945
DOCTOR KAREN HORNEY, New School for Social Research, New York,
N. Y.: 1!he Role of Conflicts in Neuroses, or Modern Psycho-
anaZysis.
No abstract of this paper has been received.
110 TRANSACTIONS
FEBRUARY 26, ] 945
DOCTOR GEORGE DEVEREUX, Department of Sociology, Wellesley Col-
lege, WeU('slcy, Mass.: The Logical Foundations of Culture and
Personality Studies.
It is frequently advisable to begin the discussion of the logical
foundations of a science with a definition of the author's own
philosophical position. This procedure enables one to avoid numerous
misunderstandings. It is, furthermore, a highly economical procedure.
Definitions can be stripped of a lot of verbiage whose sole purpose is
the avoidance of types of ambiguousness resulting from a lack of un-
derstanding of the author's position with regard to some of the funda-
mental concepts and problems of philosophy, e.g., reality vs. subjec-
tivity. My own position may be best defined as "Poincarcan" con-
ventionalism.1
(1) I believe that the two statements: (a) "The external world
exists/, and (b) "It is more convenient to assume that the external world
exists" arc equivalent propositions.
(2) It is possible to describe given and possible aspects of a
phenomenon, without raising the issue of the subjectivity or independent
reality of that phenomenon.
(3) Two sets of postulates from which the same conclusions can
be drawn are equivalent.
(4) If a phenomenon admits of one explanation, it will also admit
of any number of other explanations, all equally satisfactory.3 The
term "explanation" has been adequately defined by Meyerson. s An
explanation is a process whereby a given phenomenon is reduced to
other phenomena. All explanations are partial ones, since the complete
explanation of a phenomenon implies denying the phenomenon to be
explained, by reducing it entirely to other, more "basic" phenomena.
In fact, I shall nowhere concern myself with the problem of the "ex-
istenoe" of anything, except that I shall attempt to avoid the culturalist
fallacy, which is obviously untenable.
All culture and personality studies appear to rest upon the basic
assumption that culture influences personality. This assumption
~ Ji'oblca~'. E. The founda.tions of SCience. New York. 1913.
'Ji'ob!.oari," Eleetricit6 et Optique. Paris. 1901.
'MQ'eftOD,!B. De l'E.xpl1ca.tion aans lelll Sciences. Paris. 1921.
distinctly implies that there "exists" a sui generis phenomenon, A
(I'culturc"), which acts upon another sui generis phenomenon, B ("per-
sonality") .
It is my thesis that neither this assumption, nor its obvious impli-
cations are methodologically necessary in the pur&uit of culture and
personailty &tudies. I have offered elsewhere' a definition of the
methodology of culture and personality studies whieh does not rest
upon this assumption: "If, at any stage of the individual's life, we
correlate our findings concerning his individual configuration at that
time with the structure of the field wherein the individual has moved
up to the time to which our formulation of his personality refers, we
have made a significant statement concerning the interrelation of culture
and personality." Although this statement is clear enough as it stands,
I have taken further precautions against any attempt to read platonic
idealism into the above statement, by previously defining culture as a
highly structured and patterned field within which the individual has a
certain mobility.'
In fact, culture and personality studies are, in a sense, merely a
subdivision of general studies in conditioning or learning. If, in the
following pages, I discuss suitable definitions of culture and of person-
ality, I do so defensively, because every time the conception of culture
as a phenomenon sui generis is ejected by the front door, it,is invariably
smuggled in once more by the back door, in a more or less transparent
disguise.
The pitfalls of the "culturalist fallacy" in culture and personality
studies have been clearly formulated by HallowelV'
"It is hard to see how culture-an abstract summation of the mode
of life of a people-can exert an influence except as it is a definable
constituent of the activities of human individuals in interaction with
each other. In the last analysis, it is individuals who respond to and
influence one another. Culture as Bidney7 has pointed out "is not
an efficient cause and does not develop itself, hence it is not capable
of interacting with any other entity." To argue otherwise leads to what
he calls the " culturalist fallacy," which is based on the assumption
t Deven1l.S, G. Mohave Culture and Personality. Character a.nd Personality.
8: 91-109. 1939.
• Devu.uz, G. Ibid.
• HalloweU, A.. X. Soclopsycholoclcal .Aspects of Accultura.tion (In) :r.tDtcm, :a.
(Ed.) The Science of llcla.n in the WOTld Crisis: 171-200. New York. 1945.
'BlibI.e:r, D. On the Conce]Jt of Culture and Some Cultural Falla.o1es. Alnerl-
can AD.thropologlst (n.s.) "'I 30-44. 1944.
112 TRANSACTIONS
that "culturc is a force that may makc lmd develop itself and that
individuals arc but its passive vehicles or im,truments."
I feel that this statement is correct in every rebpect, and formulates
willi great precision the basic problem of culture and personality studies.
It may be suggested, en paS8ant, that the difficulties arising from the
correctness of the Hallowell-Bidney statement may-at least un-
consciously-be at the root of all attempts to consider culture as a
phenomenon 8ui generi8, having independent reality.
Three erroneous reactions to the Hallowell-Bidney statement are
possible:
(1) It makes culture and personality studies entirely impossible.
The concrete accomplishments of studcnts of culture and personality,
including those of Hallowell himsclf, make such an interpretation
preposterous.
(2) The Hallowell-Bidney statement abolishes the autonomy of
the field of culture and personahty studies and transforms thil:l dibcipline
into a branch of social psychology. Such an interpretation is probably
incorrect on the one hand, and, on the other, makes no particular
difference.
(3) The meaning of this statement can be distorted in such a
manner as to make it appear to be an instance of what F. Hluckhohn8
calls the psychological fallacy, and which I prefer to call the psycho-
logistic fallacy (i.e., the inability to see the forest for the trees). Such
an interpretation is obviously erroneous, both in terms of the Hallowell-
Bidney statement, and in terms of F. Kluckhohn's definition of the
psychological fallacy.
The way out of this predicament is already indicated in Hallowell's
own formulation of the problem. I refer to the term "abstract sum-
mation" and to his reference to a "definable constituent of the activ-
ities of human individuals in interaction with each other."
Let us consider, first, the concept "abstract summation." It can be
subdivided into two parts, each part being an abstract summation in its
own rights:
(1) It is possible to offer an abstract summation of the social and
cultural norms of a suitably selected group of persons.
8E1uckllohD,:I'. .A. Considera.tion of Method in the Socm1 Sciences. (Mimeo-
gra.phed, n.d.).
(2) It is likewise possible to offer an abstract summation of the
prevalent. concrete modes of behavior of a suitably selected group of
persons.
It is usually possible to perform a further abstract summation of
the above mention('d two special summations.
The principle underlying this distinction is partly implicit in
Linton's9 distmction between overt and covert culture, in C. Kluckhohn
and Kelly'slO distinction between implicit and explicit culture, as well
as in Bidney'sll distinction between theory and practice.
The above distinction between two types of abstract summations
was made in terms of the subject-matter of the summations.
Another usc.£ul distinction may be made in terms of the type of
person who performtl the act of summation:
(I) Human beings can, and, in fact, do perform such abstract
summat.ions of the norms {i.e., "This is our custom"} and of the prac-
tices (i.e., "People t('nci to act in this manner") characteristic of their
own group.
(2) Human beings, in general, and social scientists, in particular,
can, and, in fact, do perform such abstract summations of the norms
(i.e., "Mohave Indian descent is patrilineal") and of the practices (Le.,
"The Mohave family is highly unstable") characteristic of, or arbi-
trarily imputed to the outgroup.
The first of the two types of summations just mentioned is pre-
sumably the one to which Hallowell refers in speaking of the definable
constituents of human behavior. Human beings do develop a concep-
tion of their own culture. Nor is that all. They also reify this con-
ception, and r('spond to this "collective representation" (to be defined
in Durkheimian terms) in a highly distinctive manner, i.e., when the
Hopi characterize socially inacceptable or deviant behavior as "ka-
Hopi" (un-Hopi).a
This means, in fact, that ordinary human beings do respond dif-
ferently to trees and to a forest. It suffices to think, for example, of the
differential effects of referring, in a poem, either to trees to a forest .
• :LbI.t02l, B. The Study of Man. New York. 1936.
10 Bluckhohn, O. III W. E. 31:8113". The Concept of Culture (in) rdntoa, ••
(Ed.) The Science of Ma.n in the World Crisis: 78-106. New York. 1945.
u Blc1:a.e:v, D. (02). cit) See also Bib.,-, D. On Theory a.nd Pra.ctice. Univer-
sityof Toronto Quarterly 7: 113-125. 1937.
12 lUmmou,:ro. (Ed.) SUIl Chief. New Haven, 19411.
114 TRANSACTIONS
The psychological process of reification, and of differential response

to such a reification, is by no means unique. It resembles the process
whereby the child transforms his father into a superego. One must take
it for granted, of course, that the father has a superego of his own,
which determines the kind of father (i.e., "typically Mohave" or
"atypically Mohave") he makes. In this sense, the fathcr is but an
agent of society, or, to be more specific, of his particular abstract sum-
mation of his own socio-cultural setting. I have, in fact, shown else-
where18 that it is sometimes more profitable to emphasize the "trans-
formation" of society into the father, rather than to stress the "trans-
formation" of the father into the superego. Since no chain of argu-
ments of this type is profitably prolonged beyond a certain point,
technical expediency alone will decide which of these two sequences one
emphasizes in a given context.
Here, I think, we are on sound psychological grounds, and Hallo-
well's thesis may be considered as proven.
I cannot sufficiently stress the fact that an abstract summation of
this type is present in the makeup of every individual, regardless of
whether it was handed to him ready-made by his "mediators of cul-
ture," or whether he has developed it independently. Likewise, it is of
no importance, whatsoever, in this context whether or not he realizes
that he (or some mediator of culture) has evolved this abstract sum-
mation on the basis of a study of concrete individuals, either in his own
lifetime or on some past occasion.
I suggest, therefore, that it is not even necessary for the student of
culture and personality to reify culture. The members of the society
which he studies have already porformed this task for him. It is, per-
haps, this reified abstraction which may be thought of as that "culture"
which influences the behavior and "personality" of the individuals
composing that group, both directly, as part of any given individual's
makeup, and indirectly, through the concrete behavior of other individ-
uals who have likewise "introjected" the same norms and whose be-
havior our subject refers back to that reified abstraction, precisely in
the same manner in which he refers back his own actions to the norms
and practices of his group.
Let us now turn to abstract summations made by outsiders and,
more specifically, by social scientists. The social scientist has an ad-
D Devueuz, II. Social Negativism and Criminal PsyQhopathology. JolU'll&l
of Crim1nal Psychopathology 11 323-838. 194.0.
vantage over the student of gases. Gas molecules do not enunciate the
laws of probability, nor the kinetic theory of gases, nor the laws of
statistical mechanics, whereas the members of a given society, which the
social scientist studies, do precisely that, whenever they perform the
operation known as "abstract summation," and enunciate it in the form,
"This is our custom," or, "our women tend to be flighty."
Sometimes, however, the student of culture is called upon to per-
form a further operation of his own. He may find it expedient to
evolve a special type of abstract summation in connection with a given
culture. Such an abstract summation would be a conceptual scheme
establishing a functional nexus between the norms and actual practices
of a given group, just as the student of personality may have to evolve
a conceptual scheme to establish a functional nexus between what the
individual says he ought to do (or thinks he does) and what he does in
fact.
It is probable that there is always a need for such a conceptual
scheme or abstract summation. In certain instances, it is, however,
especially necessary. This is the case, for example, whenever theory
and practice diverge very sharply, or wheI).ever the individual has to go
to great lengths, rather frequently, to rationalize his actual behavior.
It is also necessary whenever, due to various causes, mostly historical,
the norms of a given group are poorly integrated and full of contra-
dictions and gaps.
Last, but not least, it is necessary to develop such a conceptual
scheme or abstract summation whenever norms and practices vary
extensively between the several segments of a complex society.
Societies, whose study calls for further summations of this type, are,
with the exception of the polyscgmented ones, generally more or less
disorganized or in a state of flux. The technical difficulties of evolving
appropriate conceptual schemes or abstract summations are usually
considerable in these instances, but do not, as a rule, involve funda-
mental problems of a logical order.
The situation is different, however, with regard to polysegmented
societies. Polysegmentation-especially in the form which Durkheim1'
calls "organic"-presents complex problems of its own, which-while
present in simple form in every single society differentiating between
l' :D1I.1'khelm. JI. De II. Division du Tra.va.U Social (2nd ed.) Pa.rts. 1902:
:D1I.1'kheim. JI. The Rules of Sociological Method. Ca.tlin, G. Eo G. (Ed.); 8olovaJ'.
S. A.IJ J. B. KueUft, (Transl.) Chica.go. 11188.
116 TRANSACTIONS
people on any basis whatsoever, i.e., in terms of age, sex, status, etc.-
raise certain questions regarding the exact limits of the usefulness of
the specific "basic personality" conceptual scheme developed by Kardi-
ner and Linton15 though they appear to raise no questions regarding the
validity of the special technique pertaining thereto.
In fact, the problems raised by polysegmentation are so complex
that they cannot be tackled without first defining "personality."16
Definitions of personality are very numerous, one of the best known
being that of Mark A. May,17 whose great usefulness for the student
of culture and personality has been shown by Kluckhohn and Mowrer.1s
Like most really useful definitions, it is a simple one: "Personality
is the social stimulus value of the individual." This definition has sev-
eral advantages. It avoids any reification of personality. It is induc-
tive. It implies that different observers will be differently stimulated
by the subject, and, hence, will develop different conceptions of his
personality. We take our cue from this definition and proceed accord-
ingly.
If we observe a given subject over a certain period of time, we
automatically come to think of him in a certain way and to expect
certain actions from him. Rigorously speaking, we integrate his be-
havior in a distinctive manner by performing two operations:
(1) We establish a functional nexus between his several modes of
behavior, by seeking for a unique conceptual scheme referring to that
individual, to be labelled "personality." This conceptual scheme
accounts-in theory at least-for all peculiarities of behavior displnyed
by the subject. Roughly speaking, we seek to "explain" that indi-
vidual's behavior in a unified manncr.
(2) We test the validity of this conceptual scheme by predicting
the future behavior of that individual; i.e., we examine our conceptual
scheme "personality" and, by logical deduction, attempt to discover
:III Xardiner, A. The Individual and His Society. (With a foreword and two
ethnological reports by Balph rdnton). New York. 1939.
18 I have completely disregarded, in this context, the hypothesis that culture is
an emergent. I have shown elseWhere (Devereuz, G. .A. Conceptua.l Scheme of
Society. American Journal of Sociology 451 687-706. 1940) that it is not
necea8M!l to Consider SOCiety as an emergent. Precisely the same logiC can prove
that we do not "eea to think of culture as an emergent. I hold that once the
absence of any need for a. hypotheSiS is proven, it is legitimate in science to lose
all Interest in tha.t hypotheSis.
1r :llEa7••• A. .A. Comprehensive Plan for Mea.suring Personality. Proceed-
ings and Papers of the Ninth Interna.tional Congress of Psychology: 298-300.
Princeton. 1930.
:III Xl:a.ckholm, 0. 81 O••• lIiEOW1'ft'. Culture and Personality: .A. Conceptual
Schame. American Anthropologist (n.s.) 481 1-29. 19404.
the further properties of the system "individual X" not yet disclosed
by act.ual observation.
SUllnning; up, we view personality as a conceptual scheme, i.e., as a
unified "explanution" and as a means of prediction. This definition
suffices for our purposes. Nothing would be changed, as far as results
are concerned, if we took a position regarding the independent reality
or subjectivity of "personality." It is implicit, of course, in our
philosophical position, that one may formulate several conceptual
schemes accounting equally well for the occurrence of observed behavior
and predicting equally accurately future behavior. None of these
"explanations" and/or predictions is complete, however, nor is it neces-
sary to assume that they overlap fully, either as regards the areas of
behavior to which they refer, or as regards the concepts constituting
the s('n'rul schemes in question. It is important to bear this in mind.
I am now prepared to correct a deliberate misstatement which I
made above for the sake of simplicity.
I have spoken above of the conceptual scheme "personality" as an
"explanation." In fact, a conceptual scheme is not, and cannot be,
an explanation in the sense in which Meyerson uses this word. A
conceptual scheme is not a phenomenon to which another phenomenon
is reduced, nor is it such a process of reduction. However, it can
serve as a frame of reference within which explanations can be made.
Hence, it is, loosely speaking, a means of explanation, but not an ex-
planation per se. This distinction is of some importance.
Another grave logical error is the assumption that personality can
be explained or reduced to other phenomena, which may be viewed as
factors or determinants of personality, which we defined as a conceptual
scheme herein above. It is impossible to explain a conceptual sche~e
in Meyerson's sense. The sources of this whole confusion are very
simple. They are part of the recurrent failure to distinguish between
a class and the members of that class. Even a class having only one
member is not the same thing as that member.19
Briefly expressed, only a phenomenon, or a set of phenomena, can
be explained in Meyerson's sense. A conceptual scheme can merely be
analyzed. Concretely, behavior can be explained. Personality can
only be analyzed.
,. BUBBen, B. Principles of Mathema.tics. VoL I. Cambrldce. 1903.
118 TRANSACTIONS
Let us a.ttempt to approach this problem in a practical manner, in

order to avoid the expository complexities of the subject.
Let us now distinguish between two types of concepts. There
are, first of all, the inductive generalizations, exemplified in the
concept lithe solids." Next, there are the analytic variables, exempli-
fied in the concept "solid" or "solidity." Epistemologically, the con-
cept of solid bodies is prior to the concept of solidity. The latter was
developed from the study of solid bodies. .
Somewhat anticipating the course of our analysis, explanations of
behavior tend to be formulated in terms of inductive generalizations,
whereas the conceptual scheme "personality" tends to be constructed
out of analytic variables. It should be noted that this appears to
be a rule of thumb statement rather than a dogmatic one (1 use the
word "dogmatic" in the philosophical sense).
Let us now inquire into the genealogy of these concepts.
Inductive generalizations (and, hence, also analytic variables)
result from the study of sets of phenomena, studied both jointZy and
severally. This last specification refers to Russell's20 distinction be-
tween "all" and "every."
We naturally assume that no set actually studied is complete, but
we do assume that it is a representative sample of the complete set (i.e.,
no human biologist ever studied all men who ever lived).
Now, it is of crucial importance to realize that two such sample
sets may have the same members, i.e., that their membership overlaps
more or less completely. This does not mean, however, even where the
membexship of both classes is rigorously the same, or when the larger
of the two memberships comprises all members of the smaller aggregate,
that the two sets or classes are logically identical (i.e., all members of a
sample group of Mohave Indians may also be members of a sample
set of Homo sapiens. Yet "Mohave" and "Homo sapiens" are logically
distinct types) .
For the sake of simplicity, let us consider only this concrete in-
stance. It is possible to evolve a set of propositions which will refer
only to the Mohave Indians under study (i.e., we can write a Mohave
ethnography) • Likewise, it is possible to evolve a set of propositions
which will apply specifically to the other sample group, e.g., the one
composed of Homo sapiens (i.e. we can write a book on human biology).
• Bu• .u... OP. cit.
Now, broadly speaking, Mohave ethnography is a conceptual scheme,
and human biology is a conceptual scheme.
Two things can be done at this juncture with regard to concrete
individuals.
(1) We can refer the bchavior of a given individual (temporal
ensemble) to the behavior of a set of individuals (i.e., Mohave or Homo
sapiens). Rigorously speaking, we refer it to certain inductive gen-
eralizations. These inductive generalizations may be considered as
factors or as determinants, and were derived from the study of a spatial
ensemble. They can be used as "explanations" of the concrete be-
havior of our subj<'et, in the strictly IIMeyersonian" sense of the word.
Naturally, it is assumed that one shall avoid the logical fallacies dis-
cussed by Russe1l21 in connection with such statements as "A is a
typical Frenchman" and "Napoleon had all the qualities that make a
great general." This type of explanation is what Kluckhohn and
MowrerU appear to have had in mind.
(2) I can also analyze the conceptual scheme, "personality," or,
more specifically, "personality of X," by tracing the genealogy of the
concepts constituting that conceptual scheme. This does not constitute
an "explanation," in Meyerson's sense. It does, however, provide us-
loosely speaking- with a frame of reference for the explanation of be-
havior-but not of personality (obviously, this does not mean that we
are now considering "personality" as a phenomenon sui generis. We
do not assert that a conceptual scheme exists) .
The distinction between the explanation of behavior and the analy-
sis of the conceptual seheme "personality" is logically important. It
is very interC'sting to note that both types of approach tend to yield the
same resultR in termA of the understanding and prediction of the
concrete belmvior of a human being.
If that, he the case, those impatient of logical discussions may in-
quire why so much space has been devoted to the abstract problem of
the analysis of the conceptual seheme "personality." In justification of
this procedure, it may be stated that the problem, thus formulated, at
once removes the sub8tance of debates of the nature vs. nurture type
and reduces them to purely formal distinctions. The question is no
""Bu•••U, B. Introduction to Ma.thematlcal Philosophy. London 1919. ct.
also 'Whltell.ea4, A . . . . . B. Bu••eu. Principia Mathematics. I. (lind ed.) Cam-
bridge. 19l15.
lIII B:lucOOlolU1, O... O. B. XOW2:er. 011. cit.
120 TRANSACTIONS
longer "Does biology or society determine human behavior?", but "Are

biological or sociological concepts being used in a given context?"
Let us assume that we have developed some unique and reasonably
complete conceptual scheme "personality." It is made up of biological,
sociological, etc., concepts, most of them analytic variables. This is
the ideal case. One cannot get very excited about a numerical tabula-
tion of the biological, sociological, etc., concepts involved.
It is probable, however, that this ideal has not yet been reached
and that we are using not one, but several conceptual schemes of
personality. One such conceptual scheme may be made up of biological
concepts, another one of sociological concepts. The question is no
longer "Where does human nature end and nurture begin? ," but "Where
is it more economical to switch from one conceptual scheme or frame
of reference to another conceptual scheme or frame of reference?"
This, I submit, is a purely terhnical question, and expediency alone
suffices to decide when to desist from hairsplitting and to switch
over to another frame of reference, instead.
It suffices to mention such technical issues in a logical analysis, but
it is not necessary to expatiate on them.
There exists, however, another problem of quite a different type,
which also arises from the fact that the membership of certain samples
tends to overlap either partially or completely. It is a problem con-
nected with the theory of the "basic personality," a conceptual scheme
developed rigorously and used carefully by its originators, but so abused
by some of those who took it over ready-made that it is sometimes
actually used as an "explanation" ( !) of the concrete behavior of indi-
viduals.
Logically, the problem is so complex that it seems more expedient
to deal with it in terms of concrete examples.
Can the personality of John Doe, a native of New York, be more
completely understood by assigning him to the American complex, in
general, or by stressing his urban habitat and treating him, therefore,
primarily as a city dweller on a par with the inhabitants of Paris and
Calcutta? (One should consider the fact that the very possibility of
there being large cities is part of the American complex, and that New
York differs in many respects from Paris and Calcutta, precisely be-
cause it is an American city.)
Shall we explain John Doe's behavior in terms of the prevailing

American norlDS and practices, or in terms of the prevailing urban
norms and practircs? Shall the conceptual scheme "personality of
John Doc" contain principally sociological or "urbanistic" concepts?
Shall we treat the sociological frame of reference on a par with the
urbanistic frame of reference? In brief, is John Doe a typical Ameri-
can or a typical urban man? Is his "basic personality" American or
urban?
This problem cannot be solved in rigorously logical terms without
starting with a discussion of the meaning of "basic personality." Un-
fortunately, wc are immediately in the midst of Russell's aforemen-
tioned discussion regarding statements of the type "A is a typical
Frenchman" and "Napoleon had all the qualities of a great generaL"
This, in iurn, leads WI to the problem of mathematical types, which it is
almost impossible to explain in non-technirallanguage.
Perhaps the nearest I clln come to a simple explanation of this
problem, as it refers to our topic, would be to quote directly from
Russe1l 23 : "How shall I define a 'typical Frenchman'? We may
define him as one 'possessing all qualities that are possessed by most
Frenchmen.' But unless we confine 'all qualities' to such as do not
involve a reference to any totality [my italics] of qualities, we shall
have to observe that most Frenchmen are not typical in the above sense,
and therefore the definition shows that to be not typical is essential to a
typical Frenchman. This is not a logical contradiction, since there is
no reason why there should be any typical Frenchman; but it illustrates
the need of separating off qualities that involve reference to a totality
of qualiti('s from those that do not." Again, with reference to Napoleon
and his qualities, Russel! observes "I must define 'qualities' in such
a way that it will not include what I am now saying, i.e., 'having all the
qualities that make a great general" must not be itself a quality in the
sense supposed."
I now assert something that is complC'tely obvious in terms of Rus-
sell's theory of types (just quoted in the form of a concrete example of
interest to the student of culture and personality). It is entirely
illegitimate to consider "basic personality" as a quality logically on a
par with such other quality or qualities as constitute "basic personality"
or exist outside of it, as "idiosyncratic" qualities, for example.
" See footnote 21, Introduction, etc.: 189.
122 TRANSA.Cl'lONS
Indeed, basic personality is a totality of qualities. This is crucial

for our whole approach. When we say that John Doe is a typical
American or urban man, we assert-if we disregard this warning-that
he possesses all the qualities possessed by most Americans or by most
urban men, including the quality (and therein lies the error) of having
the totality (i.e., basic personality) of the qualities in question. This,
of course, is a vicious circle.
Kardiner and Linton seem to have avoided completely this mis-
interpretation and misuse of the conceptual scheme "basic personality."
Unfortunately, the same cannot be said of some others who have used
this conceptual scheme in a rough and ready manner.
(It should be noted that the "Napoleon" vicious circle is likewise
avoided in Linton's concept of the status personality.24)
The purpose of the above discussion was to clarify an aspect of the
meaning of IIbasic personality" not specifically elaborated by Kardiner
and Linton, and to define clearly the manner in which this conceptual
scheme is used in the following discussion.
It is my belief that the conceptual scheme "basic personality"
(and the special technique connected therewith) is a far more powerful
tool than has been suspected hitherto. There are, in fact, several basic
personalities, all cut logically on the same pattern, although not cut
on the same pattern psychologically, i.e. as regards content. The
original concept, as such, is well known. The Tanala resemble each
other in a distinctive way, which differs from the equally distinctive
way in which the Marquesans resemble each other. Hence, Kardiner
and Linton speak of a basic Tanala personality and of a basic Mar-
quesan personality. This is, indeed, a basic personality, though not
necessarily the only one, and perhaps not even the most basic one,
depending on the way in which the term "basic" is used in our discourse.
In fact, one may be typically American, typically urban, typically
middle-class, etc., simultaneously, strictly in Russell's sense of the,
correctly used, word "typical."
In fact, one is typically human, before one is anything else. I am
indebted to Dr. Gaza R6heim for the suggestion that the most basic of all
basic personalities is the one connected with the fact that we are all
human. This is the.Kluckhohn-Mowrer category "universal," except
in one respect. These authors rightly stress that one's self-ascribed and
:It rd:II.toD., lIl. The Study of Man. 011. cit.
THE NEW YORK AOADEMY OF SOIENOES 123
socially recognized status as a human being is part of the complex of
being "typically human." I cannot, however, accept their assertion
that one may legitimately exclude from this category, as it is used in
culture and personality studies, such deviants as idiots. This can be
proven empirically. The Romans did not think. it necessary to institute
Tarpeian rocks for defective animals. The Nazis may loudly deny
human status to Jews, and yet they treat them differently, though per-
haps worse, than they treat animals. The Ha(rhn)de:a(ng) Moi of
Indochina25 may have devised means whereby a human being can re-
nounce his human status and "become a wild boar," and yet they react
differently toward real wild boars and toward nominal wild boars. The
"vogelfrei" German outcast of yore, unlike game-birds, was not pro-
tected by poaching laws. On the other hand, unless his "vogelfrei"
status was known, he had the same social stimulus value as any other
human being. Conversely, the Mohave may insist that dogs are per-
sons, and yet they do not treat dogs the way they treat human beings.
Nor do students of culture and personality ascribe to Rover the kind
of personality which they ascribe to human beings of all kinds.
This IIbasic personality" is then a conceptual scheme formulated in
a distinctive manner and composed of biological concepts and of
concepts connected with self-ascribed and socially recognized human
status. In other terms, the relevant distinctive modes of behavior may
be explained most efficiently in terms of biological processes and of
human status.
It is possible to deal rather briefly with all other basic personalities:
tribal, urban vs. rural, Gemeinschaft vs. Gesellschaftr status, etc.
All of these types of basic personalities may be constructed with the
help of the Kardiner-Linton technique. The formulation of the prob-
lem and the type of understanding desired, as well as the efficiency and
the economy of the means employed, will decide whether we choose to
emphasize the American, the urban, the leisure class,27 the occupational
status etc. "basic personality" of a given concrete individual.
The fact that the special technique in question, and the conoeptual
scheme "basio personality" have apparently a far broader application
:III Deve:reuz, G. Functioning Units In HII.(rhn)de:a.(ng) Society. Primitive
Ma.n 10; 1-7. 1987•
.. For a. va.l1da.t1on of this distinction cf. Deve:revs, G. Huma.n Rela.tions a.nd
the Socla.l Structure. A series of lectures delivered before a. seminar on ''Culture
a.nd Personality" In the Department of Anthropology, Columbia. University. Win-
ter,1944 .
• "'e)leD, 1I. The Theory of the Leisure Class. New York. 1899.
124 TRANSACTIONS
than was believed originally greatly enhances their importance.

As a mutter of fact, in simple societies-such as those from Lhe
study of whieh this conceptual scheme and this technique were evolved
-the assorted theoretically distinct basic personalities tend to overlap
to a very considerable extent.
The same is not true, however, of polysegmented societies. I have
stressed elsewhere that the formulation of the American complex is far
more abstract and far less useful in practice than is the formulation of
the Tanala complex, for example.28 The same may be said of the rela-
tive abstractness and practical usefulness of such formulations as "the
typical American" and the "typical Tanala."29
Let us analyze the question from a strictly technical viewpoint.
In polysegmented societies the strictly orthodox type of "basic
personality" tends to be very abstract, and, technically, relatively
unproductive. This is also true, to a large extent, of societies which
are disorganized or in a state of flux, as these terms were defined earlier
in this paper. In polysegmented societies, in general, and in dis-
organized and fluid societies, in particular, the various statuses which,
by definition, are necessarily complementary (e.g., husband and wife,
employer and employee), are poorly articulated, and, hence, the
corresponding modes of behavior (or, conceptually, the corresponding
IIbasic status personalities") tend to have a negligible degree of over-
lapping. As long as the peasant and the feudal Lord both recognized
the God-given nature and necessity of their relationship, and as long as
there occurred at least symbolically equivalent "mutual prestations,"
in a Durkheimian sense, we could perhaps speak with some justification
of a technicaUy usefuL mediaeval personality. Today, when the divine
rights of manufacturers are not generally recognized by their employees,
a similar generalization would be technically less useful. The validity
of this statement is best proven by Kardiner's own analysis of the
results of a shift in Betsileo economy from dry to wet rice farming.
Hence, in situations of this type, it suffices to postulate, on a purely
theoretical level, a "basic personality" in the orthodox sense; and to
deal, in practice, principally with other types of basic personalities, e.g.,
urban, status, etc.
:II DeveJ:tluz, G. A. Sociological Theory of Schizophrenia.. Psychoanalytic
Review 281 315-342. 1989.
• Deverlluz, G. (Review of) XartUneZ',.... The Individual and His Society.
Character and Personality 81 258-256. 1940.
It is, however, necessary, both theoretically and practically, to

make a distinction between, e.g., American basic personality (urban
variety) and urban basic personality (American variety). I am unable
to discuss here whether these two formulations belong to one and the
same, or to two different logical types. Tentatively, as a target to
shoot at, I am inclined to believe that they belong to the same logical
type. This appears to be in accord with my initial assumption that
there are several kinds (in terms of content, but not in terms of type)
of basic personalities. (It should be noted that mere numerical differ-
ences in the membership of two classes do not imply differences in
degree of abstractness.) Suffice it to say that complex "basic person-
alities," of the kind just mentioned, appear to be both useful and
logically legitimate devices in concrete research work.
We may now turn to the final logical problem of culture and per-
sonality studies: The nexus between basic personality and the person-
ality of a concrete individual.
Let us consider, first of all, the general problem of uniqueness, or of
the "idiosyncratic." Epistemologically, it is hardly necessary to men-
tion that the concrete individual is prior to any generalization. Yet,
sometimes, it is technically expedient to view the individual as the locus
in which several abstract classes overlap. In other words, it is
technically possible to define the concrete individual as the sole member
which scveral abstract classes have in common. I hold that this
recognition, including the enumeration of the classes, is, in fact, an
"explanation" of the concrete in terms of the abstract, though it is not,
strictly speaking, a Meyersonian type of explanation.
If, now, I succeed in establishing a logical nexus between these
various classes, other than the fact that they share one member t'n com-
mon, I am actually constructing a conceptual scheme. I now state, as
a hypothesis, that a set of classes may overlap in several places, each
area of overlapping being confined to a single individual member. I
further state, as a hypothesis, that the logical nexus established between
these various classes, at the point where they share member A in com-
mon, may be distinct from the logical nexus which I may establish
between them, at the point where they have member B in common, etc.
Each such distinct logical nexus may be considered as a "configuration."
A configuration may also be defined as the structure of a conceptual
scheme. In this manner, I define individuals A, B, etc., as unique and
126 TRANSACTIONS
idiosyncratic. At the same time, I specifically recognize that they all

are the several members which a set of overlapping classes have in com-
mon. The scveral configurations pertaining to A, B, etc., as loci, where
these classes overlap, define the unique personalities. The similarities
between these configurations give a logical meaning to "basic per-
sonality."
We have carried this analysis in abstract terms sufficiently far to
enable those interested in developing its implications to do so at their
leisure. We must, at this juncture, turn to more practical things.
Each of these constructsl A.B., etc., is a unique thing, which does
not mean, obviously, that it was brought about accidentally, but merely
that it is unprofitable, in the study of configurations, in terms of the
frame of reference "configuration,11 to pursue in detail every causal
chain, etc., to its remotest origins. In other words, I cannot understand
the process whereby chromosomes got together to form IIJohn Doe,"
in terms of John Doe's personality. I can understand it only in biologi-
cal terms. What is of interest is the specific logical nexus between the
various classes, and this nexus is "accidental" only in terms of each
separate class. In concrete terms, the configuration, which is "idio-
syncratic" in terms of biology or physics, etc., is not accidental, though
unique, in terms of the frame of reference "configurations." To be
once more rigorous, the conceptual scheme "personality of John Doe"
has a meaningful structure.
On the other hand, it is inadmissible to view the personaLity of John
Doe as the locus where such classes, and some basic personalities over-
lap. This is self-evident in terms of Russell's strictures on the meaning
of "a typical Frenchman" or "Napoleon."
It must also be clearly understood that lithe personality of John
Doe" is epistemologically prior to "basic personality." Both are con-
ceptual schemes, but of different types, the latter being more abstract
than the former. It should be noted, furthermore, that the II basic
personality" is not idiosyncratic in terms of the frame of reference
llpersonality," in the sense that "personality" is idiosyncratic in terms
of biology, physics, sociology, etc. This is an important point.
Hence, we must never view "basic personalities" as components of
a unique personality, nor use them as explanations of the latter. If one
is careful to use not merely the Kardiner-Linton conceptual scheme
"basic personality," but the Kardiner-Linton technique of constructing
it, as well-which, according to Dr. Kardiner, many people fail to do-

one can entirely avoid such erroneous procedures, which result in more
or less disguised vicious circles.
In practice, it is very easy to distinguish, by a rule of thumb
method, between personality and basic personality. It suffices to dis-
tinguish between expectations regarding the behavior of "any" police-
man and expectations regarding the behavior of a person whom I know
well. In the first instance, the set of expectations was formulated in
terms of the fact that "any" policeman will define a given situation in
the same way. In the second instance, the set of expectations was
formulated in terms of what this well-known person will do in "any"
situation. Substitute for policeman, "Frenchman," "great general," or
any other meaningful term, and the rule of thumb method can be used
as an adequate test of whether we are talking about a basic personality
or a unique personality.
In logical terms, in the first instance, I consider a spatial ensemble,
and consider the reactions of "basic personalities" to a constant situa-
tion. In the second instance, I consider a temporal ensemble and the
reactions of a unique "personality" to variable situations. 30
It is conceivable that, sooner or later, it might be found useful to
draw the dividing line between psychology and sociology in some such
manner. Psychology, in the strictest sense, wishes to know what John
Doe does qua a unique person. Sociology, in the striotest sense, wishes
to know what John Doe does qua social animal in general.
Culture and personality, as a discipline, is somewhat more specific
than is sociology, and wishes to know what John Doe does qua
American, or qua urban man, or qua judge, etc.
Consider the human species. Social scientists study men jointly
in groups. Psychological scientists study the same men severally (Cf.
the distinction between "all" and "every"). The former deal with a
class of individuals, as a class. The latter, on the other hand, deal
with a class of classes (each of the sub-classes containing one member).
The fact that both of these broad classes overlap completely as regards
membership, does not mean that they are the same. This is self-evi-
dent in class-calculus.
I cannot do more than mention one final problem which I have
so far been unable to solve to my own satisfaction. I refer to the
.. Dav_ _, CI. The Social Structure of a Schizophrenia Ward IIond its Thera.-
peutic Fitness. Journal of Clinical Ps:vchopathololD" 81 258-267. 1944.
128 TRANSACTIONS
problem of the exact nature of the nexus between the psychological

and the sociological understanding of human behavior. Is this nexus
the same as tho one between the mechanical description of the move-
ments of individual gas molecules vs. tho sta.til:!Lical del:!cription of the
volume of gas under study? Or is there a compl<'mcntary relationship
in Bohr's senseSl between the psychological and tho sociological under-
standing of human behavior? Or is there a new and different kind of
nexus between the two? We do not know. Yet, sooner or later, this
crucially important problem of all psychosocial sciences will have to
be solved, if these sciences are to progress and arc to be made useful
to men and to mankind alike.
DISCUSSION OF THE PAPER"
Dr. Carl G. Hempel (Queen'8 Oollege, Flushing, N. Y.) :
The following comments on Dr. Devereux's stimulating lecture refer to three
specific issues which seem to me to be of particular significance for the methodology
of the social sciences.
1. One of Dr. Devereux's principal objectives was to clarify and dt'limit, for
the purposes of sociological research, the meaning of the concepts of culture and of
personality. There are two questions which arise in connection with his approach
to this problem.
First, it seems to me that the concepts of culture and of personality are to the
field of social studies what the concept of life is for the field of biology. The
concepts in question determine the subject matter of the particular field of re-
search. But in so far as this comparison is valid, it is important to note that
biological research does not begin with an attempt to give a. _precise definition of
the concept of life. Rather, it begins with an approximate idea. a.s to what kinds
of phenomena are to be included in this field of investigation. and fruitful research
in biology can be carried out without any need for raising the question as to the
na.ture of life. A full clarification of the ooncept of life stands, as it were, at
the end, not at the beginning of biological research. Anal0liously, it seems to me,
an attempt to set out, in the field of sociology, with So delimitation of the concepts
of culture and of personality is not necessa.ry and proba.bly not even helpful for
sociological research. Here again, the theoretical clo.ri.fication of these concepts
is one of the goals rather than the starting point of scientific inquiry.
The followin_g additional observation might serve to amplify and supplement
this point. In Dr. Devereux's lecture, various conceptions of culture and of
personality, as suggested by different authors, were referred to. Since all of these
were meant to be used in the scientific study of sociolo~ca.l problems, the question
arises as to the criteria. by means of which we may deCide which of the alternative
II BoU,.. Ca.usality a.nd Complementarity. Philosophy of SCience 4; 289-
298. 1937.
In fairness to Dr. Hempel it should be stated that his comments were
II
directed at an earlier version. it the pubUshed version no longer has certain
shortcomings, 1t is due to the fact that I have accepted all of Dr. Hempel's sug-
gestions a.nd made the appropriate corrections in the manuscript. I am very
grateful to Dr. Hempel for his illuminating a.nd helpful comments. It might be
add.ed that the problem of the nexus between the "psychological" and the "socio-
logical" understa.nding of behavior appears to have been solved by Allport's dis-
tinction between the "idiographic" and the "nomothetic." Allport's views ex-
d but do not cha.nge in any respect, the scheme presented hereinabove. (cf.
on, Go. W. The Use of Personal Documents in Psychological Science. New
SoC1al Science Research Councll. 19U.)
conceptions ought to be accepted in preference to the others. The criterion which
is used in scientific r(.'search is that of theoretical fruitfulness or of explanatory and
predictive pow('r. Of two altcrlltttive conceptions of some object of investigation,
that one is preferable which makes possible the establishment of more compre-
hensive and more highly substantiated hypotheses or theories. Thus, e.g., the
definition of the temperature scale and, hence, of the concept temperature has
undergone several changes in the courEle of the development of thermodynamics.
Each of thelde chang('s was made, not because the earlier definition was recognized
to be "false" or "counterintuitive," but rather because, in terms of the modified
concept, more comprehensive and accurate thermodynamical laws could be estab-
lished. Analogously, when alternative concrptions of culture and of personality
are considered, the question should be raised as to the specific hypotheses or theo-
ries that can be established in terms of them, so that the scope and the factual
soundness of the latter may be investigated. Without specific reference to the
way in which a proposed concept functions in some theory, its adequacy for scien-
tific purposes cannot be judged.
2. Dr. Devereux suggested that the so-called complementarity of the wave and
the corpuscle concept in the explanations of quantum phenomena in physics has
an analogue in the relation between the psychological and the purely sociological
explanation of a phenomenon in the field of sociology. This relation, as viewed
by Dr. Devereux, iR briefly this: The more precisely a sociological phenomenon is
explained, and thus under~tood, in terms of the psychology of the persons con-
cerned, the less precisely it is understood in terms of a purely sociological frame-
work of explanation, and conversely.
It seems to me that the suggested analogy breaks down for the following
reasons:
The complementarity principle in quantum physics is a consequence of the
particular formo.! structure of a highly systematized and rigorously tested physical
theory. To this theory, no parallel exists at all in contemporary sociology. In
fact, I do not know of even a single case where a social phenomenon has actually
been explained in terms of a purely psychological and also in terms of a purely
sociological theory. Possibly, Dr. Devereux thinks of sociological explanation as
an explanation by means of statistical laws concerning regularities in the behavior
of large numbers of individuals, and of psychological explanation as consisting in
the causal analysis of the behavior of every individual concerned; just as the
results obtained in rolling dice may be explained in terms of the statistical laws
of probability applied to long series of throws, or in terms of the causal laws of
mechanics applied to every throw individually. But this situation is formally
quite different from that obtaining in quantum physics, and if such alternative
explanation~ ('I\n be achiev('d in the social sci(.'nces, no reason hald been stated why
they should h(' "c:omplem('ntary" to each other. The application of one type
of explanation does not render the other impossible or unprecise.
3. Dr. D('vI'reux repeatcdly referr(.'d to the qUt'stion of the independent exist-
ence of such entities as culture and personality. I fully agree with his opinion that
this matter is irrelevant for the issues discussed in his lecture, but I would like to
add that it is irrelevant for every conceivable scientific problem because it is
devoid of theoretical meaning.
"Theoretico.! constructs," such as the concepts of gravitational field, or of
neurotic personality\ are used in science for the description of certain regularities
in some specific fielo of research. Thus, for example. the assertion that the earth
possesses a gravitational field is a short way of formulating certain physical laws
concerning the behavior of falling bodies, pendulums. etc .. in the neighborhood
of the earth. To say that the earth possesses a gravitational field means that
physical objects near the earth display certain re~larities of behavior; and the
question, whether "over and above" these empirlcally ascertainable regularities
there exists. independently, a gravitational field,·obviously involves a semantical
confusion. Quite the same type of confusion underlies the question as to the in-
130 TRANSACTIONS
dependent existence of the culture of a group over and above its directly or
indirectly observable ma.nifestations. This point would hardly deserve being
discussed here were it not for the fact that the existence of culture and personality
as independent entities is sometimes thought to be an indispensable assumption,
if the possibility of any kind of interaction between the two is to be understood.
But this is a misapprehension. Such interaction can be described in statements to
the effect that, in groups with certain specrlied cultural traits (i.e. patterns of group
behavior), certain specified personality traits (i.e. patterns of individual behavior)
occur reguarly or frequently. The question as to the existence of culture and
personality as independent entities does not arise here at all. It is 8. pseudo-
problem, capable, not of a solution by means of relevant scientific research, but
only of dissolution by means of semanticaI analysis.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY
FEBRUARY 9 AND 10, 1945
Conference on "Experimental Hypertension."
The Section of Biology held a Conference on "Experimental Hy-
pertension," as the fourth in the series for the Academic Year 1944-
1945. Doctor William Goldring, New York University, New York, N.
Y., was the Conference Chairman in charge of the meetlng.
"Introductory Remarks," by William Goldring.
"Introductory Lecture on the Production and Pathogenesis of
Experimental Hypertension," by Harry Goldblatt, Western Reserve
University Medical School, Cleveland, Ohio.
"The Mechanism of Experimental Renal Hypertension," by
Eduardo Cruz-Coke, Medical Faculty of the University of Santiago,
Santiago, Chile.
"Renin and Nephrogenic Hypertension," by Luis Leloir and col-
leagues, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
"The Nature and Treatment of Experimental and Cli-n.ical Hyper4
tension," by Irvine H. Page, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.
"Experimental Chronic Hypertension: Its Mechanism and Ameli-
oration by the Use of Various Blood Pressure Reducing Substances,
by Arthur Grollman, Southwestern Medical College, Dallas, Texas.
"Treatment and Prophylaxis of Experimental Renal Hypertension
with Renal Extracts and Marine Oils," by George E. Wakerlin, Uni-
versity of Illinois Medical School, Chicago, Illinois.
"Extraction Studies of Renin and of Tissue Substances Capable of
Lowering the Pressure of Rats," by John Remington, University of
Georgia Medical School, Augusta, Georgia.
132 TRANSACTIONS
NEW MEMBERS
~lccted February 15, 1945
ACTIVE MEMBERS
Ambrus, Yolanda Valer, Ph.D., Physiological Chemistry. Assisl.ant to Chief
Chemist, Coty, Inc., New York, N. Y.
Armstrong, S. Howard, Jr., M.D., Physical Chemistry and Clinical Medicint'. As-
sociate in Medicine, Peter Bent Brigham Hospital; Instructor in MedICine and
Research, Associate in Physical Chemistry, Harvard Medical School; Research
Associate in Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
Barth, Lester George, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Zoology, Columbia University,
New York, N. Y.
Becker, George G., B.S., Biology, Psychology, Anthropology. In Charge of Plant
Quarantine, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Hoboken, New Jer:oey.
Crosby, Eleanor J., M,S:.1.Assistant Economic Geologist, Freeport Sulphur Com-
pany,NewYork,N. I.
Cunningham, Raymond W., Ph.D., Pharmacology. Head of Pharmacology Re-
search, Lederle Laboratories, Inc., Pearl River, New York.
Deans, Walter, Bacteriology and Serology. Chief Technician, Flushing Hospital,
Flushing, New York.
Duggar, Benjamin Minge, Ph.D., LL.D., Plant Physiology. Consultant in My-
cological Research and Production, Ledede Laboratories, Inc., Pearl River,
New York.
Durfee, Charles H., Ph.D., Psychology. Director. Rocky Meadows Farm, Wake-
field, Rhode Island.
Ecker, Paul Gerard, M.D., Internal Medicine. Interne, Peter Bent Brigham Hos-
pital, Boston Massachusetts.
Heyman, Karl, Ph.D., Organic Chemistry. Chief Chemist, Kearny Manufacturing
Company Kearny, New Jersey.
Holt, Arthur Melvin, Geology, Student,. University of Texas, Austin, Texas.
Johnston, Thomas A., M.D., Parasitic uiseases and Radiology. Cillef of Staff,
Whitewell Hospital Whitewell, Tennessee.
Kern, Charles J., B.s., Physical Chemistry, Chief Chemist. International Vitamin
Corporation, New York, N. Y.
Kienle, Roy Ho, Ph.D., Physics and Chemistry. Assistant Research Dirt'ctor,
American Cyanamid Company, Bound Brook, New Jersey.
Kleiner, Israel, S., Ph.D., Biochemistry. ProfE:'ssor, New York Mt'dical Colle-ge,
New York, N. Y.
Kogbetliantz, Ervand George, D. Sc., Mathematics, AppliE:'d Geophysics, As-
tronomy. Professor of Mathematics. Ecole Libre des Ho.utes Etuu('ll. N ('w
YorkhN. Y.
Lester, C a.rles Turer, PhD., Organic Chemistry. Assistant Profel!sor of Cht'mis-
try, Emory University, Georgia.
Marks, Henry C., Ph.D., Biological Chemistry. Assistant Director of Research,
Wallace .and Tieman Products CompaI!y, Belleville, New Jersey.
Nelson, EdWIn E., Ph.D., Pharmacology. Dlrector, WeUcome Research Laborator-
ies, Tuckahoe, New York.
Piotrowski, Zygmunt Anthony, Ph.D. Associa.te in Psychology, College of Physi-
cians and Surgeons, Columbia. University, New York, N. Y.
Toone, Gilbert C., Ph.D., Organic Chemistry. Research Chemist National Aniline
DlVision, Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation, New York: N. Y.
Voet Andries, Ph.D., Physics and Chemistry. Director of Research. J. M, Huber,
.mc., New York, N. Y.
ASSOCIATE MEMBERS
Alper, Carl, M.s., Proi('in and EnzymE' ChC'Inistry. A('Ling Instructor in Chemis-
try, Tuluno University, N(.'w Orl(>uns, LouiElIUJla.
Anderson, John A., Ph D., Bm'jNiology, Nutnhon. Associate Professor of Bac-
teriololU', Rutgers University, New Brunswick, Now Jersey.
Clark, Herbert Mottram, Ph.D., Physical and Inorganic Chemistry. Instructor in
Chemistry, Sterling Chemical Laboratory, Yale University, New Haven, Con-
necticut,
Jandorf, Bernard J., Ph.D., Biochemistry. 2nd Lt., Sanitary Corps, Army of United
States, Medical Research Laboratory, Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland.
Nicoll, Paul Andrew/ Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Physiology, Indiana UnivE'rsity
School of MediclDe, Bloomington, Indiana.
Seifter, JOSE'ph, M.D., Pharmn.cology and Toxicology. Chief, Department of
Pharmacology, Wyeth InsLitute of Applied Biochemistry, Philadelphia, Penn-
sylvarua.
Stenzel, H. B., Ph.D., Geology and Paleontology. Geologist, Bureau of Economic
Geology, University of Texas, Austin, Texas.
Wood, Scott E., Ph.D., Physical Chemistry. Assistant Professor of Chemistry,
Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.
Yates, John St:.ml('y, Ph.D., Ch('mist, Calco Division, Am€'ri(·:.m Cyanamid Com-
PlinY, Bound Brook, New Jt'rsey.
TRANSACTIONS
of
SER. II, VOL. 7 ApRIL, 1945 No.6

MARCH 5, 1945
DOCTOR WALLACE M. CADY, Geologist, Alaskan Branch, United States
Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.: Aerial Photographs as an
Adjunct to Arctic and Sub-Arctic Geologic Reconnaissance.*
(This lecture was illustrated with lantern slides.)
The usefulness of aerial photography in the mapping of desert re-
gions where bedrock is well exposed has been rather obvious for a long
time. Geologic structures and more highly colored formations exposed
in desert ranges arc commonly registered in detail on aerial photographs
and may be plotted directly on maps made from the photos, reducing
the ground survey from Q, long, tedious, routine, mechanical procedure
to a reconnaissance of critical localities guided by the photographs.
In sub-arctic and arctic regions, aerial photos are particularly useful
because, due to a heavy cover of tundra moss and frost-heaved ground,
particularly in unglaciated regions, such as in the greater part of in-
terior Alaska, geologic structures hard to recognize at close hand on
the ground become visible from the air. In recent years, the U. S.
Army Air Forces have photographed much of arctic and sub-arctic
North America from the air, revealing geologic features previously un-
recognized, although ground surveys may have already been made.
Certain of the photographs released to the Geological Survey for offi-
cial use have become a valuable adjunct to geologic reconnaissance in
Alaska, undert.aken primarily as an inventory of Alaskan mineral re-
sources.
"PubllShed by pennlSslon of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey.
TRANSACTIONS of the New York Academy of Sciences, Series II, Volume 7. No.6,
April 1945.
ThIS pubhcation is distributed to Members and is published monthly from November to June,
inclusive, at 109 West Chestnut StreetJ..Lucastert .P8., by The New York Academy of Sciences,
Ssv8llty-ninth Streat and Central Park west, New xork CIty.
Editor: ~y Waldo Mmer.
Executive Seoretaly: Eunice Thomas Miner.
Entered as sec:ond-c1ass matter December 2, 1938, at the post office at Lancaster, Pa , under the
sot of August 24, 1912.
185
136 TRANSACTIONS
Up to the time the aerial photographic surveys were begun, large

areas amounting to at least half of Alaska remained unexplored. The
photographic compilation has shown the distribution of drainage fea-
tures in these hitherto unexplored areas, but ground surveys are still
necessary to establish topographic and geologic control.
One of the larger unexplored areas in which the aerial photographs
are being used in connection with ground surveys is the central Kus-
kokwim region, west of the Alaska Range and south of the Yukon
River. Here the Kuskokwim River, second largest in the Territory,
cuts westward in a relatively narrow gorge through the Kuskokwim
Mountains and flows southwestward into the Bering Sea. The scat-
tered higher peaks of the Kuskokwim Mountains, reaching altitudes
averaging about 3,500 feet, have been maturely glaciated, but by far
the greater part of the region is maturely dissected by streams forming
well-rounded hills averaging about 2,000 feet in altitude with 500 to
1,000 feet of relief. The rounding and smoothing of the slopes have been
accentuated by frost weathering. The climate is sub-arctic, i.e., the
region lies south of the sea-level isotherm of 50° F. for the warmest
month of the year. However, the hills and mountains above 1,000 feet
altitude are bare of trees and the upland weather is comparable with
that of the typical arctic tundra north of the warm-month isotherm of
50° F. and the poleward limit of forests. Spruce is the principal forest
tree that covers the bottomlands. The light gray-green lichen, known
as caribou or reindeer moss, covers the broad upland slopes.
The relatively wide expanses of upland tundra, cut by such deC'p
narrow valleys as that of the Kuskokwim River, promote the optimum
usefulness of aerial photographs as an adjunct to geologic reconnais-
sance. The bedrock features are best exposed in the cut-banks and
bluffs along the main streams where frost action has not kept pace with
stream cutting as it has on the uplands back from the streams. Here,
small geologic structures of no greater magnitude than the length and
height of the exposure may be made out, but, except possibly along the
rather continuous gorge of the Kuskokwim River, the exposures are
separated from one another by broad expanses of tundra, across which
it is commonly difficult to connect the smaller structures through ground
surveys alone.
The predominant bedrock formation of the region is a very thick
succession of interbedded graywacke and shale of Upper Cretaceous
age bordered on the northwest and southeast by Paleozoic formations.
The graywacke strata form faint ridges that are either entirely imper-
ceptible on the ground or, as slope traces, are difficult to orient. These
faint ridges and trnces are readily distinguishable on aerial photographs
taken at 20,000 feet. A variety of Tertiary igneous rocks, ranging
from basalts to granites, is found in the region, although it is not as
extensive as the graywacke and shale. Granitic rocks form stocks and
cupolas with roughly circular groundplans; intermediate types form
elliptical stocks and sills, conforming in orientation to structures in the
graywacke-shale succession; and the basaltic rocks form thick surface
flows or small tabular intrusives, principally sills. These igneous fea-
tures are readily identified on the ground as they are rarely weathered
down to the point where they are completely covered by tundra moss or
foreign solifluction products. However, the granitic to intermediate
intrusives, in particular, are recognizable on the aerial photographs be-
cause of their size and shape. Contact metamorphic zones are found
in the graywackes and shales bordering the granitic stocks. The outer
limits of these zones are about at the edge of the maturely glaciated
areas among the higher peaks and thus are recognizable on the aerial
photos. Talus slopes are developed much more extensively on the
metamorphic rocks than on the granite forming the cores of the peaks,
making it possible to tell the two apart.
Regional geologic structures are shown in more detail by the pattern
of surface traces revealed on the aerial photographs than would be
possible in standard ground-reconnaissance practice. Plotted photo-
grammetrically the traces form the basis of useful tectonic maps in
areas where slope cover inhibits ground surveys. Thus far, ground
surveys, particularly along river courses, have revealed rather tight
minor folds in the Upper Cretaceous graywackes and shales. Major
folds of greater extent than the individual exposures have been difficult
to identify, due to the lack of good key strata that would assist struc-
tural interpretation in connection with either ground or aerial surveys.
However, the trace pattern of areas between ground surveys, completed
to date, suggests rather convincingly the orientation of fold axes, in gen-
eral northeasterly, but with iii. tendency to parallel the contact of border-
ing Paleozoic formations, regardless of the orientation of the latter.
Major high angle faults which have been passed over unnoticed on the
ground are distinguishable on the photographs. The faults are particu-
larly well developed along the borders of the Kuskokwim Mountains.
Their nearly unbroken traces cross the bedding traces indicating that
138 TRANSACTIONS
the faults are later than the folds and probably related to a differential
uphft of the Kuskokwim Mountains, following folding.
Of the various ore minerals prospected for and lllined in the central
Kuskokwim region, gold lies closest to granitic and intermediate igneous
intrusives, such as are recognizable in the aerial photographs. Al-
though lode gold has not been mined here, several groups of placer
claims have been staked and operated in the vicinity of large rhyolitic
sill-like bodies, certain of which are in close proximity to one of the
granitic stocks. Tin and tungsten minerals are found in some of the
placer concentrates with the gold. Quicksilver, the principal mineral
product of the region, is found chiefly in or close to altered basic intru-
sives which have weathered deeply and are not in themselves large
enough to be detected on the aerial photogrnphs. The ore mineral,
cinnabar, accompanied by varying amounts of stibnite, has been found
in veins cutting the altered basic rocks and, to a lesser extent, in the
other types of intrusives, except stocks of typical granites. The latter
do not crop out in the areas in which cinnabar is found. Quicksilver
metalization may be related to more deep-seated intrusives than those
in their vicinity at the present surface, possibly parts of the granite, not
yet unroofed, or deeper zones of the other intrusives. It is hoped that
further study of the regional geology will help clear up this problem
and thereby suggest guides in locating new quicksilver lodes in yet
unexplored areas.
It is anticipated that, as an outcome of widespread aerial photo-
graphic surveys made in recent years, photogrammetric analysis of
geologic features will soon become a very important preliminary to
ground reconnaissance of unexplored regions in the search for new
mineral reserves. As already stated, analyses of data obtained from
aerial photographs of arctic and sub-arctic regions, such as those of
Alaska, which, incidentally, constitute the greater portion of uncxplored
country, are particularly useful, because many geologic features seen in
the photographs cannot be seen on the ground. It is hoped that simple,
refined techniques and instruments will be developed to reduce surface
trace lineations, however minute, to lines of known orientation from
which the geologist can plot the dip and strike of planar structural ele-
ments for use in both tectonic maps and structure sections. Such
analyses would be substantiated by ground examination of critical areas
analogous to the ground control necessary for topographic mapping
from aeria.l photographs.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY
MARCH 12, 1945
DR. ALEXANDER SANDOW, Assistant Professor of Biology, Washington
Square College of Arts and Science, New York University, New
York, N. Y.: 1.1he Mechanism of Energizing Muscular Contmctwn.
(This lecture was illustrated by lantern slides.)
It is now generally agreed that the two most fundamental com-
ponents of muscle are the fibrous protein, myosin, and the nucleotide,
adenosinetriphosphate (ATP). Myosin, the principal component of
the myofibrillae, is the contractile substance, while ATP, abundantly
supplied with chemical potential energy in its two labile phosphate
bonds, is the substance that directly energizes myosin for its mechanical
activity. The basic problem of muscular contraction is to determine
the mechanism by which the stored energy of ATP is transferred to
myosin and converted by it into mechanical energy. In the discussion
to be prescnted here, we shall limit ourselves to only the first phase of
this problem, i.e., to the nature of the process by which the energy of the
labile phosphate bonds of ATP is transferred to myosin.
A uniquely significant contribution to the solution of this problem
is found in the discoveries of Engelhardt and his coworkers (1939, 1941,
1942) that (1) myosin acts as adenosinetriphosphatase, i.e., it is an en-
zyme, specifically catalyzing the hydrolysis of ATP to adenosinediphos-
phate (ADP) and free inorganic phosphate with the release of the 11,000
cal/mol P0 1 of the last phosphate bond of ATPj (2) artificially spun
myosin fibers undergo an elongation in the act of splitting ATP. These
findings are important, for thC'y offer additional proof, if this be needed,
that ATP is the direct energy source Ior myosinj and they suggest,
furthermore, that the pro('ess by which the energy transfer is affected is
a function of the enzymatic activity of the contractile substance and
that this transfer is associated with the relaxation of myosin in some
phase of the mechanical response of muscle.
One approach to the energizing problem is concerned with the
temporal aspects of the interaction of myosin and ATP in telation to
the sequence of latent, contraction, and relaxation periods that normally
occur in a muscle twitch. Two general a priori possibilities exist. In
the first, which we designate activation coupling (Ritchie's (1933)
"Chemical" Theory) , the transfer of energy to myosin occurs simultane-
140 TRANSACTIONS
ously with the direct activation of the contractile process in the latent
and contraction periods; in the second, recovery COllpling (Ritchie's
"Physical" Theory), the energy transfer is affected during tho relaxa-
tion period, and, more generally, probably also during some of the im-
mediate post-relaxation period. In activation coupling, Lhe stimulus
applied to a muscle serves to initiate the interaction of myosin and ATP
and this not only energizes myosin, but also activates it to develop ten-
sion. Thus, ATP would be not only the energizer of the contractile
substance, but also the agent that directly stimulates it to contract. Re-
covery coupling, on the other hand, would involve the basic myosin-
ATP reaction in the general post-contractile phase of a contraction, and
it would serve essentially to transform the energy released by ATP
hydrolysis into some form of "physical" potential energy of the myosin
molecule. Subsequent stimulation would then act to bring about a dis-
charge of the stored energy and this would lead to tension development.
In the following discussion, several salient lines of research of various
workers pertinent to the above will be analyzed. Some attention will
then be given to certain of our own investigations.
The work of Ritchie (1933) was the first in recent years to pose the
temporal problem in energization and to suggest a choice between
the two possibilities. In conformance with the generally held view in
the early 1930's, Ritchie assumed that creatinephosphate (OP) was the
direct energy source for the contractile material. Since the rate of
breakdown of this substance is decreased by increase in pH, he varied
the pH of a muscle (the frog ventricle) and measured the corresponding
changes in rate of activation and recovery processes in the response of
this muscle. He found that the rate of activation, as measured by the
duration of the latent period, was negatively correlated with the rate
of OP hydrolysis. He, therefore, asserted that OP breakdown was con-
nected with some recovery reaction, and thus concluded in favor of re-
covery coupling. (Ritchie's research also included experiments on the
refractory period, but since this period is essentially connected with
the excitatory aspect of muscle behavior, the results do not seem to be
relevant to the present discussion, which is concerned with the contrac-
tile system. Incidentally, however, it is of interest to note that the
variation in duration of the refractory period indicated that the speed
of the recovery process implicit in this part of the excitatory reaction
was found to be positively correlated with the rate of OP hydrolysis.)
Although Ritchie's experimental results are correct, their interpre-
tation today is faulty, since we know that ATP, and not OP, is involved
in the direct energetic coupling of myosin. Now, in the physiological
range of pH, varying the hydrogen ion concentration affects the rate of
hydrolysis of ATP oppositely to that of OP. Thus, the rate of tension
onset, a~ measured by the length of the latent period, is positively cor-
related with the speed of ATP hydrolysis. Hence, properly interpreted,
RitchIe's results favor activation coupling.
Further evidence for activation coupling may be found in the im-
portant finding of Brown (1936) that extra tension in the isometric
twitch of the turtle retractor penis muscle and the frog sartorius is
induced by suddenly applied high pressure (272 atmospheres) only dur-
mg the initial eighth of the contraction period. This result suggests
that the highly pressure-sensitive process is a chemical reaction which
IS concerned with the mobilization of energy for contraction, and since
this reaction occurs early in the contraction period, activation coupling
would be involved.
Another ~ource of evidence for activation coupling is found in the
experiments of Buchthal and his co-workers (1944, a and b) which have
demonstrated that, when ATP is directly applied to frog skeletal muscles
or their isolated fibers and to mammalian smooth muscles, a contrac-
tion is initiated which involves, in all cases, a fall in birefringence of the
activated muscle structures. Since "these experiments support the view
that ATP is an essential agent in the release of normal muscular con-
traction" (my italics, A.S.), they lead to the conclusion that the ener-
getic coupling of myosin and ATP occurs in the activation period.
Finally, as favoring activation coupling, there will be discussed the
work of Dr. Joseph Needham and his coworkers (Dainty at at, 1944).
This research has demonstrated, among other things, that when a
myosin solution is treated with ATP, decreases immediately occur in
the flow birefringence and thc relative viscosity of the myosin. These
changes are relatively more slowly spontaneously reversed and, during
this reversal, the hydrolysis of the ATP takes place. The initial physi-
cochemical changes in the myosin indicate that the micellae of this
protein shorten, in some manner, along the direction of their long axes.
Thus, contact with ATP causes the myosin micellae to contract. It is
noteworthy, however, that the actual splitting of the ATP is temporally
associated with the disappearance of the shortened state. Therefore, it
seems that the physical basis for contraction of the micellae may be the
142 TRANSACTIONS
formation of an enzyme-substrate combination between myosin and

ATP.
Dainty et al, state, however, that further experiments "are still
needed to decide between the two possibilities: (a) That the combina-
tion between myosin and ATP so alters the myosin molecule, that reac-
tion between some groups along the length of the chain becomes possible
and provides energy. The subsequent splitting off of phosphate from
the substrate would then supply energy needed for relaxation and
recharging of the myosin fibril. (b) That the splitting off of phosphate
and setting free of energy from the ATP accompanies the contraction."
It thus appears that the results of the Needham group cannot be un-
equivocally interpreted in all their aspects. But, nevertheless, it is,
clear that ATP acts as an agent that causes myosin micellae to contract
and, hence, in so far as the results of model expcriments may be applied
to the analysis of the contraction of live muscle, this finding points to a
type of activation coupling mechanism.
Evidence will now be presented that seems to favor the recovery
coupling mechanism. Kalckar (1941) calls attention to the very sug~
gestive fact that, after sufficient activation of iodoacetate-poisoned
muscles, there results, terminally, a mechanical condition of fatigue and
rigor with which is associated a chemical state of extreme irreversible
depletion of the ATP and OP stores. It is inferred that the inability
to relax and contract, as indicated, respectively, by the rigor and the
fatigue are the consequence of the absence of ATP and OP. There-
fore, it is hypothesized that, in the normal muscle, which is rich in ATP
and OP, relaxation occurs as a result of a coupling of these substances
to myosin and that, during this process, the myosin is energized for a
subsequent contraction. We may disregard the inclusion of OP in this
process, since it can be only indirectly concerned with the energization
of myosin by virtue of its role in the resynthesis of ATP. The mecha-
nism proposed by Kalckar, however, is a form of recovery coupling. In
criticism of this hypothesis, it may be mentioned that the rigor of iodo-
acetate fatigued muscles could be the result of metabolic disturbances,
other than the depletion of ATP or OP, that are characteristic of the
action of this drug. Furthermore, rigor does not necessarily accompany
inability to contract, as is seen, for example, in completely fatigued
normal muscles.
Engelhardt's finding (1941,1942) that enzymatically active myosin
threads suffer a relaxation has been used by him as a basis for the view
that the post-contractile relaxation of a contraction is the phase of a

muscular response, during which myosin catalyzes the breakdown of its
substrate, ATP. Thus, according to this view, the energizing of myosin
for contraction is a function of the relaxation perIod. But Engelhardt
was evidently unaware of the existence of a pre-contractile relaxation,
the latency relaxation (LR) (Rauh, 1922; Sandow, 1944), which will be
fully described later. If muscular relaxation is an in vivo sign of the
coupling of myosin and ATP, then this interaction may be going on at
the time of the LR. Hence, although Engelhardt interprets his experi-
mental results so as to suggest a form of recovery coupling, an alterna-
tive interpretation which takes into account the LR, a latent period
event, suggests that the energizing mechanism involves activation
coupling.
It is evident that the investigations discussed thus far do not per-
mit us to draw an indubitable conclusion concerning the mechanism of
muscular energetic coupling. In so far as interpretations are based on
experiments with purified extracts of myosin and ATP, we note that the
Engelhardt view favors recovery coupling, while that of Needham group,
in its most certain aspect, suggests a form of activation coupling. The
contradiction between these two conceptio.ns becomes more striking
when it is realized that a basic experimental difference is involved,
namely, that, despite the presence of a common specific myosin-
adenosinetriphosphatase activity, Engelhardt's myosin fibers merely
relax, while Needham's myosin micellae in solution first contract and
then relax. The research with whole muscle presents a more unified
picture. Reasons have been already given for questioning the validity
of Kalckar's hypothesis. To thC'se may be added the fact that his view
is based on an abnormal-indeed, moribund-condition of muscles in
iodoacetate rigor. We are thus left with the results of Ritchie, Brown,
and Buchthal which favor activation coupling. Since these results were
all obtained with quite normal live muscles, it would seem that this
evidence is strongly weighted in favor of the o.ctivation coupling mecha-
nism.
We shall now turn to our own investigationsl which are concerned
with studies of the latent period of frog skeletal mqscle contraction, with
particular reference to the latency relaxation (LR) first discovered by
Rauh in 1922. A detailed description of the piezoelectric, cathode-ray
oscillographic method of our experiments, and a general analysis of the
1 Aided in pari by a grant from the Pt!lII'08e Fund of the .American Philosophical SOlllety.
144 TRANSACTIONS
LR will bc found in Sandow (1944). An outline of these aspects of our

rcsearch is givcn in Sandow (1945a). It will sufficc here to statc that
the typical latent period at room temperature of a frog sarLorius muscle,
initially under a tension of 3 gms., begins, after the instant of applica-
tion of the stimulus, with a mechanically quiescent phase having a dura-
tion, LR , of about 1.0-1.5 ms. This is followed by a sigmoid relaxation
phase, the LR, which, after achieving a magnitude, R, is abruptly re-
versed as the muscle, terminating the latent period, passes into its con-
traction period. The duration of the latent period, i.e., the time inter-
val from the instant of stimulation to the first appearance of positive
tension change, LR , is about 3.0 ms. R is a negative tension change,
generally of the order of one-thousandth of the positive tension output
at peak of a twitch, and thus represents a tension decrease of about 20
mg. The precision of measurement of these events is generally of the
order of ± 0.02 ms. for the time intervals and ± 0.1 mg. for the LR
tension change.
The results2 that will be discussed are concerned with the effects
of pH and of temperature on the latency phenomena. The effect of pH
changes, indirectly induced in the muscle by its own previous activity, is
discussed in Sandow (194.5, a and b). The general conclusion of this
work, that the higher the pH, the shorter is L T, has been confirmed by
experiments (Sandow, 1943) in which the hydrogen-ion concentration of
the muscle was directly modified over the range from pH 6.0 to 8.5 by
exposing it to different mixtures of CO 2 and O2 (or N 2 ) in bicarbonate-
buffered Ringer's solution. Thus, we verify for skeletal muscle what
Ritchie (1933) found for heart muscle. Since the tension latency, LTI
is shorter the higher the muscle pH, it is evident that the speed or some
process directly determining the speed of tension onset is increased, the
more alkaline the muscle. In view of the fact that the hydrolysis of
ATP by myosin increases with pH (up to about pH 9.0) (Bailey, 1942;
DuBois and Potter, 1943), we feel that this is the reaction occurring in
the latent period that directly energizes and activates the rise of tension.
If the ATP hydrolysis that is supposed to take place in the latent
period is specifically catalyzed by myosin, then it is important to search
for independent proof of the involvement of the contractile enzyme.
Evidence that myosin-in the sense of a fibrous protein-is involved in
the formation of the LR is presented in Sandow (1944). But the in-
2 These results were obtained in eltpC'lments performed in coJlabora.t.loD. with Mr. A. G. Xarcz-
mar.
fiuence of temperature, especially on R-the magnitude of the LR-

indicates that the LR is no mechanical sign of the enzymatic activity of
myosin. 8
As the temperature is varied from 10° to 40° C., R increases to a
maximum at about 24° and then falls at higher temperatures until, at
40°, it is only a few percent of the maximal value. If the muscle is kept
for a minute or so at 40° and then quickly returned to the optimal tem-
perature, 24.°, the magnitude of R is greater than it was at 40°, but not
as great as it was at 24°, before submission to the higher temperature.
Thus, the inactivation of R at high temperature can be partially re-
versed. The detailed study of inactivation of R by high temperatures
leads to the following conclusions: (1) The irreversible inactivation of
R begins quite sharply at a critical temperature of about 37.5° and the
rate of irreversible inactivation increases very rapidly within the range
of the next few degrees. The temperature coefficient of this process at
about 38°-39° ('xpresscd as a Ql0 value is of the order of several
thousand. (2) Another critical temperature exists at about 41°, for, at
or above this temperature, completely irreversible inactivation of R
occurs very quickly, i.e., in a few minutes.
The general variations of R with temperature are very similar to
those characteristic of temperature effects on enzyme behavior. There-
fore, it is inferred that the LR is an expression of the action of an
enzyme. Furthermore, the two critical temperatures for the inactiva-
tion of R, one at 37.5°, the other at about 41 0, are, respectively, essen-
tially the same as those at which Mirsky (1937) has demonstrated the
occurrence of primary and secondary heat denaturation of extracted
frog myosin, and the high Ql0 for the LR inactivation at 38-39° C. is
comparable to that of the order of one thousand found at a similar
temperature range for the primary denaturation process. The thermal
features of the inactivation of the LR and the denaturation of myosin
arc so similar that we therefore conclude the LR is determined by some
action of myosin. Since these generalizations concerning the signifi-
cance of the temperature variations in R indicate that, on the one hand,
the LR represents an enzyme action, and, on the other, a property of
myosin, it is reasonable to infer that the LR is an indication of myosin
acting enzymatically. This view is strengthened by the inference,
derived by analysis of the effect of pH, that the hydrolysis of ATP-
8 See Slmdow (1943) for a prebmmazy aDIlOuncement of the eeneral eifeots of temperature on
the latency phenomena. ()Illy the beha'Vlor of R will be dJscusSed. here.
146 TRANSACTIONS
the substrate of myosin-is occurring during the lawn!, period which

includes the time interval of the LR.
The synthee.is of the results of our pH u.nd temperature experiments
thus indicates-inferenbally, it is true-that thC' httC'ut pC'riod is a
time interval during which myosin acts ('nzymu.tically on ATP. In-
deed, if Engelhardt had not discovered the ATP-ase activity of myosin,
our experiments might have been used to suggest this as a possibility.
But, in view of Engelhardt's finding, the unique contribution of our
research lies in the suggestion that, in the live muscle, the enzymatic
interaction of myosin and ATP, and hence the energizing of myosin,
take place during the In.tent period of the mechanical response. Thus,
our work lends support to the view that muscular contraction is ener-
gized by the mechanism of activaLion coupling.
The questlOn that now arises is the detailed nature of the coupling
of ATP and myosin, anrl its relation to the sequence of mechanical
changes in a stimulated muscle, first relaxation-the LR-and then,
contraction. The following theory (preliminary notice in Sandow,
1943) is proposed in explanation of these events. Assume that the
reaction between myosin and ATP in stimulated muscle involves the
formation of an intermediate enzyme-substrate combination in accord-
ance with the following scheme:
M + ATP ~ M-ATP -~ Me + ADP + H;P04 (I)
in which M represents myosin at rest, M-ATP, the intermediate combi-
nation, Me, contracting myosin, and ADP, adenosinediphosphate. This
scheme pictures the transfer of energy from ATP to M as a function of the
intermediary, M-ATP i and when this transfer is accomplished, there are
released from the intermerliary, not only the energy-degraded products
of the hydrolysis of ATP, but also the energy-enrirhed and contracting
myosin, Me. Sinee M corresponds to the muscle at rest and Me to con-
tracting muscle, it is therefore supposed that the intermediate M-ATP
is the form of myosin responsible for the LR that intervenes between
rest and contraction. In other words, we specifically assume that the
LR is a mechanical sign in live, stimulated muscle of the presence of the
enzyme-substrate combination, M-ATP.
In addition to evidence already adduced in support of our assump-
tion concerning the significance of the LR, we may point to the result of
Engelhardt that myosin threads elongate in association with their
enzymatic activity. It is possible that this elongation corresponds to
the formation of an M-ATP complex. It is true, in the Engelhardt

experiment, that, even though the ATP was hydrolyzed, the myosin
threads remained extended j but the failure to contract may be a con-
sequence of the pro('('E.s('s of extraction and formation of the myosin into
threads. Be that as It may, our assumption is in direct contradiction
to the view of the Needham group that contracting myosin is repre-
sented by the M-ATP combination. But this view is an inference.
Furthermore, it is based on experiments with myosin in solution and not
in the form of fibers; and, as Dainty et al. (1944) state, "It must be
remembered that, in vitro, the contraction of the myosin particles does
no work, and the conditions are therefore very different from those in
vivo." Therefore, it docs not seem to be too arbitrary to adopt the
contrary assumption concerning the role of M-ATP that we have in-
cluded in our theory. Finally, the possibility should be mentioned that
the behavior of myosin in live mu&cle may represent a synthesis of the
mechanical behavior of extracLed myosin found in the Engelhardt and
Needham experiments; i.e., the LR corresponds to the elongation of
Engelhardt's myosin fibers, and the subsequent contraction and relaxa-
tion are equivalent to the shortening and then lengthening of the Need-
ham micellae.
Since, in our theory, M-ATP is the LR form of myosin, we will
designate it by MR. If it be now assumed that the reactions, M ~ M a,
and Ma ~ Me are, in first approximation, monomolecular, with velocity
constants kl and k2' respectively, then the determination of the course
of the mechanical change of the stimulated muscle reduces, in the first
place, to the problelD of the kinetics of the following chain of reactions: 4
ltl- !_vl-+ MR-lE:-+ Ale. (II)

Ma and Me will not exist in the unstimulated muscle. Hence, taking
the initial concentration of M equal to unity, we have, as the initial con-
ditions for Reaction (II) (using small m's to represent concentrations) :
= = =
m I, mn. me O. The solution of this system giving the ro's as a
function of time, t, is well known:
• A formolly IdentIcol reactIOn svstem, but WIth c:hffelent mea.rungs a.ttnbuted to the reacta.nts1
has been propo,ed by Gilson, Wolker, and Seho_IIPlle (1944) as II theoretIcal bllSlS for the course or
the tensIon output XII. II muscular contrllct1cn. The rellitIon between thIS theory and ours will be
dIScussed elsewhere.
148 TRANSACTIONS
m=p,I, (1)
k1__ (e-I<,.I -
mIl = __ c-AJt), (2)
J.. l - kl
rite =1- __ k2 _
kl - kl
6-1.,/ + -- 1.'1
k2 - kl
c- LJt • (3)
Thus, the tension development of the muscle; i.c., the change from the
rcsting state of M, will be given by some function of the quantities
ma and mc. Now, for large values of the time, mn ~ 0, and mc ~ 1.
Thus, for t = 00, all the myosin is in the contracted state, and this, it is
assumed, will correspond to the time of maximum tension in a tetanus.
For simplicity, set this maximum tension equal to unity.
At present, there is no basis for chooe.ing a particular form of the
function of mn and mc to represent the tension development. With a
first approximation in mind, however, we will make the assumption that
the tension, T, of the muscle, at any instant, is given numerically by the
difference between mc, the concentration of the contracted myosin, and
ma, that of the relaxed intermediary myosin. Hence,
T=mc-mE (4)
and, using the expressions given in Equations (2) and (3),
T = 1 - 'k,.
k2-kl
kl e-I.,I+ + k 2kl
-k
e-1c• t• (5)
2 1
Omitting the analytical details here, a first study of Equation (5), in

comparison with experimental curves for the time-course of the usually
recorded isometric tension production in a tetanus, and for the latency
relaxation of a frog sartorius muscle at about 20° C., leads to the choice
=
of the values: kl = 20, and k2 800. Inserting these values in Equa-
tion (5), we have,
T = 1 - 1.0513 e-20t + 0.0513 e-bOOl (6)
A plot of this equation shows that the tension curve is strikingly
similar to corresponding experimental myograms of a tetanus. But of
greatest interest is the fact that Equation (6) includes an initial phase
involving a very slight and short negative tension charge which is the
theoretical equivalent of the actual latency relaxation. The theoretical
LR, however, differs in several respects from the actual. The theo-
retical curve begins at the zero of time, while the actual latency relaxa-
tion does not begin, in general, until about 1.5 ms. after the instant of
stimulation. This merely corresponds to the fact that, in the muscle,
THE NJjJW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 149
some reaction concerned with the excitatory process must run its course
before resting myobin begins to be transformed into relaxing myosin.
This procebs may be, III purL, the I·elease of Os that BaIley (1942) postu-
lates actb m VtVO to actIvate myosin-ATP-ase. There are other de-
viations of the theoretical curve from the experimental, but these are of
secondary importance, an<1, at any rate, are too detaIled to take up
here.
The fact that the theory of muscular contraction, outlined above,
leads to an overall tension curve that begins with an initial decrease,
followed by an increase of tension that agrees in certain respects quite
closely with the actual behavior of a muscle tetanus, is presumptive
evidenoe in support of the assumed underlymg mechanism. Further
corroboration for this view may be found in several other considerations,
such as, for example, the possibility that the variation of mR with time
as expressed in Equation (2) provides a definite basis for Brown's (1941)
alpha-process. But such discussion must be postponed for the full-
length publication of our theory.
It must be stressed that the present discussion deals with the results
merely of a preliminary analysis of the basic conceptions symbolized in
the schemes of Reactions (I) and (II). As more work is done on this
theory, modification in detail will undoubtedly have to be made.
Furthermore, the theory deals only with the events of the latent and
contraction periods of muscular response. Post-contractile relaxation is
not considered. In this connection, it is significant that the theory is
deliberately limited in the sense that it does not include some process
that restores contracted myosin to its original rested state during this
relaxation phase. However, it may be possible to extend the theory so
as to make it conform with the view, for which some evidence exists,
that special chemical reactions during post-contractile relaxation ac-
tively sc>rve to transforln contracted into resting myosin.
Finally, it. is evident that the theory we have outhned is a
particular formulation of the mechanism of activation coupling, and,
therefore, in so far as it has merit, it upholds this conception of the
energization of muscular activity. Quite apart from this theory and its
connotations, however, the general conclusions and inferences of our
experiments on the effects of pH and temperature on the latent period of
contraction provide independent support for activation coupling com-
parable to that of Ritchie (1933), Brown (1936), and Buchthal (1944 a
and b), previously discussed. Thus, it is clear, in view of the partiCUlar
150 TRANSACTIONS
activation mechanism our thcory provides, and especially because of

the experimental evidence of our own and other research dealing wiLh
live muscle, that there is good reason for concluding that activation
coupling is the means by which muscular contraction is energized.
LITERATURE CITED
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1942. Myosin and adenosinetriphosphatase. Bioch. J. 36: 121-139.
Brown, D. E. S.
1936. The effect of rapid compression upon the events in the isometric con-
traction of skeletal muscle. J. Cell. and Compo Physiol. 8: 14.1-157.
Brown, D. E. S.
1941. The regulation of energy exchange in contracting muscle. Biological
Symposia 8: 161-190.
Buchtha.l, F., A. Deutsch, & G. G. Enappeis
1944. Adenosinetriphosphate initiating contraction and changing birefringence
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Buchtha.l, F., & G. Xahlson
1944. Application of adenosine-triphosphate and related compounds to
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Dainty, M., A. Xleinzeller, A. S. O. La.wrence, M. Wall, J. Needham, D. M.
Needham, & Shih-Ohang Shen
1944. Studies on the anomalous viscosity and flow-birefringence of protein
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ingelha.rdt, W. A. & M. N. Ljubimova.
1939. Myosin and adenosine-triphosphatase. Nature 144: 668-669.
Engelha.rdt, W. A., M. N. Ljubimova., & R. A. Meitina.
1941. Chemistry and mechanics of muscle studied on myosin. Compt. Rend.
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87: 391-2).
lblgelhardt, W. Jl
1941. Enzymatic and mechanical properties of muscle proteins. Advances in
Contemporary Biology 14, EiditlOn 2.
1942. The above article reprinted in translation. Yale J. of BioI. and Med·
15: 21.
Gilson, Jr., A. S., S. M. Walker, & G. M. Shoepiie
1944. The forms of the isometric twitch and isometric tetanus curves recorded
from the frog's sartorius muscle. J. Cell. and Compo Physiol. 24:
185-199.
'l'RE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 151
Kalckar, H. M.
1941. The nature of energetic coupling in biological systems. Chem. Rev.
28: 71-178.
Mirsky, A. E.
1937. Contraction of Inllbcle and denaturation of myosin. Proc. Soc. Expt.
RIO. Med. 37: 157-159.
Needham, J., A. Kleinzeller, M. Mia.ll, M. Dainty, D. M. Needham, & A. S. C.
Lawrence
1942. Is mu~cle contraction essentially an enzyme-substrate combination?
N uture 160: 46-49.
Rauh, F.
1922. Die Latenzzeit ues Muskelelementes. Zeit. f. BioI. 76: 25-48.
Ritchie, A. D.
1933. Theorics of mw.cular contraction. J. Physiol. '18: 322-334.
Sandow, A.
1943. Stuuv of the effect of pH, tissue poisons, and anistonicity on the me-
chamcal events of the contraction and relaxation periods of skeletal
mus(.'ular contraction. Year Book of the Amer. Philo. Soc.: 195-198.
1944. Studies OIl the latent period of mUbcular contraction method. General
propcrtics of latency reluxation. J. Cell. and Compo Physiol. 24:
221-256.
19450.. The efreet of a(.'tivitl'~ on the latent period of muscular contraction.
(Abstrnct) Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci. (2) 7: 78-80.
1945b. The effcct of activity on the latent period of muscular contraction.
Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 46. In press.
152 TRANSACTIONS
~)ECTION OF PSYCHOLOGY
MARCIl 19, 1915
of P::-y('holop,y, W(,]I<'sley Coll('ll.c,
DOCTOR EDNA H}<]IDBnIlDER, Pl'oll'obor
Wcllesley, Mass.: The Attammcnt of Conccpt.'t ·-.t Psychological
1nterpretation.
(An abstract of this paper will be publh,hcd in tIl(' May iobU(, of the
TRANSACTIONS.)
THlil NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 153
SECTION OJj' ANTHROPOLOGY

MARCIl 26/ 1945
DOC'TOlt A K\UDINEH, New York, N. Y.: Psychologica~ Criteria for an
Infercultura~ Comparison of Personality.
(No abt:.truct of this paper has been received.)
154 TRANSACTIONS
MARcn 30 AND 31, 1945
Conference on uNon-Projective Personality Tests."
The Section of Psychology held a Conference on "Non-Projective
Personality Tests," as the fifth in the series for the Academic Year 1944-
1945.
PERSONALITY INVENTORIES
Chairman, Anne Anastasi, Queens College, Flushing, New York.

"Recent Research with the Multiphasic Personality Inventory,"
by G. Hamilton Crook, Personnel Research Section, Classification and
Replacement Branch, The Adjutant General's Office, New York, N. Y.
"The Effect of Alcohol on the Personality Profile (Minnesota) ," by
Major Harold A. Abramson, (M.C.) A.U.S.
"Psychological Screening Procedures in the War Shipping Admin-
istration," by Sanitarian (R), George G. Killinger, Chief, Psychological
Service, U.S.P.H.S., and Past Assistant Sanitarian (R), Joseph Zubin,
Chief, Medical Statistician, Psychobiological Program, U.S.P.H.S., War
Shipping Administration.
THE CORNELL INDEX AND THE CORNELL MULTIPLE CHOICE

WORD ASSOCIATION TEsTS
Chairman, Henry E. Garrett, Columbia University, Ncw York, N. Y.

"Construction and Standardization," by Bela Mittclmann and
Keeve Brodman, Cornell University Medical College, New York, N. Y.
"Results," by Arthur Weider, Cornell University Medical College,
New York, N. Y., and David Wechsler, Psychiatric Division, Bellevue
Hospital, New York, N. Y.
"Application," by Harold G. Wolff, Cornell University Medical
College and New York Hospital, New York, N. Y.
"The Cornell Selectee Index as an Aid in Psychiatric Diagnosis,"
by Lt. Comdr. Harold J. Harris, (MC.) U.S.N.R.
ABILITY PATTERNS AND PERSONALITY
Chairman, David Shukow, Worcester State Hospital, Worcester, Mas-

sachusetts.
"The Expression of Personahty and Maladjustment in Intelligence
Test Results," by Roy Shafer, Research PsychologIst, Menninger Clinic,
Topeka, Kansas.
"Personality Diagnostic Evaluation by Means of Non-projective
Techniques," by Edith Wladkowsky, Psychiatric Division, Bellevue
"Difference between Cases with Inventories Giving Satisfactory
and Unsatisfactory Results," by Zygmunt A. Piotrowski, Psychiatric
Institute, New York, N. Y.
THEORY
Chairman, Gardner Murphy, College of the City of New York, New

York, N. Y.
"Hypotheses Underlying Non-Projective Tests of Personality," by
David Rapaport, Head of Department of Psychology, Menninger
Clinic, Topeka, Kansas.
Problems of Performance Analysis in the Study of Personality," by
Martin Scheerer, College of the City of New York, New York, N. Y.
156 TRANSACTIONS
ANNOUNCEMENT OF PUBLICATIONS FOR 19451

The following publications will be issued by the Academy during
the current year. Members of the Academy who desire to receive these
papers will kindly request the Executive Secretary to send lhem, and
they will be mailed, free of charge as they are ready for distribution,
except as qualified in the footnotes: 2
ANNALS
1. "Diffusion of Electrolytes and Macromolecules in Solution."

Papers delivered at the conference by this title. (Approximately 146
pages.)
2. "Animal Colony Maintenance." Papers delivered at the con-
ference by this title. (Approximately 130 pages.)
3. "The Effect of Activity on the Latent Period of Muscular Con-
traction," by Alexander Sandow. Awarded an A. Cressy Morrison
Prize, 1945. (Approximately 30 pages.)
4. "A Hitherto Undemonstrated Zoogleal Form of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis," by Eleanor Alexander-Jackson. Awarded an A. Cressy
Morrison Prize, 1945. (Approximately 20 pages.)
5. "Respiration and Germination Studies of Seeds in Moist Stor-
age," by Lela V. Barton. Awarded Honorable Mention, A. Cressy
Morrison Prize Competition, 1945. (Approximately 20 pages.)
6. "Surface Active Agents." Papers delivered at the conference
by this title. (Approximately 157 pages.)
SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS
VOLUME III
"Experimental Hypertension." Papers delivered at the conference
by this title. (To be issued as a cloth bound volume, which will be
available at a special rate for Members of the Academy.)
TRANSACTIONS
Series II, Volume 7, Nos. 1-8. These papers are sent to all Mem-
bers of the Academy, regularly, during the Academic Year. (Approxi-
mately 200 pages.)
1 Notice of additional ~ublications to be added to thie liet wfil be Bent to Members later.
I Active, SustaiDiDg, Life, and Honorary Members may receive, upon request, a copy of all
current numbera of the Annals.
Aaaociate and Student Members are entitled to receive one complete monolll'lLph, or up to 150
paps of smaller papers.
NEW MEMBERS
ELECTED MARCH 22, 1945
SUSTAINING MEMBER
Goldfrank, Esther S., B.A., Anthropology, Research Assistant, Chinese History
Project, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
ACTIVE MEMBERS
Adams, Lois, Ph.D., Personality. Barnard College, New York, N. Y.
Alscher, Ruth Paula, B.A., Biology, Psychology, Chemistry. Research Biochemist,
Fleischman Laboratories, Standard Brands, Inc., New York, N. Y.
Barnes, Richard H.. Ph.D., Director, Biochemical Research, Medical-Research
Division, Sharp & Dohme, Glenolden, Pennsylvania.
Carlson, E. W., B.S., Physics and Chemistry. Research Chemist, Stanco, Inc.,
Elizabeth, New Jersey.
Carp~nter, Samuel C., B.A., Proteins. Research Chemist, Lawrence Richard Bruce,
Inc., Stamford, Connecticut.
Chaplick, Sarah, B.A., Bacteriology, Psychology. Bacteriologist, New York, N. Y.
Church, Charles Frederick,__M.D., Medical Science. Assistant to Director, Squibb
Institute for Medical J:tesearch, New Brunswick, New Jersey.
deBeer, Edwin John, Ph.D., Pharmacology and Medical Sciences. Head of Depart-
ment of Pharmacology, The Wellcome Research Laboratories, Tuckahoe, New
York.
Dorn, Herman William, Ph.D., Synthetic Organics, Chemotherpeutics. Supervisor,
Food and Nutritional Chemistry Laboratory, Owens-Illinois Glass Company,
Toledo Ohio.
Dziallas, Hildegard A. K~ B.S., Bacteriology. Medical Technician, Pathology
Laboratory, Flushing_nospital, Flushing, New York.
Ferrari, Cha.rles G., Ph.D., Biological and Food Chemistry. Assistant to Vice
President in Charge of Research, Standard Brands, Inc., New York, N. Y.
Fletcher, Shirley Rhoda, A.B., Medical Technology, Serologist. Flushing Hospital,
Flusning, New York.
Flory, Curtis McCay, M.D., Ph.D., Instructor, Department of Pathology, Cornell
University Medical College, New York, N. Y.
Gessler, A. E., Ph.D., Chemistry. Director of Research, InterchemicaI Corporation,
New York, N. Y.
Golden, William T., A.B., Lieutensnt Commander, U.s.N.R., Washington, D. C.
Hollo, JuliUS, M.D., Medicin~,! Biochemistry. Clinical Assistant, Hospital for Joint
DiAeases, New York N. x.
Howard, Rutledge William, M.D., M('dicine. Director of Professional Service,
Lederle Laboratories, Inc., New York, N. Y.
Krugman, Morris, Ph.D., Psychology. Chief Psychologist, Bureau of Child Guid-
ance, Board of Education, New York N. Y.
Lewin, Isaac.j...B.s., Bacteriolo!P", Cellular Physiolo~, Biochemistry. Research A&-
sistant, .uepartment of Blology, Princeton Unlv('rsity, Princeton, New Jersey.
Luc!!:..s" John J., M.A., Psychology. Graduate Assistant to Professor Hoopingarner,
l'ieW York University, New York, N. Y.
McQueen, Henry Silliman...}..M., Geologist, Republic Mining and Manufacturing
Comjlany, New York,l'i. Y.
MaIler, Julius B., Ph.D., Social Psychology. Director of Research, Library and
Publications, American Jewish Committee, New York, N. Y.
MargQld\ Charles W., Ph~~ Biologyi Psycholo_gy, Anthropology. Research
Wou:er, New York State !'Iormal Co lege, New York, N. Y.
Meier, Frank A., B.s., Chief Chemiet, American Pla.tinum Works, Newark, New
Jersey. .
158 TRANSACTIONS
Meranze David R. M.D., Clinical Pathology. Director of Laboratories and

Pathologist, Mt.'Sinai Hospital, PhiladC'lpilia. Pl'nn~ylvunia.
Papale Victoria Louise, M.A., BiolololY and Ull('mi~try. SupcI'vi~or of Science
Teaching in the Elementary Schools, SummIt, New J(·rb(,Y.
Pease, Murray, A.B., History: and Materulls of Al'Llflwtl:J. Ass()ciate Curator in
Conservation and TechnIcal Reklearch, Metropoiltan MUl:!cum of ArL, New
York, N. Y.
Perlman, David, Ph.D., Organic Chemistry. Instructor m Chemil:ltry, Coll('ge of the
City of New York, New York, N. Y.
Prevost, Gerda, M.A., Psychology. Student, with Profl'ssor nenry E. Garrett,
Department of Psychology, ColumbIa Umverslty. New York, N. Y.
Robinson, Edward, M.D., Medicine. Physiology, Biochemi!>try. Clinical Assistant,
Jewish and Israel Zion Hospitals, Brooklyn, New York.
Roizin, Leon, M.D., Psychology, Physics and UhC'mistry. Associate Research
Neuropathologist, New York Stnte PsychiatrIC lnhlitute and HOllpltal; In-
structor in Psychiatry, Columbia UniversIty, New York, N. Y.
Sargent, S. Stansfeld, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Psychology, Barnard Col-
lege, Columbia University New York. N. Y.
Sexton, Anna M., Librarian, Division of Laboratories and Research, New York
State Department of Health, Albany, New York.
Stebinger, Eugene, B.S., Chief GeologISt, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey,
New York, N. Y.
Strahler, Arthur N., Ph.D., Lecturer in Geomorphology, Columbia University, New
York, N. Y.
von Estorff, Fritz E., M.A., Geologist, Socony-Vacuum Oil Company, New York,
N.Y.
ASSOCIATE MEMBERS
Barnes, Virgil E., Ph.D., Geologist, Bureau of Economic Geology, University of
Texas Austin, Texas.
Chenoweth, Philip A., Geology and Mineralogy. Staff Sargent, U. S. Army Signal
Corps.
Dunkle, David H., Ph.D., Vertebrate Paleontology. Acting Curator, Department
of Paleontology, Cleveland Museum of Natural History, Cleveland, Ohio.
Koelle, George B., B.Sc., Pharmacologist, 1st Lieutenant, MAC, Medical Research
Laboratory, Chemical Warfare Service, Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland.
Pray, Alfred R., M.s., Inorganic-Nonaqueous Chemistry. Research Fellow, Syra-
cuse Universlty._Syracuse, New York.
White, Alan G. C., M.s., Bacterial Physiology and Nutrition. Research Fellow,
Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.
STUDENT MEMBERS
Hamilton, Peggy-.Ka~t A.B.\ Geology. Assistant to Professor A. K. Lobeck, Stu-
dent, Columbia UniverSIty, New York. N. Y.
Leonard, Fred, M.S~ .High Polymers. Research Associate, Polytechnic Institute of
Broo~J'll, BrooiUyn, New York.
Tamber, Nina Rubin, B. "'b Psychology. National Academy of Sciences Grant,
Supervised by Doctor .n. A. Witkin, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn. New York.
Zimmerm&n.,t. Julius, B.s., High Polymers. Research Chemist, Polytechnic Insti-
tute of ~rooklyn, Brooklyn, New York.
TRANSACTIONS
of
SER. II, 'VOL. 7 No. 7
SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY·
APRIL 2, 1945
DOCTOR WILLIAM C. KRUMBEIN, Beach Erosion Board, War Depart-
ment, Washington, D. C.: Sedimentary Maps and Oil Explora-
tion.t (The lecture was illustrated by lantern slides.)
Within the past two decades, advances in sedimentation have been
very rapid. Techniques for the quantitative measurement of sedimen-
tary attributes have been developed j the geological significance of par-
ticle properties is better understood j lateral variations in sedimentary
environments are being studied j and a body of theoretical knowledge is
being made available for applied geological problems. As the more
theoretical or academic studies are translated into general geological
terms or into general principles of sedimentation, they become increas-
ingly valuable to the stratigrapher, the paleontologist, and the petroleum
geologist.
Present trends in sedimentation are unquestionably toward a more
quantified approach, and sedimentary attributes are increasingly ex-
pressed as numbers. Such numbers, having various degrees of statis-
tical significance, have already been applied to particle properties, as
size, shape (sphericity), roundness, and others j to mass sediment prop-
erties, as porosity, permeability, and the like; and to various chemical
and mineralogical properties. The numbers are valuable in describing
and comparing sediments, but their greatest practical significance is
• No meeting of the Section of Biology was held in April.
t This lecture was delivered. under the title "Modem Sedimentation BIld the Search for
~leum." The written version emphasizes certain p~rtions only,
TRANSACTIONS of The New York Academy of Sciences, Series II, Volume 7, No.7, May,
1946.
This publication is distributed to Members and is published monthly from November to June,
inclusive, at 109 West Chestnut StreetL,..Lancaster, Pa-, by The New York Academy of Sciences,
Seventy-ninth Street and Central Park west, New York City.
Editor: Rov Waldo Miner.
Eucutive Secretary: Eunice Thomas Miner.
Entarecl. az second-clazs matter December 2, 1938, a.t the post office at La.ncazter, Pl.., under the
act of August 24, 1912.
159
160 TRANSACTIONS
realized when they a.re used to present the areal variation of the at-
tribute. In response to this need, the quantita.tive trend has been
paralleled by the development of maps to show the areal distribution
of sediment properties. Mapa of sediment thickness (isopach maps)
are in common use, and maps of particle size variation, average perme-
ability, organic content of the sediments, and the like, are beginning to
appear.
As soon as numerical sedimentary data become available over an
area, a contour·type map of the attribute may be made by drawing
lines of equal value through the field of numbers scattered over the
area. These contour·type maps are an outgrowth of the quantitative
approach, and the development of additional maps of the same sort
depends upon further extensions of the quantitative method.
Current interest in the development and use of new maps to solve
stratigraphic and structural problems is illustrated by Kay's recent
paper (1945), in which a classification is presented. The contour-type
sedimentary map, properly referred to as an isopleth map, is classified
by Kay under his paleolithologic group. However, in terms of con-
struction, isopach maps and some paleogeographic maps belong to the
contour type. Thus, the present discussion cuts across Kay's classifi-
cation to some extent, and indicates merely that it is based upon use,
whereas the present treatment is based upon similarity of construction
and geometrical properties.
The necessary data for constructing contour-type maps include
values of a given variable (average size, thickness, permeability, etc.),
each associated with a specific geographic and stratigraphic location.
The known values must be spaced closely enough over the area to
bring out, at least, the overall trend in the data.
The geometrical properties of all such maps are the same as those
of an ordinary contour map, and the same geometrical principles of
interpretation can be used, with due allowance for the difference in the
physical attribute shown on the map. For the most general case of a
contour-type map, if the numbers represent elevations above sea level,
it is an ordinary contour map i if they represent thickness of sedimez,lt,
it is an isopach map i if they represent average particle size, it is a
size map i and so on. The important point is that, in each instance, the
lines are lines of equal magnitude or quantity, and they are related to
their neighbors by some constant difference, product, or power. Rence,
each map represents a surface, with the spacing between the lines in-
versely proportional to the slope of the surface. These surfaces have
certain geometrical properties also. If the surface is an ordinary land-
scape, rainwater falling upon it runs down-slope at right angles to the
contours, because a line normal to the contour, at any point, is the
direction of steepest slope at that point. By drawing a series of nor-
mals on the surface or its map, lines of maximum slope are obtained,
superimposed on the lines of equal magnitude. For a land surface,
these lines of maximum slope indicate the directions of surface runoff;
for other sediment properties, the lines may also have a physical sig-
nificance. For example, if the surface represents a size map, the direc-
tions of most rapid change of permeability follow upslope along the
slope lines. This relation follows from the fact that permeability in-
creases as the square of the average diameter, and the diameters in-
crease most rapidly upslope. Thus, it would be possible, in some in-
stances, to construct a permeability surface from the size surface. In
fact, it is very likely that the several surfaces representing various
dynamic attributes of the sediment would all be very similar, and differ
mainly in steepness and height.
It appears to be possible, also, to apply potential theory to such
maps or surfaces by considering the contour lines as lines of equal po-
tential, and the lines of :xp.aximum slopes as streamlines. To the extent
that the theory is applicable to some or all of the maps, the whole
background of reasoning associated with potential theory may be woven
into the map interpretation. Restrictions will depend upon the vari-
able plotted on the map, and whether such variable sa.tisfies the condi-
tions necessary to establish the existence of a potential function.
The significa.nt point in the extension of contour-type maps to sedi-
mentary data is that, although the preparation of the maps may require
skill in sedimentary technique, the interpretation of the maps follows
standard lines of geometrical reasoning. Hence, the general geologist,
skilled in map interpretation, may find much of value from the maps in
conjunction with other geological data bearing on his particular prob-
lem. Just as a series of principles has been developed for the interpre-
tatibn of contour maps of land surfaces, so maya similar set or sets be
developed for the study of sedimentary maps. In using such maps to
narrow down exploration possibilities for stratigraphic traps, it may
well be that, instead of the closed contour which did yeoman service
in the search for structural traps, partiCUlar groupings of the sedimen-
tary contours may be significant. Where rapid changes in the sedi-
162 TRANSACTIONS
mentary attributes result in steepening of the surface, they may indi-

cate that other features are changing rapidly also. In short, it may be
the steeper slopes or the margins of steeper slopes that are significant
in the search for oil.
Contour-type (isopleth) maps of sedimentary data range from
general features presenting an overall picture to detailed maps of spe-
cific attributes. A stratum of sandstone may be converted into values
of thickness, mean size, sorting, heavy mineral content, permeability,
etc., and each of these used as the basis for a contour-type map. Such
maps are factual in that they present the observed areal variation of a
chosen variable, but more or less interpretation is necessarily included,
because incomplete data may require interpolation or extrapolation.
The following classification shows the range of possibilities in con-
tour-type maps of sediments. The classification is not to be consid-
ered a rigid system. The groupings are made to suggest family rela-
tions among the maps, rather than as categories into which a map either
falls or does not fall. Examples are cited in each group, but the par-
ticular literature references are mainly illustrative. Some of the data
have never been presented in map form so far as the writer is aware,
but their unquestioned inclusion in the general classification suggests
their usefulness for shedding additional light on sedimentary problems.
1. MAPS BASED ON OVERALL RELATIONS. This group includes gen-
eral maps which indicate overall or regional features. Examples are
regional stratigraphic maps based on lines of equal percentages of shale,
sand, or lime; structure contour maps (as indicating the attitude of the
sedimentary beds) ; maps of facies changes; and various paleogeographic
maps, such as paleogeomorphic maps, providing the ancient land
surfaces can be shown by contours. Published examples include a
facies change map by Hale (1941), and a paleogeomorphic map by
Jager (1942).
2. MAPS BASED ON PARTICLE PROPERTIES. Here is included a large
group of maps which show the areal variation of measured attributes
of the sedimentary particles. The attributes, size, shape (sphericity),
roundness, surface texture, and orientation (petrofabrics) are generally
recognized as the more significant (Mineral properties are treated sepa-
rately below). These maps may indicate, not only average values of
the particle attributes, but also a host of other statistical parameters.
Size attributes, for example, may include maps of average size, degree
of sorting, skewness, kurtosis, ratios of size to sorting, and so on.
These several examples may be repeated for all the particle properties.
Surfacc texture, at present, cannot be expressed numerically, although
lines of equal percentagcs of frosted or polished grains can be shown.
Maps of size attrIbutes are most common. Pye (1944) shows the size
variatIOn of the Bethel sandstone; a sorting map was published by
Krumbein and Aberdeen (1937); and a skewness map is shown in
Krumbein and Griffith (1938).
3. MAPS BASED ON MASS PHYSICAL PPOPERTIES. This group in-
cludes properties of the aggregate, such as porosity, permeability, color,
average density, thickness (isopach maps), and others. If the data
represent a single stratum or horizon the maps may be geographic.
Averages over thicker sections may include the time element and thus
be stratigraphic. Some geophysical maps are included here, to the ex-
tent that they indicate average physical properties. Published exam-
ples in this group include many isopach maps (see Lee, 1943, for ex-
ample). A permeability map is shown in Headlee and Joseph (1945).
4. MAPS BASED ON MASS CHEMICAL PROPERTIES. Many maps are
possible in this group, inasmuch as almost any measurable chemical at-
trIbute may be included. Examples include the percentage of a given
element within a stratum, or of a particular compound. Various ratios,
such as the CajMg ratio or its reciprocal, may be useful in indicating
changes from limestone to dolomite, with all the implications which
accompany such a change. Maps of insoluble residues, of degree of
cementation, of percentage of organic carbon, of radioactive proper-
ties, are all included here. Trainer (1932) published an insoluble resi-
due map. Krumbein and Caldwell (1939) show a map of organic con-
tent of tidal lagoon sedIments.
5. MAPS BASED ON MINERALOGICAL PPOPERTIES. Heavy mineral
data lend themselves well to presentation on contour-type maps. The
percentages of heavies, or the percentages of various species, or ratios
among various species (say non-resistant to resistant) may yield in-
teresting information. The cementation maps mentioned under (4)
may be included here, if presented as calcite vs. quartz cement, for ex-
ample. Smithson (1939) plotted certain diagenetic minerals to study
the effect of post-depositional changes on mineral distribution patterns.
A map showing percentage variations in heavy minerals was published
by Caldwell (1940).
6. MAPS OF ASSOCIATED GEOLOGICAL PBoCESSES. Energy condi-
tions within an environment may be shown by lines of equal energy
164 TRANSACTIONS
dissipation. Maps of current distribution, velocity variations, and so

on, may all be valuable for indicating relationships to sediment at-
tributes. For example, a map of the detailed variations in flow para-
meters of a stream, related to a map of sediment size, may account, in
part, for the observed rapid areal variations in stream deposits. Maps
such as these are necessarily confined to modern sedimentary environ-
ments, but, in some instances, they may be reconstructed from ancient
sediment patterns. Maps of wave refraction give evidence of energy
:flow to a shore. Johnson (1919) shows an example.
7. MAPS OF ASSOCIATED FAUNA AND FLORA. Many biologic and
paleontologic features can be presented on contour-type maps. Ex-
amples which suggest themselves include lines of equal population den-
sity (number of fossils per unit volume), based on whole faunas or par-
ticular species. Maps of variations in faunal assemblages, expressed
numerically as percentages or otherwise, from fresh water to marine in
an estuarine environment, would be very instructive in indicating de-
grees of variation and overlaps. Such maps would prove useful in es-
tablishing principles of correlation across facies changes. The writer is
not aware that maps in this group have been published.
8. MAPS OF AsSOCIATED FLUIDS. The fluids contained within the
sediments constitute part of the sedimentary or post-depositional story,
and are appropriately considered in this classification. Percent satura-
tion of oil, water, or gas, are examples. The A.P.I. gravity of the oil,
the salt content of contained water, the chemical constituents of oil or
gas, are all subjects which yield instructive and useful maps. Bottom-
hole pressures, initial yields, and other associated phenomena are
mapped and extensively used for engineering and reserve-estimate pur-
poses. It is unnecessary to emphasize that such maps prove helpful in
solving sedimentary problems also. Numerous published examples of
this group are available. Bottom-hole pressure maps are shown by
Weeks and Alexander (1942) j Plummer and Sargent (1931) showed
lines of equal salt-content of associated waters; and Price and Headlee
(1942) have a map of the thermal value of natural gas.
9. MAPS BASED ON CoMBINATIONS OF ATI'RIBUTEs. Combination
maps afford an additional group which may be important in some
studies. Here are included combinations based on sums, differences,
products, or quotients of two or more variables. An example is a
map based on the product of porosity and thickness (the "isovol" map
of Weeks and Alexander, 1942). Torrey (1934) showed percentage of
cement on a map of initial well production, which expresses the com-
bination idea, although no ratio or product was used. Other possible
maps are based on non-dimensional ratios, such as average particle
size divided by thickness; or permeability in darcys divided by thick-
ness squared. Such combination maps may serve to bring into bolder
relief contrasts or similarities among attributes, thus focussing atten-
tion on particular localities.
In addition to the preparation of maps which combine sediment
properties, it is instructive to compare several individual maps of a
given area. An isopach map may show some relation between thick-
ness and known occurrence of oil, but the data are strengthened if maps
of cementation, permeability, average particle size, and others, are also
available. In short, in sedimentation, as in all other aspects of geol-
ogy, it is the convergence of evidence which is important. The writer
has suggested that it would be profitable to examine a known petro-
liferous area or stratigraphic pool by plotting the known occurrence of
oil on a whole series of sedimentary maps to detect some of the factors
which may have controlled the localization of the oil. Although such
a study may be largely historical in terms of oil, two possible by-
products may be the discovery of additional prospects in the same area
and a set of principles which could be used in exploring new territory.
Perhaps the main point to be emphasized in this presentation is
that there exists a large family of maps of sedimentary attributes, many
of which have already demonstrated their usefulness. The writer sub-
mits the thesis that other, as yet unmapped attributes, may prove
equally useful by reflecting the dynamic conditions of sedimentation or
significant post-depositional changes. It is not possible, in the present
state of knowledge, to predict which particular maps will be most sig-
nificant in a given situation.
The writer docs not imply that sedimentation alone affords the key
which will unlock the door to stratigraphic traps, but he does insist that
there remain many lines of attack which have the known merit that
they will shed additional important light on sedimentary problems. To
the extent that such new light is integrated with other lines of evidence,
it seems not unlikely that the forward movement of quantitative sedi-
mentation, stratigraphy, paleontology, and structural geology can all
contribute to a renaissance of geological methods for finding strati-
graphically-trapped oil.
166 TRANSACTIONS
LITERATURE CITED
Caldwell, L. T.
1940. Areal variations of ('alciunl cl\rhonnte and h!'nvy minerals in Barataria
Bay &ediments, Louibiana. Jour. S('d. llet. 10: 58-64.
Bale, Lucille
1941. Study of sedimentation and stmtigraphy of Lower Mu.si&!.ippian in
Western MichIgan. Bull. Amer. Absoc. Petrol. Gaol. 25: 713-723.
Beadlee, A. J. W., & J. S. Joseph
1945. Permeability, poroslty, oil, and water content of natural gas reservoirs.
West Va. Geol. Surv. Bull. 8.
Jager, E. H.
1942. Pre-Cretaceous top0gt:aphy of Western Edwards Plateau, Texas. Bull.
Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 28: 380-386.
Johnson, D. W.
1919. Shore proces&es and shoreline development: 75. New York.
lta.J, M.
1945.Paleogeographic and poJ.inspastic maps. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol.
Geol. 29: 426-450.
Krumbein, W. C., & Esther Aberdeen
1937. The sediments of Barataria. Bay. Jour. Sed. Pet. '1: 3-17.
Krumbein, W. C., & L. T. Caldwell
1939. Areal variation of organio carbon oontent of Barataria Bay sediments.
Bull. Amer. Assoo. Petrol. Geol. 23: 582-594.
Erumbein, W. C., & J. S. Griflith
1938. Beach Environment in Little Sister Bay, Wisconsin. Bull. Geol. Soo.
America 49: 629-652.
Lee, W.
1943. The strati~!:~ and structural development of the Forest City Basin in
Kansas. Geol. Survey Bull. 51.
Plummer, F. B., & E. C. Sargent
1931. Underground waters and subsurface tempera.tures of the Woodbine Sand
in Northeast Texas. Univ. Texas Bull. 3138.
Price, P. H., & A. J. W. Beadlee
1942. Geochemistry of natural ga., in Appalachian Province. Bull. Amer.
Assoc. Petrol. Geol 26: 19-35.
PJ'e, W. D.
1944. Petrology of Bethel Sandstone of South-central Illinois. Bull. Amer.
Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 28: 63-122.
Smithson, F.
1939. Statistical methods in sedimentary petrology. Geol. Mag. '16: 207-309;
348-360; 417-427.
Torre7. P. D.
1934. Problems of Petroleum. Geology. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol.: 474.
Tra.iner, D. W.
1932. The Tully limestone of central New York. N. Y. State Museum. Bull.
291.
Weeks, W. B., & C. W. Alemnder
1942. Schuler Field, Union County, Arkansaa. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol.
Geol. 26: 1467-1516.
ApRIL 16, 1945
DOCTOR S. BERNARD WORTIS, Professor of Psychiatry, New York Uni-

verslty College of Medicme; Director of Bellevue Psychiatric Hos-
pital, New York, N. Y.: Some Aspects of M 1,~1,tary N europsych1,atry.
World War I played an important part in stimulating interest in
psychiatry and psychiatric teaching. Much valuable experience was
accumulated concerning the problems of (1) selection; (2) training;
(3) detection of individuals vulnerable to the stresses of war and (4)
morale-sustaining methods. It is estimated that, of our army of
3,500,000, approximately 70,000 were rejected for some mental aberra-
tion. Only those with glaring personality defects were weeded out.
Even then, the cost in manpower, morale and money was high. How-
ever, too frequently, the psychoneurotic was looked upon as a malin-
gerer or a weakling and was either seriously disciplined or rejected as
being undesirable for military service.
Reports of the incidence of neuroses during World War I varied.
The British Expeditionary Forces were said to have 34 neuroses per
1000 casualties; the Canadian Expeditionary Forces 24 per 1000, and,
in the American Expeditionary Forces, neuroses were 9.5 per 1000
casualties. It is likely that our own American Expeditionary Force
casualties were lower because our men were not as long in combat ser-
vice as the British and Canadians.
It was also prevalent belief that few of the wounded developed
psychoneuroses, and this seemed logically related to the fact that any
disabling physical injury did the job of removing the soldier to a hos-
pital away from the combat area, where he got sleep, food, rest, medical
care and esteem that he had done his bit. Experience also indicated
that other complex factors often were precipitating stresses that were
related to the onset of neuropsychiatric disorders. Some of these were:
anxiety; new responsibility; troublesome news from home, producing
insecurity; physical injury or illness, resulting in deformity or ampu-
tation.
Morale of soldier patients on any ward was found to be of greatest
importance in their recovery.
Neuropsychiatry in the military forces, during the current World
War II, presented some new and many old problems. Experiences of
the first World War, while serving as a guide, needed much adaptation
168 TRANSACTIONS
to the conditions of modern global warfar(' with its inereased tempo and
its ncw air, third dimensional, fnetor.
Howcver, the underlying babic hazards to th(' soldier, today, are
(1) separation from home and anxi('ty reg~trding fumily (this is espe-
cially important for the British, l?rench and Russian I;!oldier, who may
have his family injured in the course of civilian bombing by enemy
planes); (2) fatigue; (3) discipline; (4) monotony; (5) loss of liberty;
(6) strange surroundings; (7) change of diet; (8) change in attitude
toward authority; (9) change in the psychology of the peace-loving
civilian to becoming a "killer" of thc enemy; (10) fear of personal
injury or deformity.
There are several points through which the soldier proceeds, where
he may be screened for neuropsychiatric disability. These include the
induction center, the recruit reception center, the replacement training
center, in tactical units, in staging areas, in combat zones, convalescent
hospitals, detention and rehabilitation centers.
Considering the small number of psychiatrists in the armed forces,
they are doing a very effective job. The Army and Navy are also
running training schools of neuropsychiatry to indoctrinate and edu-
cate medical officers in the understanding, diagnosis and treatment of
neuropsychiatric problems.
There are three important factors that make for good morale in
fighting men. These are (1) adequate war aim and purpose; (2) a
conviction of one's competence and value, and (3) the feeling that one
matters as an individual in one's group.
We now know that approximately over 1/3 of all army medical
discharges are for neuropsychiatric illness. These, at present, total
approximately 10,000 per month. In addition to the large number of
clear neuropsychiatric problems, 50% of cardiovascular, 25% of gastro-
intestinal, and 10% of orthopedic problems, seen in military hospitals,
are functional.
The fQllowing neuropsychiatric clinical responses are seen in mili-
tary personnel:
(a) Strictly organic conditions (i.e., bodily injuries), in which
emotional difficulties (wish to escape injury or combat) play an impor-
tant factor in recovery.
(b) Borderline physical conditions in which the emotions play an
important role; as, for example, in gastric ulcer, allergy, hypertension.
( c ) Physical complaints, as an expression of emotional disorders.
(d) Predominantly psychological reactions, such as anxiety, fear,
obsession, hysterical conversion, psychosis.
(e) Injuries to the nervous system with very little emotional com-
plication.
Special consideration must be given to the understanding and
treatment of our own repatriated prisoners of war. British experience
indicates specific psychologic changes in such repatriated men. Two
or three years as a prisoner results in readjustment difficulties. Obser-
vations of these men have shown that, after the first excitement and
happiness of getting home has passed, a considerable number develop
depressive apathy, bitterness, discontent, awkwardness. Most such
men require at least six months of reintegration into the community.
The repatriated prisoner is oversensitive to authority and we must re-
member that he has, for a long time (during his period in a prison
camp), been an expert at evading and blocking authority. He needs
to be treated with special understanding.
One hears much about "combat fatigue" or "operational fatigue"-
a military euphemism. It is a distinct psychiatric entity which has
four identifying criteria. These are (1) repeated anxiety nightmares,
in which the whole or part of the traumatizing scene is relived; (2)
increased startle reaction to noises and movements; (3) associated dys-
function of the autonomic nervous system, in the nature of tachycardia,
increased sweating and gastrointestinal overactivity, and (4) recovery,
following rest and psychotherapy.
Psychoneuroses are by far the commonest type of neuropsychiatric
disturbance seen in fighting men. Anxiety states are the commonest
reactions encountered. Character disorders with antisocial coloring,
with hostility and bitterness, which may lead to alcoholism or over-
resentment to authority, are also seen. In soldiers who develop such
reactions under combat conditions, if neurotic character features pre-
dominate, it is often more effective to deal with these problems as neu-
roses rather than as psychopathic personalities.
Full blown psychoses are infrequent in soldiers. Some combat
reactions are characterized by marked confusion, agitation, sooial dis-
orientation, fear, and even hallucinatory experiences. Many such "en-
capsulated reactions" resemble schizophrenic reactions, but are really
more allied to panic states, and those affected are found to recover
quickly, when given adequate treatment and a safe environment.
Many psychiatric therapeutic methods have been used in this war,
170 TRANSACTIONS
some long, some short. Narcosis, shock thcrapy and proccdures using
pharmacologic aids have been found effcctive and often time-saving in
the recovery process. I shall not consider thc!;e methods in detail in
this abstract. However, group psychotherapeutic methods (especially
when reinforced with occasional individual psychothcrapcutic inter-
views, when indicated) have been found of much value. Essentially,
group therapy is an educational procedure which gives psychological
insight by regulated participation of the soldier. Because of the enor-
mity of the job, it is obvious that individual treatment of large numbers
of psychoneurotic soldiers is not possible. Often group participation
helps the soldier by minimizing his personal problems and by partially
transforming his personal problem into a group problem. He finds that
others are like him.
In group therapy, one often uncovers various reactions and atti-
tudes. Some soldiers become markedly tense, agitated and jittery,
while relating their experiences with dramatic emphasis. Others are
resentful and hostile and disinterested in their rehabilitation. They
may project their guilt, fear, or inadequacy by blaming their superiors.
Still others, accept their illness with seeming resignation and indicate
that they have been nervously inclined all their lives. They accept
their illness with relief and look forward to returning home. Very
many are fundamentally stable, loyal, courageous men, who were ex-
posed to more than it was reasonable to ask of them. The favorable
response of soldiers to comparatively brief group psychotherapeutic
help, warrants its wider adoption in both military and civilian psy-
chiatry. Group therapy is best given to small groups of men.
Our knowledge of military neuropsychiatry has grown in this war
and, undoubtedly, the experiences gained will advance our knowledge
of man and how he reacts under stress. The first World War taught us
much about the neuroses and changed our attitude toward the neurotic.
The present World War has done much to further our appreciation of
these problems and has indicated that medical, morale, and social prob-
lems are interrelated. We have learned that good morale is the best
prophylactic-the best mental hygiene-to prevent psychoneurosis.
Such morale is dependent upon the triad: knowledge of the justness
of the cause one fights for, good military leadership, and good medical
understanding and support for the soldier. Physicians now are better
equipped to consider the total man and his functioning.
DOCTOR EDNA HEIDBREDER, Professor of Psychology, Wellesley College,
Wellesley, Mass.: The Attainment of Concepts-A Psychological
Interpretation. *
The purpose of this paper is to illustrate a hypothesis concerning
human cognition by applying it to a particular set of experimental data.
The data were obtained from one of a series of experiments on the
attainment of concepts by human adults. It should be emphasized at
the outset that the data will be used illustratively-that they are not
offered as sufficient in themselves to establish the hypothesis, but are
presented as a useful means of exhibiting the hypothesis at work by
showing how it engages with a set of experimentally obtained facts.
For this purpose, it seems advisable to use a single set of data and to
examine them in some detail.
THE HYPOTHESIS
The general hypothesis has been outlined in a previous publica-
tion. s That part of it which is relevant to the present discussion may
be expressed in two statements:
1. The first is that, in human beings, as they are now constituted
and conditioned, the perception of concrete objects is the dominant
mode of cognitive reaction, i.e., the one most likely to occur in ordinary
conditions of stimulation, and that other cognitive reactions are, in
some sense, modifications of, or approximations to this dominant mode.
2. The second is that the attainment of concepts is an extension
and refinement of the kind of reaction involved in the perception of
concrete objects-that it carries the function of perception beyond the
level possible to perception alone.
More specifically, the hypothesis maintains that human beings, in
arriving at concepts and in using them, are performing a function very
similar to the one they perform in perceiving concrete objects. In both
cases, they respond in such a way that the organism is provided with
units suitable to its characteristic modes of operating on the environ-
ment. In perceiving a concrete objecir-say, an apple-the organism is
responding to the environment through its receptors in such a way that
it is confronted with a unit to which it can react directly with its motor
organs, a unit especially suited to the characteristically human mode of
motor response, manipulation. In attaining a concepir-say of the
* Th:uo add..- was dehvered at the meeting of the SectIOJ1 of Psychology, March 19, 1941i.
172 TRANSACTIONS
class, apples-th~ organism arrives at a unit not directly manipulable

by the motor organs, but suited to another characteristically human
mode of reaction, the symbolic. If this rdation actually obtains be-
tween the perception of concrete objects and the attainment of con-
cepts, it provides a psychological explanation for the liability of human
beings to the reification of concepts-a liability which has aroused the
interest and concern of many scholars; among them, operationists and
logical positivists, students of semantics and of social psychology.
THE EXPERIMENT
The experiment from which the data were obtaincd was one in
which 63 subjects, 29 men and 34 women, all university students, at-
tained nine concepts each. The specific problem was that of determin-
ing the relative readiness with which concepts are attained when they
deal with concrete objects, with spatial forms, and with numbers.
The method was a modified form of that devised by Hull! In
general, it was like that used in ordinary memory experiments. Each
subject was required to learn the names-in this case, nonsense syllables
-of a number of drawings presented to him singly and successively, in
16 series, each series presented at a mechanically controlled rate. The
method differed from that of the ordinary memory experiment in that
it was possible for the subject to discover, as he learned to name draw-
ings in series after series, that though, in the various series, the same syl-
lable was applied to many drawings, no two of which were alike, all those
drawings possessed a common and distinguishing characteristic. The
name, M ulp, for example, was always applied to a drawing of a tree-
an oak, an elm, a maple, or a palm, but always to a drawing of a tree.
This syllable was never applied to a drawing not picturing a tree.
The word, Fard, was always applied to something circular, sometimes to
a drawing of a concrete object like the face of a clock, a holly wreath,
or a silver dollar; sometimes to drawings of circular designs not rep-
resenting concrete objects. The concept of the circle was never pic-
tured by a mere circular line; the drawing always contained some-
thing more than the bare circumference of a circle. The word, lAng,
was always applied to a drawing of two exactly similar items-two
concrete objects, or two figures or forms not picturing objects. In
drawings representing numbers, not only the kind of item but the ar-
rangement of the items was varied from series to series, so that neither
the kind of item nor the arrangement, as such, could serve as the basis
of the concept. Nine concepts were studied in this experiment. Three
were concepts of concrete objects-face, tree, and building; three were
concepts of spatial forms-the circle, and two unconventionalized fig-
ures for which there are no names; and three were concepts of numbers
-two, five and six.
The materials for the experiment consisted of 16 series of draw-
ings, each series consisting of nine drawings, each drawing serving as
an instance of one of the nine concepts. Within a single series, the
drawings were arranged in a systematically random order which varied
from series to series, so that any advantages or disadvantages that
might arise from particUlar positions were equalized, and so that draw-
ings could not be correctly named by learning a serial order or regu-
lar positions within the series.
It is not necessary to discuss the procedure in detail. The subject
learned each of the 16 series up to the point of two successive, error-
less repetitions. The usual records of prompts and correct responses
were taken. By the time the subject had gone through the entire ex-
periment, he had seen and had learned to name correctly 16 instances
of each of the nine concepts.
At the end of the experiment, the subject took two brief, written
tests. In one of these, he was presented with a list of the syllables, ar-
ranged in random order, and was asked to tell what each syllable
meant-to indicate its meaning in any way he chose, not necessarily
by a formal definition. In the other test, which was of the multiple
choice variety, he was asked to underline that one of four presented
items which best indicated the meaning of the accompanying syllable.
THE MEASURE: CONCEPT ATTAINED (C.A.)
Many measures are obtainable from the data of this experiment,

e.g., the usual measures of learning. In this paper, however, a single
measure will be considered, that which indicates the general outcome
of the experiment, the order in which the concepts were attained.
Sooner or later-usually in the second or third series in this par-
ticular experiment-the subject, on the first presentation of a series,
correctly and without being prompted, named some one drawing on its
first appearance; i.e. he correctly named a drawing he had never before
seen. As a rule, such responses were not followed in the immediately
174 TRANSACTIONS
subsequent series by consistently correct responses to other instances

of the concept in question. But, eventually, in the case of each con-
cept, the subject made a correct unprompted response to an instance
on its first appearance, and followed this r('sponse by consistently cor-
rect responses throughout the rest of the experiment, correctly naming
each instance of that concept, on its first appearance. When he did so,
he is said to have attained the concept in question, and the ordinal
number of the series in which this behavior began is used as the meas-
ure of the point at which the concept was attained. This measure,
called Concept Attained, or C.A., constitutes the operational definition
of the attainment of a concept as that term is used in this paper. It
will be noticed that this measure is based, not on a single reaction, but
on a stretch of consistently successful behavior. It is assumed that
such behavior does not occur by chance, and it is inferred that, at the
point at which the specified behavior appears, the subject has attained
the concept with reference to which the experiment has been set up.
THE LOGIC OF THE EXPERIMENT

It is necessary, at this point, to comment on the underlying logic
of the experiment. It will be noticed that no attempt is made to ob-
serve the psychological processes which presumably determine overt
conceptual behavior, the behavior measured by C.A. Such psycho-
logical reactions are inferred from the observed and measured behavior,
or rather from behavioral achievements in specified situations.
"Achievement" is defined, in general, as better-than-chance success in a
series of reactions. It is defined, more specifically, by the criterion
stated in C.A. It is a basic assumption that, in the conditions of this
experiment, behavior meeting this criterion would be extremely un-
likely to occur unless the subject reacted with reference to the concepts
about which the experimenter had designed the experiment. In this
sense, the experimenter introduces concepts into the experimental situa-
tion much as an experimenter introduces mazes or pairs of stimuli into
experiments on learning or sensory discrimination.
It will be noticed that the word "concept" here refers, and has re-
ferred all along, to a logical construct which can be used interperson-
ally, not to a psychological and individual event or formation. A
concept is here defined as a logical construct, transferable from situa-
tion to situation and communicable from person to person. To refer
to the psychological processes, as such-the psychological reactions

presumably involved in the attainment of concepts-such terms as
"conception" and "conceptual reaction" are used. It is an underlying
assumption that behavior indicative of the attainment of a concept is
the outcome of reactions of the organism. But the nature of these reac-
tions remains unspecified. These reactions-the conceptions, the con-
ceptual reactions-are, in fact, initially defined as whatever reactions
turn out, on suitable investigation, to be the cognitive determinants of
the over conceptual behavior. Obviously, such terms are not descrip-
tive of psychological processes. They are not even names of psycho-
logical processes of a specifiable kind. The nature of such processes
can be known only through further research and inference-through re-
search which more and more fully and precisely determines the condi-
tions in which they occur, thus making possible increasingly definite
statements concerning the inferred determinants of observed behavior.
RESULTS
The outcome of this particular experiment, in terms of the meas-

ure, C.A., is shown in TABLE 1. The means indicate that the concepts
TABLE 1
TABLE SHOWING MEANS OF CONCEPTS LISTED, ACCORDING TO THE MEASURE C.A.,
AND THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFEBENCES BETWEillN MEANS AS INDICATED BY t.
(N = 63)
t
Concepts Mean
Relk Leth Mulp Far<! Pran Stod Ling Mank Dilt
Relk (fac~ 3.35
-- -.59- -3.47- -- - - - - - - - - --
4.27 4.25 4.97 5.17 5.95 6.48
Leth (buil' ) 3.48 .59 2.09 3.27 3.83 4.28 4.84 5.80 6.48
Mulp (tree) 3.94 3.47 2.09 2.00 3.00 3.79 4.68 5.67 6.34
Fard (0 ~ 4.46 4.27 3.27 2.00 1.31 2.09 3.43 5.12 5.88
Pran (...... 5.05 4.25 3.83 3.00 1.31 .31 1.98 4.52 5.68
Stod (0,) 5.19 4.97 4.28 3.79 2.09 .31 2.07 4.70 5.53
Ling (2) 6.14 5.17 4.84 4.68 3.43 1.98 2.07 4.68 5.91
Maiik (6) 8.76 5.95 5.80 5.67 5.12 4.52 4.70 4.68 2.86
Dilt (5) 10.22 6.48 6.48 6.34 5.88 5.68 5.53 5.91 2.86
=
2.66 sig, at 1% level of confidence
2.00 = Big. at 5% level of confidence
176 TRANSACTIONS
were attained in a. definite order-concepts of concrete objects first, of

spatial forms next, and of number!:! h1.!:!L. This order is well established
statistically. As a rule, concepts in one catc·p,ol'Y are separated from
those in other categories by differences stati!:!tically !:!ignificant at high
levels of confidence. The categories, however, seem not absolutely
discontinuous. At both borderlines, there are indications of gradual
rather than sudden transitions.
DISCUSSION
It is worth noting immediately that the obtained order is not posi-
tively correlated with some of the factors that might be considered ad-
vantageou!.
(1) The order is not from the familiar to the unfamiliar. Two of
the concepts, those of the unconventionalized spatial forms, were pre-
sumably attained for the first time during this experiment. Yet they
appear in the middle of the list of concepts arranged in order of attain-
ment, following the familiar concepts of concrete objects and of the
circle, and followed by the familiar concepts of numbers. The three
concepts of spatial forms, familiar and unfamiliar alike, are found to-
gether and in the middle of the list.
(2) The possession or lack of a conventional name does not seem
a. decisive factor. The two unfamilia.r concepts were of course name-
less, and they were both preceded and followed by concepts having
conventional names.
(3) The order is not correlated with the relative difficulty of learn-
ing the nonsense syllables used as names. With one exception, there
were no statistically significant differences in the rate at which the syl-
la.bles were learned in the first series. The exception was Ling, which
was learned significantly earlier than the others, but the concept, Ling,
appears seventh in the list, arranged according to a.A., along with the
other coneepts of numbers. Besides, in control experiments, the names
used in this experiment were assigned to other concepts in such a way
that the names here used for concepts within a single category, were
there distributed over the three categories. In the control experiments,
the concepts were again attained in the order, objects-forms-num-
bers, regardless of the syllables used as names.
(4) The order cannot be correlated with any of the perceptual
characteristics of the drawings as stimulus complexes, e.g., with such
characteristics as simplicity and "goodness of form." Since the ex-

perimental materials were not prepared and varied with respect to
these factors, this point cannot receivc adequate treatment. At best,
it is difficult to define simplicity and goodness of form in drawings like
those used in this experiment. But, by any definition, visual circles
would be considered simpler as spatial forms than pictured concrete
objects. Yet the concept of the circle was attained not first, but fourth,
following the concepts of concrete objects. Visual circles, too, show
goodness of form to a high degree, since they are characterized by
unity, compactness, symmetry and good continuation.
It may be said, too, and very definitely, that, as stimulus com-
plexes, the drawings of spatial forms had more uniformity of visual pat-
tern from instance to instance, than did the drawings for any other
concept or set of concepts. This, too, was evidently not a decisive
factor.
This, of course, constitutes only a partial list of possible determi-
nants, none of which has been treated exhaustively. It is possible, too,
that the explanation lies in some combination of the factors considered,
or in some combination of these with factors not yet taken into account.
One concept, in fact, seems to be favored to a high degree by most of
the factors already mentioned. This is the concept of the circle, which
has whatever advantages go with familiarity, a conventional name,
maximal uniformity of pattern from instance to instance, and good-
ness of form to a high degree. Such considerations raise the question:
Why was the concept of the circle not attained first? Just what de-
termines the earlier attainment of concepts of concrete objects?
Questions like these suggest that the obtained order is not so ob-
vious a fact as it seems at first glance. Yet, it is well to notice that the
order does give an immediate impression of obviousness. The order,
it may be said, goes from the concrete to the abstract, and it is common
knowledge that concepts are harder to attain in proportion to their ab-
stractness. But all concepts are abstract. What is meant by degrees of
abstractness? Perhaps, in the limited set of concepts here considered, a
concept may be called more or less abstract according to the relative
degree of concreteness or abstractness that characterizes whatever is
common to all its instances. But in what sense, if any, is a perceived
object-say, a seen phonograph record-more concrete than its visible
circular form? And in what sense, if any, is the duality of two phono-
178 'l.'RANSACTIONS
graph records, seen side by side, less concrete than the visible circular
form of either of them?
Psychologists do not agree among themselves on what constitutes
maximal concreteness, though they arc likely to equate the concrete
with the "given." One view is that of the classical experimental psy-
chologists who find the concretc and the given in sensory and affective
elements. Another is that of the gestaltists who find it in experience
already"formed." According to neither of these, it will be noticed, is
maximal concreteness-in the sense of maximal givenness-found in
what, in common, everyday speech and in this experiment, is called a
concrete object. Under scrutiny, the obviousness of the order disap-
pears.
A passage in Carnap's Unity of Science 2 pointedly illustrates the
lack of agreement among psychologists on what is "given" as opposed to
"derived." The passage occurs in the discussion of the important topic
of protocol statements: "the statements belonging to the basic protocol
or direct record of a scientist's (say a physicist's or psychologist's) ex-
perience," . . . "the statements needing no justification and serving
as foundation for all the remaining statements of science." Signifi-
cantly, the author finds it impossible, in the present stage of research,
to characterize the protocol language precisely. Instead, he indicates
the meaning of the term by sketching "some of the views as to the form
of protocol statements held at the present day by various schools of
thought."
According to one of these, protocol statements are of the same
form, as: "here, now, blue; there, red." This point of view is similar
to that just attributed to the classical experimental psychologists.
Another is that of Gestalt Psychology, according to which protocol
statements are of the form, "red circle, now," or are statements about
"entire sensory fields, e.g. the visual field as a unity," or about "the
total experience during an instant as a unity still undivided into sepa-
rate sense-regions." Carnap also presents a third possibility. He sug-
gests that protocol statements might take the same kind of form as "a
red cube is on the table." This view, he says, "is not often held today;
it is however more plausible than it appears and deserves more detailed
investigation. "
One way of stating the problem raised by the data now under con-
sideration is: Is it, for any reason, p8ychoZogically more convenient for
human beings to begin with such statements as, "a red cube is on the
table."?
The general direction of the answer has already been indicated in
the statement that the dominant cognitive response in human beings is
the perception of concrete objects. But, obviously, it is necessary to
explain more fully what is meant by a concrete object and by perceiving
a concrete object.
A concrete object is taken, in the first place, as naively and unre-
flectively as possible-as typically a visible, tangible, manipUlable body
in the external world. The perception of objects is, itself, initially
defined with reference to such objects, or rather, with reference to the
subject's behavior with and toward them. It is defined as consisting
of whatever processes turn out upon suitable investigation to be infer-
able as cognitive determinants of observed behavior related to concrete
objects in specified ways.
In selecting the perception of concrete objects as one of its main
points of reference, the hypothesis chooses an activity which is neither
simple nor primitive. Perceiving an object is admittedly a highly com-
plex affair. All psychologists would agree that it includes sensory
reactions, but that sensory reactions are not enough; that a perceived
concrete object can not be exhaustively described in terms of sensory
content alone. They would agree, too, though their interpretations
would differ, that in a perceived object, the various sensory contents
are in some way integrated, the sensory stuff somehow delimited, stabil-
ized, and formed. They would also agree, even the staunchest nativists
among them, that the perception of a concrete object is commonly de-
termined-and strongly determined-by learning and experience, in-
cluding, of course, acculturation. They would again agree that what is
present to the senses does not stand alone j that it must be supplemented
in some way, if the organism is to perceive a concrete object. In the
present hypothesis, it is regarded as an essential fact about a perceived
object that what is present to the senses is reacted to as a sign of more
than the sensibly present, of the whole object, not excluding its func-
tional significance; that the visible rounded redness of an apple is, to
the percipient, a sign of its other side, of its inside, and also of its edi-
bility. Thus, the present hypothesis not only accepts but emphasizes
the complexity of the perception of a concrete object, and it also main-
tains that such complex responses are now dominant in human cog-
nition; that, instead of making the barest and simplest responses at
180 TRANSACTIONS
their disposal, human beings rcspond in a manner, morc complex and

voluminous, in which the sImpler and barer rCbponses arc caught up as
constiLuents.
It should also be noted that the perception of objects is bIOlogically
far from primitive. This, indeed, is implied in the statement that it is
the cognitive correlate of manipulation. It has long been recognized
that motor organs precede sense organs in evolutionary developments
and that manipulatory behavior occurs late in the phylogenetic scale.
It is interesting, in this connection, that manipulation reaches its high-
est proficiency in man; as another highly developed motor activity,
locomotion, does not. Furthermore, it is possible to claim as structural
correlates for the perception of objects in man, not only prehensile
hands, but the physiological basis for stereoscopic vision, and also for
encephalized and corticalized behavior, and, thus, for the integration
of sensory activities with each other and with motor behavior. To call
attention to these biological facts is not, of course, to say that perceiving
an object is independent of learning and experience. Perceiving objects
is probably among the most practiced of human activities; practiced,
furthermore, in the circumstances probably most favorable to learning,
in the thick of the urgent needs and actions, the immediate satisfac-
tions and disappointments of daily life. The point here made is that
the biological facts reveal the perception of objects as by no means
primitive, and that the hypothesis maintains that this far from primi-
tive response is now the dominant mode of cognition in man.
The hypothesis further maintains that, if the perception of objects
is regarded as dominant in human cognition, other cognitive activities,
specifically conceptual reactions, become intelligible as modifications of
this mode of response. In the present hypothesis, conceptual activities
are treated as refinements and extensions of perceptual activities, per-
forming, beyond the level of sensory perception, essentially the same
function performed at that level by the perception of concrete objects,
providing the organism with units suitable to its modes of reaction. In
perceiving a concrete object, an organism responds selectively to func-
tionally significant aspects of the environment, responding directly to
sensory stimulation, and reacting in such a way that, in the very proc-
ess of receiving stimulation, a delimited, integrated unit is marked out
and made salient, suitable to the guidance and control of motor manipu-
lation. In attaining a concept, an organism again responds selectively,
but now indirectly; now by abstracting whatever is relevant to the
enterprise in progress.. Again it integrates j now by generalizing, in
some sense bringing together what is common to many separate, par-
ticular occasions. Again it delimits i now by a definition more or less
precise. And again the outcome is a functionally significant unit;
now suited to another mode of operation of which the organism is capa-
ble, reaction involving the use of symbols.
When the hypothesis, so interpreted, is applied to the experimen-
tal data, these fall into line rather readily. The functional core of the
conceptual activity may now be located in the selective reaction which
isolates and delimits whatever is common to the instances of the con-
cept in question, thus performing the relevant abstraction. It may
now be said that the order in which the concepts were attained corre-
sponds directly to the degree to which this selective reaction requires de-
parture from the dominant cognitive response. Those concepts were at-
tained first, in which the relevant abstraction can be determined by re-
acting to the drawings as pictured objects or things-trees, faces or
buildings. Next, came those in which the abstraction can be deter-
mined by reacting to the drawings as visible spatial forms-by react-
ing, in each drawing, to something less than a thing but not altogether
un-thing-like. And next came tpe concepts in which the relevant ab-
straction can be determined by reacting, not to pictured things, not to
continuous units of any sort, but to collections, or rather to facts about
(numerical quantities of) collections-a performance which seems
more remote from perceiving a concrete object than is a response to a
visual form. But perhaps this account seems somewhat facile. So
stated, it leaves the problem on an impressionistic level. To make a
more precise statement, it is necessary to tell more explicitly and in still
more detail (1) what is meant by a perceived thing and (2) what is
meant by dt-graes of departure from perceiving a concrete object.
And so, once again, what is a perceived thing? An approach to
this problem is suggested by the fact that concepts of concrete objects
were regularly attained earlier than that of the circle, though the con-
cept of the circle is favored by more of the factors, so far considered
advantageous, than is any other concept in the experiment. Can any
advantage be attributed to a perceived thing and not to a visual circular
form, that might account for the readier attainment of concepts of con-
crete objects?
One answer immediately suggests itself: manipulability, relevance
to direct motor reaction. A circular form, even when visibly and tac-
182 TRANSACTIONS
tually present, is not subject to manipulation. One can, of course,

manipulate a circular object like a wheel. One can even construct a
circular form, an actual visible circular truck of chalk on a blackboard,
and one can alter the visible form by erasing parts and redrawing them.
But what one manipulates is always a concrete object, a wheel or a
piece of chalk or an eraser. Even if one describes a circle with a finger
in the empty air, it is a thing one manipulates, an arm terminating in a
finger. It is interesting that a visible circular form is more completely
exhibitable, more completely demonstrable to sensory perception by a
motor gesture, than is a visible concrete object. The former can be more
fully and adequately indicated by a motor reaction, e.g., by running a
finger around the edge of a coin or a dinner plate. The object itself, the
coin or the dinner plate, can only be pointed to; it cannot be fully exhib-
ited. Yet, a circular form, as such, no matter how perceptible, cannot be
picked up and moved from place to place. There is some sense in say-
ing that it just misses being manipulable. It is just beyond the finger
tips, but completely beyond them; hence, it completely escapes motor
manipulation, though it is as completely perceptible as anything can be.
This point is highly significant in relation to a set of data in which the
concept of circularity, with all its advantages, was attained significantly
later, though only a little later, than concepts of concrete objects.
From manipulability, it is only a step to the dynamic properties
discussed by Ko:ffk.a G in his treatment of thing-character. It will be
remembered that Ko:ffka lists three constituents of thing-character:
shaped boundedness, constancy, and dynamic properties; and that he
makes much of the point that there is no sharp line of demarcation
between things and not-things.
This description of thing-character is distinctly relevant to the
present hypothesis, but here the three constituents are regarded as not
on exactly the same basis from the standpoint of the psychological proc-
esses involved. Here, only two of these constituents-constancy and
shaped boundedness-are treated as present to the senses. And these
are here treated as signs of properties not present to sensory percep-
tion-not only of actually unperceived but potentially perceptible prop-
erties (like the color of the other side of an apple) but also, and very
importantly, as signs of dynamic properties which cannot themselves
be apprehended by the senses and must, somehow, be constructed.
Furthermore, the dynamic properties of thing-character are regarded
as functionally central to the perceptible constituents of thing-oharac-
ter. It is regarded as part of the function of shaped boundedness and
constancy to signify-to locate and signal the presence of-dynamic
properties. To perceive an object, then, is to respond selectively and
through the direct action of the receptors, to a dynamically effective
and functionally significant portion of the environment, and to respond
in such a way that the organism is confronted with an integrated unit,
relevant to its needs and adapted to its characteristic modes of motor
reaction. Such units are the perceived concrete objects of the present
hypothesis.
To define the perception of concrete objects in this way and to
regard this mode of reaction as cognitively dominant, is to treat human
cognition as dynamic at the core of its organization. It is to say that
the very way the world looks-and feels and smells and tastes and
sounds-is determined by the needs of the organism and by its capaci-
ties for satisfying those needs. It is to make a place, in the very way
human beings apprehend the environment, for learning and experience;
including, of course, the operation of social and cultural factors. It is,
also, to claim that, in the response in which human cognition is centered,
in the very way in which a human being takes hold of the environment
cognitively, constructive activity of some sort is essentially involved.
Bridgmanl illustrates this point by calling attention to the inside of an
object, which can never be exhibited; since, if the object is cut in two,
the inside becomes, by definition, the outside. But the point empha-
sized in the present hypothesis is that the dynamic properties of an
object are in some way constructed; and that these, and, hence, the
functional significance of an object, are psychologically apprehended
as inhering in the object. Thus, a perceived thing marks the point at
which the human organism engages directly with the environment
in its cognitively dominant response; the point in which the dynamic
properties of the environment and the needs and reactive capacities of
the organism converge.
This long account of a perceived thing, it will be remembered, arose
from the question: What advantage can be attributed to perceived
things and not to visible circular forms? The first impressionistic
answer, manipUlability, may now be translated into a more explicit
statement. The manipulability which a circular form lacks and which
an object characteristically possesses, is related to the fact that a circle
has only two of the properties of thing-character, and the object all
three. ApparentlN', the perceptual prominence of an object may be
184 TRANSACTIONS
ascribed to the fact that it possesses Iull thing-character, including

dynamic properties. Dominance in cognitive reaction seems to be cor-
related, not with maximal openness to inspection, not with maximal
"givenness" in perceptual experience, but with maximal relevance to
action, specifically to manipulation, that kind of motor reaction which
human beings characteristically employ.
If relevance to action determines dominance, in conceptual as in
perceptual reactions, those conceptual reactions should be most readily
aroused which are closest in function to the perception of concrete ob-
jects. And if conceptual reactions are, as this hypothesis maintains,
modifications and extensions of the perception of objects, the primary
conceptual function should be that of supplementing perceptual organi-
zation. It should be precisely that of carrying a stage farther than is
possible for perception alone, the organization of the perceived environ-
ment in a manner suitable to motor reaction. The first step in this
direction would be the attainment of concepts of concrete objects-of
things. For, to react to things conceptually, is to react not merely to
this thing, but to this kind of thing; not merely to see this apple, but
to see this as an apple. To react in this manner is not merely to give
prominence to particular objects in a world perceptually organized for
immediate action; it is, in the very act of perceiving such objects in
such a world, to apprehend them as kinds of things, which call for kinds
of action. It is to utilize the opportunities provided by the distance
receptors for delay in reaction and for preparatory adjustment. It is
also, and very importantly, to utilize the products of learning, including
the learned expectations which, with varying degrees of complexity and
remoteness, control motor reaction.
When these considerations arc brought to bear upon the experi-
mental data, the hypothesis becomes applicable in a less impressionistic
manner. Degrees of departure from the perception of objects may now
be correlated with degrees of thing-character attributable to those
aspects of, or facts about, perceptual situations which the subject's re-
action must take into account, if the relevant abstraction is to be made;
and degrees of thing-character may, in turn, be correlated with degrees
of relevance to motor reaction. Thus, the early attainment of concepts
of concrete objects may be explained by the fact that, as compared with
the other concepts in this experiment, their attainment requires less
departure from the perception of objects, and that, in function, they
are relevant to the organization of the perceptual field for motor reac-
tion. The order in which the other concepts were attained may be
similarly explained.
First, why were concepts of spatial forms attained later than con-
cepts of concrete objects? Chiefly, because the instances to which
they apply have only partial thing-character. To respond to a visible
form is to respond to less than a thing, to make a response not only less
dominant perceptually than that of perceiving a concrete object, but
less immediately relevant to motor manIpulation. It is especially
interesting that, of all the concepts included in this study, instances
of the concepts of spatial forms were most completely "glven" in the
perceptual materials; whereas, any reaction to a pictured object was
necessarily made-as is any reaction to an actual object-to a stimulus
.complex which does not fully exhibit the object to sensory perception.
Again, it is worth noting that complete perceptual "givenness" seems
less potent in determining readiness of reaction than does close func-
tional relevance to manipulatory behavior.
It should also be noted that, in making the transition from one
category to another, the reaction is evidently not a simple, abrupt, all-
.or-none affair. The familiar concept of the circle was attained only
a little later than the concepts of concrete objects, and the unconven-
tionalized, unfamiliar concepts pran and stod were not attained signifi-
.cantly earlier than the earliest concept of number. Their attainment
later than that of the circle may have been influenced by the fact that
they had to be constituted anew, and perhaps also by the fact that they
lacked goodness of form and conventional status. Yet, these facts
hardly account for their attainment earlier than the concept two. The
.striking fact is that the three concepts of spatial forms-familiar and
unfamiliar, conventionalized and unconventionalized, lIgood" and "not-
good"-were attained together, as if held together by a common de-
terminant, their relevance to perceptual situations which possess partial
thing-character.
The next question is: Why were concepts of numbers attained later
than concepts of spatial forms? A special significance attaches to this
question because all the concepts of number were well known to the
.subjects, whereas two of the concepts of spatial forms, as has just been
noted, had to be constituted anew. Again, the answer can be given in
terms of thing-character. Concepts of spatial forms apply to situa-
tions having partial thing-character and concepts of numbers are appli-
.cable only to aspects of, or facts about, perceived situations-to aspects
186 TRANSACTIONS
and facts possessing none of the properties of thing-character. Visible

plurality, to be sure, may be perceptually apprehended; but precep-
tually apprehended plurality lacks the perceptual characteristics of
thing-character. Plurality, in so far as it is perceptible, is supra-local.
It possesses neither constancy nor shaped-boundedness.
Such perceptual plurality is not a sufficient basis for the identifi-
cation of instances of five and six. There is evidence that subjects did,
in fact, immediately react to plurality in instances of fivB and six, but
not to plurality, as such; not to plurality apart from other aspects of
the situation. They spoke of many small objects or figures, or of
arrangements of many small objects or figures, but, on the basis of such
reactions, the instances of five and six were thoroughly confused. To
make a precise determination of numerical quantity requires going out-
side the perceptual situation itself-establishing a one-to-one corre-
spondence between the items perceived and something not itself in-
cluded in the situation to which the numerical determination applies.
Such a procedure, in short, requires the use of symbols-perhaps the
words used in counting, perhaps something as concrete as the fingers of
the hands-but something apart from the situation to which the con-
cept applies, something used as a symbol, not merely reacted to as a
sign. In such reactions, the constructive component becomes more
prominent because less merged with what is present to the senses; the
concept is applicable to something less thing-like than perceptible ob-
jects less thing-like, even, than visual forms; hence it is more remotely
related to motor action.
The concept, two, is especially interesting in this connection. Ex-
periments on the span of visual apprehension leave no reasonable doubt
that duality can be apprehended perceptually, i.e., that it can be identi-
fied without counting. Yet the concept, two, was attained later than
the concepts of the unconventionalized forms, which were unfamiliar,
which had to be constituted anew, and which were not particularly
"good." Evidently, the partial thing-character of the instances of stod
and pram., more than counterbalanced the factors favoring the concept,
two. Two seems indeed a crucial case. It not only represents plurality
reduced to a minimum, but its attainment is presumably favored by
familiarity, conventional status, and the fact that duality can be appre-
hended perceptually. Perceptual duality, however, falls short of even
partial thing-character; and the concept, two, is a.ttained later than
the concepts of spatial forms which seem to be favored only by the
partial thing-character of their instances, or at least by little else.

The successive steps by which the concepts of numbers were at-
tained are indicated rather clearly in the series-by-series records of the
subjects' overt performances, especially when these records are supple-
mented by the definitions offered by the subjects. It will be remem-
bered that plurality was reacted to from the first, but that it was not
made focal immediately. During the first series in the experiment,
when the subjects were learning to identify the drawings by name, they
seemed to refer the names to pictured concrete objects whenever possible,
even reading objects into drawings in which no pictured objects were
included. For example, the concept mank or six was represented in the
first series by a drawing in which the six items were simply wavy lines.
One definition of mank contains the statement, "First, I thought of
them as banks or manks of clouds.// Here, objects are mentioned and
they are mentioned in the plural. Most of the subjects next passed
through a stage of reacting to various aspects of the situation not
themselves quantitative, and yet not unrelated to plurality. They tried
to identify drawings by particular spatial arrangements of the separate
items, or by supra-local spatial characteristics like symmetry or asym-
metry, or by vague impressions that the number of items was odd or
even, though the number was not specified. Eventually, most of the
subjects arrived at the exact statable numerical determination, but
some, though they gave consistently correct overt reactions, were un-
able to give adequate definitions. One definition indicates the course
of events with exceptional clarity and completeness as well as brevity.
It refers to the concept d?1t or jive, which was represented in the first
series by a drawing of five small drinking glasses. The definition
reads: "Dilt. Five. I remembered it at first by thinking of dealing
out drinks (dealt-dilt). Then, I thought the design was always tilted
(dilted) and then I noticed that there were always five of them.//
Such sequences illustrate what is meant by saying that the order
of readiness among conceptual reactions is correlated with the degree of
their relevance to direct action, or rather with the closeness of their
cooperation with perception in its function of organizing the environ-
ment in a manner suitable to the reactive capacities of the human or-
ganism. Those concepts were attained first, which are applicable to
manipulable things-to perceptible concrete objects having full thing-
character. Next, came those applicable to situations which fall short of
manipUlability-to visual spatial forms having partial thing-character.
188 TRANSACTIONS
These, however, are traceable with eyes or fingers, and can to that ex.
tent directly control motor reactions. And last to be attained, were
the concepts of numbers--eoncepts which are applicable to perceptual
situations only through the use of symbols; i.e. applicable to aspects or
facts inaccessible to direct motor reaction.
CLOSING COMMENT
It would be inappropriate to close this discussion without repeat.
ing that the experimental data have been used merely illustratively.
They are, of course, insufficient to establish the hypothesis employed in
interpreting them. They have been used partly to show how that hy-
pothesis may be applied to a particular set of experimental facts;
partly, also, to suggest that it may be useful if applied more widely.
The hypothesis especially emphasizes the treatment of cognition as an
activity closely related to the going enterprises of the organism. It
has been used in this paper to show that degrees of readiness in a par·
ticular set of conceptual reactions may be explained by assuming (1)
that the perception of concrete objects, the cognitive correlate of ma-
nipulatory behavior, is the dominant mode of cognition in human be-
ings; and (2) that conceptual reactions, the cognitive correlates of
symbolic behavior, are functionally extensions of the perception of ob-
jects; and that the readiness of their occurrence is correlated with the
closeness of their relevance to the perceptual function of organizing
the environment in a manner suitable to the reactive capacities of hu-
man organisms.
1. Bridgman, P. W.
1937. The logic of modern physics: 42-48; 53-54. Macmillan, New York.
S. Camap, B..
1934. The unity of science (tr. by M. Black): Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner
and Co. London.
S. Heidbreder, E.
1945. Toward a dynamic psychology of cognition. Psychol. Rev. GS: 1-22.
40. Hun, C. L.
1920. Quantitative aspects of the evolution of concepts: an experimental study.
Psychol. Monogr. sa (123).
Ii. Xofrb, lL
1935. Principles of gestalt psychology. Harcourt, Brace and Co., New York.
APRIL 23, 1945
DOCTOR HARRY L. SHAPIRO, Curator of Anthropology, American Mu-
seum of Natural History, New York, N. Y.: The Biology of the
Population of the United States.
The study of human populations represents one of those areas
where diverse disciplines may, and, in fact, do cooperate with mutual
benefit. Since mankind functions biologically, reproduces, migrates,
expands, declines or dies in some kind of ecological and cultural con-
text that may affect any or all these phenomena, it would be folly to
ignore the total picture as far as it is possible to know it. Neverthe-
less, by virtue of training, competence or interest, we may, perhaps, be
permitted to approach the subject with rather specialized emphasis.
This, I have chosen to do. But, in addition, the severe limitation of
the time available to me in the face of a field as complex as this im-
poses the necessity of an even more rigid selection of topics than my
inclination might otherwise suggest. I have elected, therefore, to deal
only with the population of the United States and, within those limits,
to discuss only a few of the biological aspects of the subject.
As a background to my comments on certain biological processes
that are now affecting or are likely to influence the people of this coun-
try, I offer the following general characterization of the popUlation of
the United States. I venture to do this in the belief that not all the
traits of a situation must be enumerated and described in detail to
paint a recognizable and significant picture. The features I have
stressed as characteristic of this population are admittedly only a
fraction of those that might be listed, but my purpose is to provide a
frame for the present discussion.
(1) Although the population of the United States is frequently re-
ferred to as young and immature, this is not a strictly accurate ap-
praisal. In the sense that maturity of a population approximates a
condition of relative stability, the population of the United States, in
some respects, has advanced with great rapidity to achieve a status
that is fully mature and relatively stable, although, in other directions,
mentioned below, it has remained immature.
(2) In point of numbers and growth, the United States, paradoxic-
ally, one of the youngest countries, is one of the most mature. In
190 TRANSACTIONS
slightly over 300 years, We! have in('reased from little more Uum zero to
132 millions. This expansion of population alone does not indicate the
attainment of a stabilized population, hut the fact that the rate of
growth has declined rapidly, in recent years, to the point where further
increase is likely to be very slow, indeed, is highly significant. The
prospects indicate a relatively stable population of between 150 and
160 millions attained by the next generation. The estimates of the
size and growth rate of the population, in the immediate future, are
fairly reliable, since they are based on existing conditions that cannot
be materially altered except by a national devastation of unprecedented
magnitude. As far as numbers are concerned, what we are determines
what we will be, and quick adjustments to fit economic or cultural
changes are impossible. Economic deprcssion may render 15,000,000
people superfluous in the scheme of things, or a war may create a de-
mand for as many millions that we do not have, but populations can-
not fit these fluctuations rapidly or easily. We must, therefore, adjust
our social policies to these trends, wherever they may lead, or else
adopt a popUlation policy consonant with our social objectives and the
realities of world affairs.
(3) The population of the United States is, today, one of the ur-
banized, which by implication usually means industrialized, nations of
the world. Not only are the rural and farm populations decreasing
relatively, they are losing numbers by absolute count as well. In 1790,
this country had 94.9% of the population living and working in rural
districts and 5.1 % living in cities which were but little removed from
the rural. Today, only 43.5% live in rural districts, while 56.5% are
found in urban areas. This shift of balance is specially characteristic
of Western European countries where industrialization has advanced
most. Over 60% of Germany's population was urban and about 80%
of England's. France, on the contrary, has remained more rural. In
the United States, the movement, apparently, has not yet reached the
degree found elsewhere, but in its rapidity it is exceptional.
Aside from the social and economic consequences of such a shift
from rural to urban living, the biological results are likely to be sig-
nificant, judging by present trends and current information. The
movement toward urban centers in this country, at least, seems to draw
off from the rural areas the best elements (along with others). Urban
dwellers show a reproduction rate below the replacement level. This
conjunction, in the opinion of most students, leads to a reduction in

the best strains in the population.
Urbanization has another effect of vast consequence. It permits
the segregation of large numbers in nationality-minority groups,-
undigested masses that for one reason or another elect or are impelled
to maintain group solidarities, and, thereby, gives rise to the political
consequence of the "Irish vote," the "Italian vote" and other minority
voting groups. The retention of such group identities slows down the
process of amalgamation and preserves cleavages along lines of na-
tional origin.
(4) Although no populations, with the possible exception of such
minuscule realms as Luxembourg and Monaco, live in a completely
uniform environment within their national boundaries, there are, on the
contrary, few that embrace such a heterogeneous environment as that
of our country. Russia, China, India, Brazil, Canada, and but few
others compete with the United States in variety of climate, soil, topog-
raphy and other such natural phenomena. These physical aspects of
the United States are not, of course, characteristic per 8e of the popula-
tion, but they do have a profound influence on the developing patterns
of our population and, therefore, cannot be ignored.
(5) Culturally, on the other hand, the United States is relatively
homogeneous. I am inclined to regard this as a trait of immaturity,
the result of the celerity with which this country was settled at a time
when communications were highly developed. Much of the United
States has a history of settlement less than a century old. And if we
go back 200 years, we find ourselves in an era when our population was
almost entirely confined to the Atlantic coastal belt. It is admittedly
difficult to measure by any objective standard varying degrees of re-
gional differentiation, but if we compare such nations as France, Great
Britain, Germany and Italy with our own, one is impressed by the
highly developed local cultures in European countries and by their rela-
tive weakness here. Culture differentiation in this country, when it
occurs, is more apt to be vertical than geographically horizontal in dis-
tribution. Although it would be inaccurate to assert that our cultural
homogeneity is responsible for the high degree of population mobility
in this country, it seems very probable it does facilitate movement of
people and permits a readier miscegenation, except when racial and
nationality attitudes intervene.
(6) Ecologically, the population of the United States has far to go
192 TRANSACTIONS
before reaching the stable balance with nature that some nations have
achieved. The failure to conserve our national resources has resulted
in deforestation, soil erosion, dust bowls and other calamitous events,
which indicate the extent to which we have been out of step with na-
ture. Our pioneers have been bitterly criticized for the havoc they
have wrought, but it would be more reasonable to blame circumstances.
Whatever the cause, the effects of maladjustments of this kind tend to
keep the population mobile. Blighted areas become regions of emigra-
tion whose streams of displaced families become active agents in vari-
ous dynamic population processes.
(7) Biologically, our population is heterogeneous. At least 10%
is Negro and Negro-white. Another 1% or more includes Mexicans,
Indians and various Orientals. The remainder, classed as white, em-
braces every nationality in Europe and a few from Asia. Many of
these white groups, and all of the non-whites, form considerable bodies
of people who find themselves segregated into a minority status. Such
racial, national or religious groups may have no official political recog.
nition, but they are realities in the social and economic processes of
the country, and must be taken into account in the biological develop-
ment of the nation.
In the time left me, I should like to elaborate a little on several
points suggested by this summary of selected diagnostic features. I
have mentioned that the population of the United States is rapidly
reaching a climax or a plateau where, for the first time in its history,
it will no longer be an expanding one. Presumably, if present trends
in vital statistics are also stabilized, the size of our population will
fluctuate around its climax number. The reason for this is the radical
change in the age structure of our population. In 1790, 51 % of the
total population were 16 years of age or over, while in 1930 roughly
69% fell in this age group. The projected population of 1980 will
probably have something close to 80% in the same age group. The
median age in 1790 was therefore slightly over 16 years. In 1940, it
was 29.0 years and, in 1980, in all probability, it will be in the middle
or upper 30's. If we take those from 60 years of age and over, this
proportion to the total population will have increased from short of 5%
in 18liO, to about 20% in the projected population of 1980. If the
birth-death rates become stabilized in the next generation, this over-
balanced age structure will slowly correct itself, but not until such a.
population has undergone a considerable decline.
We are, in any event, faced for a long time to come with an age
structure heavily weighted at its apex. This, of course, means that
there are fewer in the younger groups to replace the older strata and
that the younger age groups, with their normal losses, will be unable to
replace the reproducing age groups. Those who have been urging
wholesale birth control are likely, in the next generation, to be out of
favor, once the actual census returns begin to reveal the state of affairs
now existing. The biological consequences may be charted statisti-
cally with some assurance, but the equally real if subtler effects on
social and economic concerns are less susceptible to exact measurement.
Nevertheless, this profound change in age distributions is bound to have
wide ramifications in a number of directions. Already, the social and
economic responsibility for the rapidly growing class of superannuated
is beginning to be felt. The relative decline in the numbers available
for the productive work of society may be met by technological de-
velopments, but should war come again, there would be no substitutes
for an ample source of potential soldiers.
Disease and sickness patterns also exhibit a marked trend in the
direction characteristic of populations with large concentrations in the
upper age groups. Deaths from degenerative diseases and protracted
illnesses due to chronic and incurable ailments are on the rise, and
medicine has begun to develop, in response to this, the special study of
the aged, geriatrics. Hospitals designed to care for prolonged and in-
capacitating invalidism among the elderly are being built with in-
creased frequency, as the need becomes more pressing.
Less tangible, perhaps, than these institutional results, is the psy-
chological pressure of an aging population on the social and political
policies of the country. Although we have no critical studies of such
a relationship, experience alone would suggest that the increasing
median age of the population of the United States and Western Europe
has not only contributed directly to certain social movements, but has
also aided in more subtle ways to create the "climate of opinion" in
which we live.
The heterogeneity of the population of the United States, which I
mentioned previously, is only biological in part-in the sense that dis-
tinct genetic and morphological differentiation is possible. Some of
our minority groups are more the expression of historical and psycho-
logical attitudes than they are of biological differences. The United
States, settled in a period of self-consciousness, has evolved a well de-
194 TRANSACTIONS
veloped hierarchy of values based on the historical accidents of time of

settlement, culture, religion, and nationalisnl. Whatever the cause,
the lines of cleavage arc often very real and perbibtent. The danger
liCE> in their widening beyond the point where til(' aCl'retions of time
may close their gaps. The minorities problems of Umtral Europe are
an indication oi how festering they may become anu how persistent in
spite of negligible biological distinctions.
There are two ways by which these minority groups as tight enti-
ties may be dissolved. One is by the development of a social tolerance
that places no disability upon the members of such minorities. The
other is by miscegenation. Neither is, of course, exclusive of the other.
The development of social liberality is, in no sense, a biological
problem, except in so far as social prejudice may claim a biological ra-
tionale. Miscegenation, however, does raise valid biological questions
where genetic differences are real.
Recognizing that some degree of miscegenation is taking place all
the time in our population, it is still possible to assert (1) that it is not
proceeding rapidly enough in certain areas to break down inbreeding
minority groupings, and (2) that certain patterns of amalgamation are
characteristic and relatively frequent. Religion, national origin, race,
language, social status, prestige and various other factors con'binue, in
diverse ways, to establish these lines of miscegenation.
As far as the biological consequences of miscegenation are con-
cerned, little attention has been paid to crossing between the various
white groups. The general public, on the whole, has been unconcerned
with such aspects of the situation. It is quite the reverse with mixture
teween Negroes and whites. The very size of the mulatto population
(not wholly the result of original crossing), is an index, if one were
needed, that miscegenation has gone on at a considerable rate, but most
of it dates back to slavery days when social conditions were different.
Unlike miscegenation among whites, the union of Negro and white has
not led to amalgamation. Mulattoes are classed as Negro and are
burdened with the disabilities suffered by the Negroes. Only when
"crossing the line" occurs does the so-called Negro attain amalgamation
with the whites, but genetically at the cost of losing virtually all the
"Negro" genes.
Americans, representing a mixture of various European strains,
and exposed to environmental conditions unlike those in the Old World,
are said to be evolving a new physical type. The evidence of a stead-
ily increasing size is incontrovertible. Our national average for sta-
ture surpasses the means of the European nations from which most of
our population is derived. This increase, while a general phenomenon,
is most marked in groups favored economically, with the result that
college students yield averages well above the general level. Along
with the size increase, have gone certain alterations in bodily propor-
tion that follow the growth gradient and are not new developments.
Although our population has displayed this tendency to a greater
degree than any other, the trend is not unique with us. Most people in
Europe, for whom we have data, show the same increase. Japanese
figures follow a similar trend.
Professor Mills, on the basis of a recent study on American college
students, has come to the conclusion that the tendency to increasing
size has reached its limit. It will be interesting, as new data becomes
available, to check this finding and to determine if European popula-
tions are also following the same pattern.
The causes of this expansion of bodily size are obscure. Nutrition,
undoubtedly, plays some part in producing the observed effect, but it
does not seem to be the only factor involved.
196 TRANSACTIONS
SECTION OF BIOLOGY
APRIL 13 AND 14, 194.5
Conference on "Lymph."
The Section of Biology held a Conference on "Lymph," as the
sixth in the series for the Academic Year 1944-1945. Doctor Philip
D. McMaster, Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, New York,
N. Y., was the Conference Chairman in charge of the meeting.
"The Topography and Functional Activity of the Blood Capillary
Bed with Special Reference to Visceral Tissue," by Robert Chambers,
Washington Square College of Arts and Sciences, New York Univer-
sity, New York, N. Y.
"Blood Circulation in the Subcutaneous Tissue of the Living Bat's
Wing," by Paul Nicoll, Department of Physiology, Indiana University,
Bloomington, Indiana.
"Factors Affecting Capillary Permeability and the Composition of
Capillary Filtrate," by Eugene M. Landis, Department of Physiology,
Harvard University Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.
ttIntercellular Substance in Relation to Tissue Growth," by Eliot
R. Clark, Department of Anatomy, University of Pennsylvania, Phila-
delphia, Pennsylvania.
"Conditions in the Skin Influencing Interstitial Fluid Movement,
Lymph Formation and Lymph Flow," by Philip D. McMaster, Rocke-
feller Institute for Medical Research, New York, N. Y.
tiThe Significance of Lymphatic Blockade in Immunity," by Valy
Menkin, Department of Pathology, Duke University School of Medi-
cine, Durham, North Carolina.
"The Lymphatic System and Extravascular Protein," by Cecil K.
Drinker, School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, Massa-
chusetts.
"The Role of the Lymphocyte in the Circulation of Lymph," by
William Ehrich, Department of Pathology, University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
"The Role of Lymphocytes in Normal and Immune Globulin Pro-
duction and the Mode of Release of Globulin from Lymphocytes," by
Abraham White and Thomas F. Dougherty, Department of Physiolog-
ieal Chemistry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Con-
necticut.
An informal showing of motion pictures at an evening session sup-

plemented and illustrated points made in the presentation of papers
during the preceding day-time sessions, as follows:
"The Circulation of Blood and Lymphatics in the Bat's Wing,"
by Paul Nicoll.
liThe Mesenteric and Omental Circulation," by Robert Chambers
and Benjamin Zweifach.
liThe Entrance of Dye into Lymphatic Capillaries of Human Skin
during an Intradermal Injection," by Philip D. McMaster.
198 TRANSACTIONS
NEW MEMBERS
Elected April 26, 1945
SUSTAINING MEMBER
Brokaw, Albert D., PhD., Consulting Geologist. Brokaw. Dixon and McKee,
New York, N. Y.
ACTIVE MEMBERS
Belanger, Alice Lois. B.s., Biology. Teacher, Eatontown. New Jersey.
Bryan, Alice I., PhJ)., Psychology. Assistant Professor. School of Library Serv-
ice, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
Dunbar, Flanders, PhD., B.D., Med ScD., MD., Psychosomatic Medicine Asso-
clate in Psychiatry and Assistant Attending Psychiatrist, Presbyterian Hoa-
Pltal and Vanderbilt Clinic, New York, N. Y.
Flett, Lawrence H., B.s., Organic Chemicals. Director, New Products Division,
Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation, New York, N. Y.
Gubner, Richard, MD., Interna.l Medicine. Assistant Medical Director, Equitable
Life Insurance Socie!:r and Instructor in Medicine, Long Island Coliege of
Medicine, Brooklyn. New York.
Harris, T. N., MD., Immunology. Instructor in Pediatrics. School of Medicine,
University of Pennsylvania.lpirector. Research Laboratories. Children's Sea.-
shore House, Atlantic City, .New Jersey.
Holmes, Mrs. Margaret A., Geology and Mineralogy. Waldorf-Astoria Hotel,
New York, N. Y.
Horkheimer, Max, PhD., Social Science and Social. Philosophy. Research Direc-
tor, Institute of Social Research, Columbia. University; Research Consultant,
American Jewish Committee. New York. N. Y.
Huber, Olive, Ph.D .• Physiology. Instructor in Physiology. Hunter College, New
York,N. Y.
Kaback, Goldie R., M.A., Personality, Vocational Guidance. Instructor in Voca.-
tional Guidance, Teachers College, Columbia University. New York, N. Y.
Kalckar, Herman M., M.D., Ph.D., ll:nzyme Chemistry. Research Associate. Divi-
sion of Nutrition and Physiology, Public Health Research Institute of the
City of New York, New York, N. Y.
King, Ellen Eva, A.M., Risto-physiology. Endocrine. Instructor, Sa.rah Lawrence
College Bronxville, N. Y.
Koehler, Warrent Brown, A.B .• Psychology. Linguistics. Head, Department of
Testing and Phonetics, Milton Aca.c!emy, Milton, Massachusetts.
Lange\ Kurt, MD., Vascular Diseases. Instructor in Medicine, New York Medi-
C&l College, NewYork,N. Y.
Langer, Theodore William, Ph.D., Physical Chemistry. Petroleum. Project
Leader The Texas Company, Beacon, New York.
Lattes, R8.ffaele MD., Experimental Surgery and Surgical Pathology. Instructor
in Surgery, Resident Surgical Pathologist, Coliege of Physicians and Surgeons,
New York, N. Y.
Lawrie, James Pickett, PhD."" General Science. Editor, Chemical Products and
. Chemical N eWe London. J!<ngland.
Llpmann, Fritz, MD. Ph.D., Biological Chemistry. Research Chemist Massa.-
chusetts General Hospital; Research Fellow. Departments of BioChemistry
and Surgery, Harvard Medical Schoo!,.. Boston, Massachusetts.
McGinn, Charles E., Ph.D., Chemistry. Aesearch Chemist, Fordham La.boratory,
Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation, New York, N. Y.
Malkiel, Saul, Ph.D., M.D, Immunochemistry. Assistant in Pathology, Yale Uni-
versity School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut.
Reinhard, John Frederick, Ph.D., Pha.rmacology, Analgesic Drugs. Member of
Staff, Wellcome Research Laboratories, Tuckahoe, New York.
Scheinfeld, Amram, Social and Biological Sciences. Author, Books and Articles
in Human Science Field, New York, N. Y.
Seidenfeld, Morton A., Ph.D" Clinical Psychology. Chief Clinical Psychologist,
The Adjutant General's uffice, War Department, Washington, D. C.
Smythe, C. V., Ph.D., Biochemistry. Head of Biochemistry, Rohm and Haas
Company, Philadelp!lla Pennsylvania.
Spit~ Rene A., M.D. (N. Y.); Dr.Med. (Hungary); Dr.Med. (Czecho-Slovakia),
rsychology, (experimental, clinical child development) Psychiatry. Psycho-
analysis. Lecturer Instructor, Psychoanalytic Institute, New York. N. Y.
Stavitsky, Abram B., Ph.D., Bacteriology, Pathology. Bacteriologist, Henry
Phipps Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Strong, Leonell C., Ph.D., Sc.D., Cancer, Genetics. Associate Professor, Depart-
ment of Anatomy, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.
Warburg, Bettina, M.D., Psychosomatlc Medicine. Private Practice, Psychoanal-
ysis, New York, N. Y.
ASSOCIATE MEMBERS
Ballr,.,.Eric G:,r .Ph.D., Biochemistry. Associate Professor, Biological Chemistry,
.narvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.
Brown, Harrison S., Ph.D., Chemistry and Physics. Assistant Director of Chem-
istry Clinton Laboratories, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
Chance, Britton, Ph.D., Biophysics. Staff Member, Radiation Laboratory, Mas-
sachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Glaviano, Vincent V., Biology. Technical Sergeant, Army of U. S.
Madsen, Leo J., M.D. Surgery. Major, Medical Corps, Army of U. S
Paretsky, David, B.s., Physiological Bacteriology. Army of U. S.
Romberg, Frederick E, A.M., Applied Geophysics. Superintendent, Gravity
Meter Laboratory, Austin, Texas.
Valk, Arthur de Talma, Jr., Ph.D., Pharmacology, Biological Chemistry. Instruc-
tor in Pharmacology, Western Reserve University Medical School, Cleveland,
Ohio.
Whiteley, Arthur Henry, M.A., General Physiology, Chemical Embryology. Re-
search Assistant, Department of Biology, Princoton University, Princeton,
New Jersey.
STUDENT MEMBERS
Bernstein, Jacob L., S.B., Biochemical Research, Medical Student, New York
Medical College, New York, N. Y.
Friedland, Leah Edith"!"!3iological Assay of Vitamins. Student, University of Wis-
consin, Madison, wisconsin.
Szilagyi, Inge, Psycholopy. Student. Brooklw College, Brooklyn, New York.
TRANSACTIONS
of
SEE. II, VOL. 7 JUNE, 1945 No.8
SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY·

MAY 7, 1945
DOCTOR LEWIS B. KELLUM, Director, Museum of Paleontology, Univer-
sity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan: Jurassic Stratigraphy of
Alaska and PetroZeum Exploration in Northwest America. (This
lecture was illustrated with lantern slides.)
The bearing of the Jurassic stratigraphy of southwestern Alaska
on the petroleum possibilities of northwestern America stems from the
events of geologic history recorded in the rocks. The faunal zones
recognized in stratigraphic sections of near shore marine deposits dates
the orogenic, physiographic and climatic changes taking place on near-
by lands and in the neritic belt. Source and reservoir rocks in the
sections can be projected into the subsurface of nearby areas where the
cover is sufficient to permit accumulation of hydrocarbons. Precise
age determination of the rock units within the formations permits the
recognition of structural features which may influence the migration of
hydrocarbons. The accurate correlation of strata in southwestern
Alaska with those of the Pacific coast and Rocky Mountain region of
Canada and the western United States by means of the faunas, inte-
grates the geologic events throughout northwestern America, highlights
the oil producing horizons of one area for intensive study in distant
• No meeting of the Section of Anthropology was held in May.
TRANSACTIONS of the New York Academy of Sci_, Series II. Volume 'I, No. 8,
June 1945.
This publication is distributed to Members aDd is published monthly from November to June,
inclusive, at 109 West Chestnut Street. Lancasterl..Pa., by The New York Academy of Sciences;
Seventy-ninth Street and Central Park West, New xork City.
Executive Secretaey: EUDice Thomas Miner.
Entered as second-class matter Deoember 2. 1938, at the poet ofIice at Lancaster, PL, under the
act of Ausust ~. 1912.
201
202 TRANSACTIONS
TABLE 1
TENTATIVE COMPOSITE TmASSIC AND JURASSIC STRATIGRAPHIC SUCCESSION IN
SoUTllWESTREN ALASKA
Period Formation Lithology Faunas

White or light-colored, hard arkosic Aucella
sandstone, andesitio tuff, coarse and
fine sanru.tone, shale and conglomerate.
Thin sills of quartz diorite are intruded
into the sedimentary beds. 3000+ feet.
Naknek Gray shale with dark arkosic beds. At CardiourlJl
5000' the base is fine conglomerate or grit
with thin sandy beds scattered through
it, equivalent to the Chisik Conglomer-
ate. 1645 feet.
Chisik Conglomerate: Locs.lly devel-
oped; 290'-400'. Boulders of ~te
or diorite and other igneous roc em-
bedded in tuffaceous andesitic matrix.
Massive black shale with some lime-
stone lenses and nodules. 700-1000
feet.
Massive brown to gray sandstone with Aata.rte sp. E
minor amounts of sh8.le and conglom-
erate. 4000-4700 feet.
Gray sandy shale. 200 to 1200 feet.
JUpPlY!
urasslC Chinitna shale member: Gray shale
with strinJbt of fine and coarse sand-
stone an butT-weathering limeston~
large limestone concretions weathere Cadocfraa
ash:higray at one horizon carry fossils.
At' n Wrs.hyry sill intrudes this sco-
tion at i e Bay. 400-1300 feet.
Well-stratified gray shale interbedded
Shelikof with thin lenticUlar layers of limestone
8000' and thin beds of soft gray sandstone
weathered yellow; limestone ooncre-
tions va;rying from 1 to 10 feet in longest
dimension contain wood fragments and
a ~e flat Inoceramus. Several diabase
sills mtrude these strata at Wide Bay.
950 feet.
Interbedded sandy shale and :fine to
medium grained irilty sandstone con- Seymourila
taining gray limestone concretions.
100± feet.
TABLE 1 (Continued)
TENTATIVE CoMl'OSITE TBIASSIC AND JURASSIC SntATIGRAPBIC SUCCESSION IN
SoUTHWESTERN ALASKA
Period Formation Lithology Faunas

Tonnie sandstone member: a series of
Upper alternating sandstones, shales and M iccocephalite8
Ju:ra.ssic coarse coDglomerates with numerous
fossil bearing horizons. 1200 feet.
Sandy shale with stringers of shaly
sandstone; near the midOle are coarse
sandstones grading into conglomerates
Tuxedni with cobbles of volcanic rock; small cal- Oppelia sp. C
4000' careous concretions in the shale near
the base are fossiliferous. 950 feet.
Cynthia Falls member: Medium-grain-
Middle ed gray sandstone grading horizontally
Jurassic into alternating sandstone and con-
glomerate. 800 feet.
Sandy shale with numerous s~ of
shaly sandstone and with concretionary DefOtlticera8 sp. B
masses in the upper half; fossils present
at many horizons. 1250 feet. Zemiatephcmua
Kolosh member: (a) Platy
to massive medium-grained to con-
glomeratic ~h-gray sandstone con- lnoceramua sp. C
taining wood fragments and I rur
ceramm. 200 feet.
(b) Interbedded sandstone and shale
becoming predominantly sandstone at Dactylioceraa
the top. 300 feet.
Kiala.gvik Aleuts member: (a) Inter-
1600' bedded sandstone. shale and conglom- HammatfJcera81
erate, increasing in coarseness upward kialaguikeMe
with several beds of conglomerate in the
Lower upper 200 feet. 450 feet.
Jurassic
(b) Dark gray to black shale Jrl"8.C1ing;
upward into gray shaly sanastone. "Ham~as"
650 feet. howelli
Dark gra_y-black shale with occasional
thin beds of liItht colored, coarse- Arieticeras1
grained, weU-inaurated sandstone.
Bidarka 1800 feet.
2300'
Massive to thin-bedded tuffaceous
sandstone and interbedded calcareous ABtarte Bp. D
shale and limestone. 1000 feet.
Thin-bedded, dense, 9l"PD!c limestone
Kamisbak interbedded with shale 8.nd sandstone; p,tmdomunotia
1400' intruded by dikes and sills. 8'UbciTculan.
204 TRANSACTIONS
potentially productive areas, and shows the extent and distribution of

synchronous seas, the position of their shorelines, their hinge lines of
subsidence and their basins.
The sequence of Jurassic and Triassic formations in southwestern
Alaska is shown in TABLE 1.
The Kamishak formation exposed at Cold Bay is dominantly
limestones and may be considered favorable source rocks for petroleum.
Their apparent organic character is also encouraging. The limestones
are not greatly metamorphosed and the few igneous dikes and sills
which penetrate them have produced only narrow zones of alteration.
These intrusions are thought to be of pre-Jurassic age, since they are
confined to the Triassic rocks. The overlying Jurassic strata are free
from intrusives in the Cold Bay section. The gradational and appar-
ently conformable contact between the Triassic and Jurassic systems
in this section indicates that there was no period of folding, uplift and
erosion after the Triassic limestones and associated sandstone had been
deposited. Such an unconformity, if present, might have afforded the
opportunity for escape of liquid hydrocarbons which had accumulated
in the Triassic rocks before Jurassic time. On the other hand, many
if not most large accumulations of oil throughout the world are asso-
ciated with unconformable contacts. Tuffaceous sandstones in the
upper part of the Triassic section furnish possible reservoirs for the
accumulation of oil formed in the limestone and shale source rocks.
The objective of any deep well drilled in the Alaska. Peninsula should
be to penetrate the Triassic rocks from top to bottom. It is perhaps
significant, however, that the Triassic throughout the world has pro-
duced less oil than any other post-Cambrian system. Thi$ is explained
by the fact that it was a time of restricted seas and expanded deposi-
tion of continental and volcanic deposits. These presumably lacked
the kind and quantity of organic material to yield the hydrocarbons
necessary to form commercial quantities of petroleum in the areas of
the present land masses. The neritic belt in which the proper balance
of highly organic marine sediments interfingered with coarse clastics
to produce both source and reservoir rocks was, for the most part,
during Triassic time, outside the margins of the present continents.
Nevertheless, Triassic or Permo-Triassic strata have produced small
quantities of oil in the Rocky Mountain region of the United States
(Moenkopi and Chugwater formations), in the Mendoza Province of
Argentina and the Emba district of the U. S. S. R.
Another factor bearing on the presence of commercial oil in Trias-

sic rocks in southwestern Alaska is the igneous activity associated with
them. In the Cold Bay section, the amount of igneous rock penetrat-
ing the limestones of thc Kamishak formation is unimportant, but at
Ursus Cove, 180 miles to the northeast, considerably more intrusive
rock is present. Possibly, the igneous activity of early Mesozoic time
on the Alaska Peninsula may have been decreasing in intensity to the
southwest.
The Jurassic section at Cold Bay consists of 2600 feet of dark
colored shales and tuffaceous sandstones. They are considered to be a
favorable association of possible source and reservoir rocks. Shales
predominate near the top of the formation and would serve as a cap
rock for the more porous sandstones. The absence of limestones as a
potential source rock in the Jurassic is to be noted, but this deficiency
may be, in part, offset by their presence in the underlying Triassic,
separated only by a gradational contact.
All of the sediments referred to the Jurassic in the Cold Bay sec-
tion are assigned to the Lower Jurassic and are overlain disconform-
ably by the basal conglomerate of the Upper Jurassic Shelikof forma-
tion. There is no positive evidence that the Kialagvik formation or
equivalent strata are present in the Cold Bay section, although the
upper 1300 feet of the Bidarka formation did not yield any fossils.
The stratigraphic interval between the Kialagvik formation cropping
out on the Wide Bay anticline and the Lower Jurassic Bidarka forma-
tion cannot be estimated. The absence of igneous rocks in the Juras-
sic at Cold Bay is favorable. The succession of fine and coarse grained
sediments in the Triassic and Jurassic section implies an oscillating sea
without important mountain building nearby.
There are several factors in the stratigraphic section exposed at
Wide Bay which seem to have a bearing on the oil possibilities of the
Alaska Peninsula. A careful comparison of the lithologic variations
vertically within each faunal zone and subzone brings out the cyclic
nature of the sedimentation. Within each time interval, the sediments
laid down grade from finer or coarser-grained clastics. If this persists
in the subsurface section, it would provide an alternation of potential
source and reservoir rocks. The coarsest sdiments in the Kialagvik
formation are the conglomerates interbedded with sandstones in the
upper part of the Aleuts member. The member has an exposed thick-
ness of 1150 feet and grades upward from shales in the lowest outcrops
206 TRANSACTIONS
to conglomerates at the top. At Fossil Bluffs on Wide Bay, there is a

thin zone of limestone 575 feet above the base. This sequence of
lithologic units interproted in terms of shoreline development implies a
regressing sea. As the shoreline moved closer to the Wide Bay area,
coarser clastics were deposited. Conversely, during an earlier stage of
the regression, the area was further off-shore where clearer waters pre-
vailed, and the deposition of calcium carbonate would not have been
masked to such an extent by the influx of clastics. Hence, limestones
might be expected to comprise a larger percentage of the subsurface
section than is present in the exposed part of the Kialagvik formation.
This is supported by the repeated record of stringers of impure lime-
stone in calcareous shale throughout the lower half of the log of
Standard Grammar Well No.1, in strata included in the Kialagvik by
the Company's geologists. This well was located in the Kanatak Dis-
trict, 30 miles northeast of the sections measured at Wide Bay.
The Kialagvik formation on the Iniskin-Chinitna peninsula in-
creases in coarseness from the base upward. The lower 1600 feet is
chiefly sandy shale and siltstone with some sandstone stringers. The
upper 900 feet consists of sandstones with numerous thick beds of
cobble conglomerates derived largely from volcanic rocks. The se-
quence here confirms the evidence of a regressing sea and the approach
of the shoreline. The coarse conglomerates suggest that this regres-
sion was accompanied by orogenic disturbances nearby, but there is no
evidence of angular unconformity between the Kialagvik and the over-
lying Tuxedni sandstone.
The Tuxedni standstone is a series of alternating sandstones and
sandy shales. The sandstones become thicker and coarser in the upper
part of the section and there are several thick beds of boulder conglom-
erates present. The boulders in some of these are coarse granites evi-
dently derived from the erosion of an intrusive mass brought to the
surface by uplift and degradation. The beginning of Tuxedni deposi-
tion records a new transgression of the sea in Middle Jurassic time, fol-
lowed by oscillations of the shoreline as deposition and erosion con-
tended for the littoral zone. Following the initial invasion, the record
is one of halting withdrawal throughout the remainder of Middle Juras-
sic time. The thickness of the Tuxedni sandstone indicates a subsi-
dence of over 4000 feet in the Iniskin Chinitna Peninsula area, but the
deposition of clastics kept pace with it and the sea remained shallow
throughout the period. When subsidence ceased, permanent deposition

came to an end.
At Wide Bay, the Middle Jurassic Tuxedni sandstone is not present
and the Upper Jurassic Shelikof formation rests on the Lower Jurassic
Kialagvik without apparent unconformity. Evidently, there was little
or no subsidence in the Wide Bay area during Middle Jurassic time.
It began again in early Upper Jurassic time and the Shelikof sea trans-
gressed a long distance west of the Wide Bay area where fine clays and
limes were deposited. The influx of clastics from a rising land area on
the northwest soon pushed the shoreline eastward in spite of several
thousand feet of subsidence during the early Upper Jurassic time. The
middle part of the Shelikof formation consists of sandstones and silt-
stones.
The Chinitna shale, which overlies the Tuxedni sandstone on the
Iniskin-Chinitna Peninsula, is in part equivalent to the lower shales of
the Shelikof formation and, like it, records a period of marine trans-
gression. The overlying Naknek sandstone shows another influx of
great quantities of sands, from the adjacent land-mass. These accu-
mulated as rapidly as the subsiding sea bottom permitted their perma-
nent deposition. The thick bed of coarse conglomerate widely present
at its base records the sudden uplift which accompanied the withdrawal
of the sea after the Chinitna-Lower Shelikof transgression.
The depositional record of Jurassic time in southwestern Alaska is
one of great subsidence in the neritic belt, accompanied by oscillation
of the shoreline. The subsidence here was balanced by uplift of the
land area to the northwest contributing coarse clastics to the eastward
fiowing streams. Igneous activity accompanying this orogeny- is re-
fiected in the Arkosic sandstones throughout the section and the cobbles
and boulders of volcanic and intrusive rocks at many horizons. The
correlation of Jurassic formations and faunas of southwestern Alaska
with those of Canada and the western United States is shown in
TABLE 2.
208 TRANSACTIONS
TABLE 2
0oURJ!lLA'rION CIIART OJ' JURARIIIC FORMATIONS AND
AO& III BUCIIIWI'S

RIIlOD Ot.All8lFlOATlCII
(AJ"l'ER 1loLEARII)
lablllt liS
An...,. 81'. I
UPPER
l1li.1111:01 J'II_
JURASSIG
Sepo1II"i. te.
IlaCZ'Ooeph.l.1 taD
MIDDLE Oppe1:1.& '1'. C
JURASSIC
~~~,.. ~----------
.'1011'''' ·'_'toOel'''·
LOWER
JURASSIC,
FAUNAS IN SoUTHWESTERN ALASKA, CANADA AND OREGON
:Dll1lKl1I-CBllllm FAIJ1i.A8 OF pACInc FAUllAS' OF 1'DUI11:

pDllIIIIUU. COAII'l' OF Q,UlAIIA. I'<lIIIIA'1'lQII or CAIIADA 0JlSCI0II
JlalaI.lt 88.
,
CJazo4l,oc....aa can&4.....
Lan.8Om.
FII.
1'_1 tocera. oc014.lIt.1.
ClIinl_ Sh.
lCN.OWIltc8 Se;JlllClUJ'lt•• ft'ow'brlq.

OroUP
-< Corbula 1IND4a
'01"108111..-. l>
'.100.....
"
0
Cl:Il.IUQ'8 IIOOODft81U
!uxa4D.1 SS.
c: .eloc.~".Sta. . .toc_r...
Izea Group
»e~ont1c.~a.. Sax1toA-
lcaraB, Z8III1atepbanua
De~OII 'lc.r•• Z
Z8IIIl.tephaDua:
XlUlaatepbanu8
Colpith Group
Scmnlnla
.. ,
ltlalaS"1k FIll. °:DactJ110_.· ~
DaotJ110o.raa;
» IlNaatco.~aa
lIow1ob Ik'OUp
C G~lIIIIIIIOceraa
°SeqU1nas.o_.· 0
IlODOftD CJroUp
·~'lo. . .• 1"'1
1pem1o........
210 TRANSACTIONS
SECTION OF BIOLOGY
MAY 14,1945
DOCTOR J. S. KISER and DOCTOR J. S. ZELLAT, Lederle Laboratories,
Pearl River, N. Y.: Antibiotics, Other than Penicillin, Produced
by Penicillia. (This lecture was illustrated with lantern slides.)
Since it was evident, from the beginning, that penicillin would be
ineffective against a large number of microorganisms, particularly the
Gram negative bacteria which are the cause of such diseases as typhoid
fever, cholera, undulant fever, bacillary dysentery and plague, many
microbiologists turned their attention to seeking other antibodies which
would be effe('tive in t.reating these diseases.
The search for these substances has, by no means, been limited to
the Penicillia, but has included a great portion of the plant kingdom,
and antibiotic substances have been demonstrated from such diverse
sources as onion juice and the extracted growth of Cheatomium, a
saprophytic soil fungus. Most of these substances, however, have been
either too toxic for medical use, ineffective in the animal body, or only
weakly antibiotic. The Penicillia have yielded a number of com-
pounds, all of which fall into one or another of the above categories,
but which, nevertheless, are of interest for various reasons. It is with
these substances that this talk is concerned.
The search for antibiotic substances among the Penicillia consists
of three steps: First, So rapid, qualitative test of large numbers of cul-
tures for any degree of antibiotic activity; second, the production of a
suitably high concentration of the substance in a medium from which it
may be extracted and purified; and third, the isolation and purifica-
tion of the substance, its identification, if it is a known compound, or
the testing of the compound for toxicity and, finally, for ability to pro-
tect animals against infection and cure them after infection.
The first of these steps, the testing of large numbers of cultures for
antibiotic activity, may be satisfactorily conducted by growing a single
colony of the mold on a suitable medium on a Petri plate and streaking
the test organism from the edge of the plate to the colony. This method
permits the use of several test organisms and the testing of the same
culture at several times for antibiotic activity, since it is known that
some antibiotics may be produced, then later destroyed, in the medium.
The medium used must be suitable, not only for the growth of the
THE NEW YORK .ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 211
mold and the production of an antibiotic, two conditions, which may

differ widely j but also for the growth of several different kinds of
bacteria.
A suitable medium for this purpose is a 1% peptone, 0.5% meat
extract, medium + 0.3% K 2 HPO and 2% sucrose.
The organisms commonly used comprise both Gram positive and
Gram negative species. Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Ba-
cillus subtilis and Eberthella tvphosa are used commonly.
A loopful of a spore suspension of the culture to be tested is placed
in the center of the plate and the plate incubated at about 23°_24° C.
for 5-7 days, depending on the culture. The plate is then streaked
from the edge of the plate to the edge of the colony with each test
culture, and the plates are further incubated at 37° C. for 24 hours
when they are observed for growth of the test organisms. They are
then replaced in the 24° C. incubator for 5-7 days, retested, and some-
times even tested after a third period of incubation.
After a culture is found to have antibiotic activity, the next step
is to produce the substance in a concentration and in a medium from
which it may be extracted and purified.
Since the antibiotic may not be produced in a liquid medium of
the same composition as the agar on which it was originally found, it is
advisable to test a number of media. Some media commonly used are
those of Raulin-Thom and the Czapek-Dox medium. These may be
supplemented with various materials, streh as apple juice concentrate,
malt extract, beet molasses, com steep liquor, asparagus press juice
concentrate, soy bean meal, ctc. Yeast extract, a favorite source of
nutrilites for bacteria, has proven disappointing as an accessory sub-
stance to stimulate antibiotic production. It is also advisable to in-
cubate a duplicate set of cultures on a shaker, since some antibiotics
are produced in higher concentration in shaken cultures than in still,
i.e. surface, cultures. The problem of assaying these mold cultures for
antibiotic activity can be met in several ways. A commonly used
method is to incorporate a sample of the culture fluid into a suitable
medium, either a broth or an agar medium. Serial dilutions are made
in this medium. In the case of a broth medium, only a single organism
can be used per tube of mediumj thus, the agar has an advantage,
since it may be poured into a Petri plate and a streak inoculation made
with each of several organisms. This provides an estimate of the rela-
tive sensitivity of the various test organisms for the antibiotic. This
212 TRANSACTIONS
bacterial spectrum, as Waksman has termed it, is of great importance

in identifying the substance, since each of the known antibiotics has a
quite characteristic bacterial spectrum. This will be further dis-
cussed in connection with each substance. It is not always necessary
to sterilize the sample of culture :fluid used, since the assay is usually
carried out at 37 0 C. and the mold may not grow enough during the
incubation at that temperature to interfere with the reading of the re-
sults. Furthermore, sterilization of the sample often presents a real
problem since many antibiotics, notably penicillin and gliotoxin are
heat-labile, while others, like streptomycin, are adsorbed tp some ex-
tent by ordinary methods of filtration. It may sometimes be practical
to combine centrifugation and pasteurization with some antibiotics.
Once a suitable medium and method of producing a high concen-
tration of activity has been obtained, a relatively large batch of
medium is prepared, usually twenty to fifty liters. This is distributed
in amounts of approximately 250 m1. per :flask in suitable :flasks, inocu-
lated and incubated for several days, when samples are taken for as-
say. When these assays reveal a relatively high concentration of the
antibiotic, the :fluid is harvested. Here the real problem begins, for
the isolation, purification and identification of the antibiotic is often
a laborious and time consuming process, and, since it differs with each
substance, it is, perhaps, best to take up these methods in the discus-
sion of the individual antibiotics.
Eight separate identified antibiotics have already been reported
as being produced by Penicillia. The structural formula of four of
these, clavacin, penicillic acid, citrinin, spinulosin has been determined.
Puberulic and puberulonic acids and penicillin and penatin are still
unknown.
Clavacin
Of all the antibiotics, other than penicillin, so far described as
being produced by Penicillia, the most interesting is clavacin. This
substance has been isolated from a number of Penicillium species and
has been given a variety of names. It is the claviformin from P. clavi-
fOTm6 of Chain et al., the patulin from P. patuZum of Raistrick, and,
like most of the other antibiotics, it has also been isolated from other
genera. In fact, the name most commonly used in this country, clava-
cin, is derived from Aspergillus cZavatus, the species used by Dr. Wake-
man in his first work with it. Clavacin is a very powerful and versa-
tile antibiotic, but, unfortunately, it is also very toxic. Nevertheless,

it has received considerable study in the hope that, since its structure
is known, the toxicity might be modified without destroying its effec-
tiveness as a bacteriostatic and bactericidal agent. Raistrick first pub-
lished the structure of clavacin, which is known as patulin in England,
in the Lancet, in November, 1943.1 Chemically, it is anhydro-3-hy-
droxy-methylene-tetrahydro-y-pyrone-2 carboxylic acid. In our ex-
periments, it was the only antibiotic produced in all the media used.
It produced a comparatively high titer against all the test organisms
and no difficulty was encountered in preparing large batches of active
filtrate.
The filtrate was reduced in volume in vacuo to about 1/20th the
original, then continuously extracted with ether for 24 hours. The
ether extract was concentrated and set in the chill room at 50 C. over-
night, when large quantities of fine white crystals had precipitated.
This material was filtered off, recrystallized from ether, and the melt-
ing point and chemical composition determined.
m. p.l09°
= =
C 54.37, H 4.27
These values compare well with the melting point 109-1100 C. un-
corrected and analysis C 54.58, H 4.28% of the St. Louis University
Medical School Groups and with the theoretical for C1 H e0 4 ; C =
54.54, H = 3.90%.
Since the results of our in vitro tests and chemical tests were simi-
lar to those of Raistrick, Hooper and others, we did not, at this time,
carry out extensive degradation processes for the identification of the
product but did do Bome toxicity tests. 0.2 mg., intraperitoneally, was
the LD100 for 20 gm. mice. The value for similar tests by the St.
Louis group was 0.1 mg. The most striking symptom of toxicity with
this substance is the terrific edema, resulting in hemoconcentration.
This is so great that, upon death of the animal, the lungs may be filled
with fluid to the point where they will not float.
The mode of action of clavacin has been the subject of consider-
able study and Geiger and Conna have suggested that it may be due
to the inactivation of sulfhydryl groups. The exact process is un-
known, but it is known that clavacin is an a-,B-unsaturated ketone
which will react with cysteine, thioglycollate or glutathione and, there-
upon, loses its bacteriostatic activity. The reaction postUlated by
Posner is as follows:
214 TRANSACTIONS
o ~ 0 R:
II H / II H
/
Rl - C-C = C + RSH == Rl-O-C-C--Ra
'Ra H ~R
If this is actually the mechanism of the reaction, it would be easy
to understand the extreme toxicity of the compound, because of the
known requirements of many organisms for sulfhydryl groups, but it
leaves unexplained the vast difference in toxicity between clavacin and
penicillic acid, which also reacts with and is inactivated by sulfhydryl
groups.
The active a-p unsaturated ketones are characterized by the fact
that Rl is an aromatic group, such as the phenyl group, and either Rli
or Rs is an H group. Clavacin, but not penicillic acid, is inactivated by
thiosulfate. Acrylophenone, benzalacetophenone and furfuralaceto-
phenone were active bacteriostatic agents, but only acrylophenone re-
acted with the sulfhydryls.
The problem of the synthesis of clavacin has been studied in a
number of laboratories and recently Peutzer, Nield and Barry4 have
published the synthesis of a clavacin isomer.
o
Ii
H2CQCHS
H J_/o Compound I
• C
o "-o
This substanee was reported as showing a slight bacteriostatic ac-
tivity in vitro against Staphy~ocOCCtt8 attrettS at a 1 :2000 dilution.
They also state that Compound I absorbs only 1 mole of hydrogen
under conditions under which clavacin absorbs from 3-4 moles. The
double bond in the pyrone ring is not saturated, as in the case of clava-
cin. This would seem to disprove the suggestion of Bergel et at that
a dynamic tautomerism exists between clavacin and Compound I.
They also reported that
>
CHa
CHa
C==CH-C-C-CHa
0
II
H
I ~
Compound II
o=c-c=o
a compound formed by the opening of the pyrone ring of the dimethyl
homologue of clavacin, had bacteriostatic activity in a dilution of
1:4000. No mention is made of inactivation of this compound by
sulfhydryl groups, i.e., whether it gave a positive nitroprusside test
after treatment with - SH compounds, but it should be pointed out
that this compound is also an «-[3 unsaturated ketone.
PenicUlic Acid
This substance was originally isolated in 1913 by Alsburg and
Black from a culture of Penicillium puberulum Bainier.5 It has since
been dellcribed from P. cyclopium Westling by Birkinshaw, Oxford
and Raistrick6 and from P. Thomii and P. suavolens by Karow, Wood-
ruff and Foster.T
It is active against both Gram positive and Gram negative or-
ganisms in concentrations from three to ten times as great as the con-
centrations of clavacin required for the same organism under the same
conditions. However, it is much less toxic, so is of some interest.
It was produced in Raulin-Thom medium. The medium was con-
centrated in vacuo to about 1/20 the original volume and continuously
extracted with ether for 48 hours. The ether extract was further con-
centrated in vacuo and set in the chill room overnight. A large quan-
tity of crystals had precipitated. They were recrystallized from
petroleum ether and the melting point and analysis were done. The
melting point 81-840 C. compares well with the values reported by
Raistrick, 86° C. for the anhydrous acid and the composition: C =
56.42, H = 5.85 is nearly identical with the theoretical value for
CSH 100 4 , i.e., C 56.44 and H 5.93. The bacteriostatic activity of peni-
cillic acid compared with that for clavacin was as follows:
TABLE 1
BACTERIOSTATIC CONCENTRATIONS, mg %
Penicillic acid Clavacin.

Salmonella pullorum 10 0.5
Brucella abortus Strain 19 20 0.65
Eberthella typhoaa 15 1.25
Vibrio cholerae 15 1.25
8higella dysenteriae 25 1.25
Pll8teureua bubalseptica 10 0.65
Shigella gallifUlf'Um 15 1.25
Escherichia coli >25 2.5
Salmonella cholera-aui$ 20 2.5
8taphyZococcus a'Ureus 20 1.25
8treptocoCC'IUI hemolyticu.a 10 <0.5
BaCUl'U8 BUbtilis 25 5.0
216 TRANSACTIONS
The toxicity level was determined in 12 day chick embryos to be

1.5 mg. as LDso. The material was injected into the allantoic cavity.
Oxford, Raistrick and Smith gave 300 gm/kg as the lethal subcutane-
ous dose in 20 gIn. mice.
Spinulosin
Spinulosin, 3,6 dihydroxy, 4 methoxytoluquinone, was first iso-
lated from Penicillium 8pinulosum Thom by Birkinshaw and Raistrick
in 1931.8 The structure was confirmed by synthesis.
Spinulosin is only weakly antibiotic being effective against Staphy·
lOCOCCU8 aureus in a dilution of about 1 :6000. It is almost equally
effective, however, against Gram negative bacteria. It is further of
interest, because a closely related substance, fumigatin, was isolated
by Anslow and Raistrick from filtrates of A8pergillu8 fumigatus Frese·
nius cultures. This substance, whose structure has also been confirmed
by synthesis, is 3 hydroxy, 4 methoxy toluquinone. These investiga-
tors found that not all strains of A8pergillus jumigatus produced fumi·
gatin but that spinulosin was produced by some. Following the lead
provided by the substances produced by these two organisms, Rai-
strick's group synthesized and tested a number of substituted benzo-
quinones and toluquinones. P-benzoquinone is, itself, a fairly potent
anti-bacterial substance, capable of completely inhibiting growth of
Staphylococcu8 aureus for 24 hours in glucose broth at a dilution of
1: 12000. Its activity is diminished by preliminary incubation in glu-
cose broth at 37°, as is the activity of all of the toluquinones and
benzoquinones.
Two other toluquinones which have been found to be actively bac-
teriostatic are 4 methoxy and 4:6 dimethoxytoluquinone. The first of
these will inhibit Staphylococcus aureus at a dilution of 1:300,000 for
24 hours. The dimethoxy compound is even more effective, since it
inhibits the Staphylococcu8 at a dilution of 1:500,000. It might be
pointed out, at this time, that the activity of the toluquinones seems
to be connected with the methoxy groups and that hydroxy groups re-
duce the activity. Thus, spinulosin, the 3,6 dihydroxy monomethoxy
compound, is less active than fumigatin, the 3 hydroxy monomethoxy
compound, which is, in turn, less active than the unsubstituted mono-
methoxy toluquinone, while the dimethoxy compound is most active
of all. Unfortunately, the toxicity of the compounds increases in the
same order and the 4,6 dimethoxytoluquinone is too toxic to be of any
therapeutic value. Moreover, a protection test reported by Miss Bar-
ber, in which mice were inoculated with StreptococcUil pyogene8, then
treated with 4,6 dimethoxytoluquinone, showed no protection.
Penatin
Penatin, first described by Kocholaty,9 is not an antibiotic in the
true sense of the word, since it achieves its effect indirectly by a cata-
lytic action, rather than by any intrinsic properties of its own. It is an
enzyme, specifically a glucose dehydrogenase, and its antibacterial ac-
tivity is due to the formation of hydrogen peroxide. The reaction is
as follows:
Glucose + H 20 + O2 -+ Gluconic acid + H 20 2
Since the antibacterial action is actually due to hydrogen peroxide
rather than to the enzyme, the range of activity is wide and includes
both aerobes and anaerobes, Gram positive and Gram negative forms.
Kocholaty adsorbed the material on kaolin at an acid pH, eluted
with pyridine, precipitated with dioxane and, finally, took it up in
water. The St. Louis grouplO used a much simpler method involving
precipitation with uranium acetate and liberation with phosphate at
pH 6.8. The enzyme is then salted out with ammonium sulfate,
dialyzed to get rid of the sulfate, and lyophilized. Recovery of activ-
ity is practically complete.
The prosthetic group of the enzyme isolated by the St. Louis group
was shown to be flavine adenine dinucleotide. Their preparation dif-
fered somewhat from that of the group at the London School of Hy-
giene & Tropical Medicine who referred to their substance as notatin.
This difference might be due to a slight difference in the enzyme. The
glucose dehydrogenase, isolated at this laboratory, was essentially the
same in its action as that reported by the St. Louis group. It has
been shown that the antibacterial activity is wholly accounted for by
the hydrogen peroxide produced. Gluconic acid will prevent the
growth of Staphylococcus awreU8 in a 1: 1000 concentration in a pep-
tone-glucose medium, but this concentration lowers the pH to 4.2. In-
hibitory concentrations of penatin do not depress. the pH below 6.2,
which is not, in itself, inhibitory.. The concentration of the enzyme, as
well as that of the glucose, effects the amount of the hydrogen peroxide
formed and therefore the amount of antibacterial activity exhibited
by the preparation. Catalase completely destroys the activity of the
218 TRANSACTIONS
llubstance and, of course, fresh unheated serum also decreases or de-

stroys the activity, though old, or heated serum will cause little or no
decrease in antibacterial activity. The enzyme, itself, is not inacti-
vated by potassium cyanide, so it is possible to mix the enzyme with a
mixture of 0.1 M KeN and catalase, which is inactivated by the cya-
nidc, and have the preparation retain full activity. Moreover, the an-
tibacterial effect may be destroyed by any chemical means which will
destroy a corresponding amount of hydrogen peroxide. These include
tho addition of ferrous salts, cysteine, and sodium thiosulfate.
A few toxicity and protection tests were run on this substance.
Kocholaty reported that 500 mg., intramuscularly, or 20 mg. per day
for five days was not toxic to guinea pigs, but other workers found the
toxicity of their preparations to be much greater. No protective effects
have been reported. This substance is of importance because it may
simulate an active antibiotic. It can be rather easily ruled out, how-
ever, by a few simple tests. First, is the substance active in glucose
free media? In this connection, one should not overlook the fact that
glucose may be carried over in the filtrate sample and even 0.005% of
glucose may produce significant amounts of hydrogen peroxide. How-
ever, if the material is significantly more active in a glucose containing
medium than in one lacking glucose, the effect of catalase or of fresh
serum upon the activity should be determined. If the activity is
greatly decreased or destroyed, two other simple tests may be applied.
Precipitation with uranium acetate and elution with phosphate at pH
6.8 plus failure to dialyse ~an be considered pretty conclusive evidence
that the substance in question is a glucose dehydrogenase.
Citrinin
First isolated in 1931 by Hetherington and Raistrick~l from a cul-
ture of Penicillium citrinin Thom, it is probably the easiest of the anti-
biotics to prepare, since it is only necessary to acidify the filtered cul-
ture in order to precipitate the yellow microcrystalline compound. The
precipitate is filtered, washed and recrystallized from boiling absolute
ethanol. ..
Citrinin is principally effective against Gram positive bacteria
which it inhibits in high diluton. It has not proven to have any in
vivo activity, though it is not excessively toxic.
Puberulic and Puberulonic Acids
These substances are found in small amounts in cultures of Peni-
cillium puberulum.12 Puberulic acid is a practically colorless dibasic
acid which is bacteriostatic for Gram positive bacteria in low concen-
trations. Puberulonic acid, which is bright yellow, is a much less
active bacteriostatic substance. No reports on toxicity or protective
action have appeared.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. B.aistricIt, H., J. H. Birkinshaw, A. Bra.clten, & S. E. Michael.
1943. Lancet 2: G2S.
2. Katzman, P. A., E. E. Hayes, C. K. Cain, J. J. Van WyIt, 1'. J. Raithel,
S. A. Thayer, E. A. Doisy, W. L. Ga.by, C. J. Carroll, R. D. Muir, &;
L. R. Jotle~.
1944. J. BioI. Chern. 154: 475.
S. Geiger, W. B., & J. E. Conn.
1945. J. Am. Chern. Soc 67: 112.
4. Puetzer, B., C. B. Nield, R. B. Ba.rr,v.
1945. Science 101: 307.
5. Alsbe"g, C. L., &; O. 1'. Bl$Ck.
1913. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bureau of Plant Ind., Bull. 270.
6. Birkinshaw, J. H., A. E. Olford. & H. Raistrick.
1936. Biochem. J. 30: 394.
7. Karow, E. 0., H. B. Woodrufl, &; J. W. Foster.
1944. Arch. Biocht'm. 5: 279.
8. Birkinshaw, J. H., &; H. R.a.istrick.
1931. Phil. TrclJls. Royal Soc. London (B), 220: 245.
9. Kocholatr, W.
1942. J. Burt. 44: 143.
10. Van Bruggen, J. '1'., F. J. Reithel, C. K. Cs.in, P. A. Katzman. E. A. Doisy,
R. D. Muir, E. C. Roberts, W. L. Gaby, D. M. Homan, &; L. R. Jones.
1943. J. BioI. Chern. 148: 365.
U. Hetherington, A. C., &; H. Raistrick.
1931. Trans.ltoy.1l Soc. London (B) 220: 269.
12. Birkenshaw, J. H., &; H. Ra.istrick.
1932. Biochem. J. 2S: 441.
220 TRANSACTIONS
MAY 21, 1945
DOCTOR MORRIS S. VlTELES, Professor of Psychology, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Chairman, National Research
Council Committee on Selection and Training of Aircraft Pilots:
Research in Aviation Psychology. (This lecture was illustrated
by lantern slides.)
In 1939, the Civil Aeronautics Authority (now the Civil Aero-
nautics Administration) undertook an ambitious program of training
civilian pilots. The purpose of this was to make young men and young
women airminded and to prepare the present generation of young
people to fiy the private and commercial planes of the future. This
program, known as the Civilian Pilot Training Program, was operated
through the universities of the country, making use of already estab-
lished facilities in the hands of private operators while encouraging
others to set up similar facilities.
The first phase of the Civilian Pilot Training Program called for
instruction of 10,000 pilots, which was quickly expanded to the number
of 50,000. Almost simultaneously with the formulation of the pro-
gram, largely through the efforts of Robert Hinckley, at that time
Chairman of the Civil Aeronautics Authority, and Dean R. Brimhall,
Director of Research, funds were set aside for research on selection and
training of civilian aircraft pilots. This was done in the belief that an
extended program of civilian pilot training should make use of every
possible scientific aid for selecting those most competent to fly; for
determining the best methods of training; for the appraisal of flight
achievement i and for safeguarding the adjustment of the pilot. More-
over, it was recognized that this large scale training program provided
unusual opportunities for renewing the study of problems related to
the human side of aviation which had been initiated during World
War I and abandoned almost immediately with the signing of the
Armistice.
The National Research Council was asked to undertake the re-
sponsibility for administering these research funds, and a committee,
known as the Committee on Selection and Training of Civilian Aircraft
Pilots, with J. G. Jenkins as Chairman, was set up to organize and su-
pervise the research program. This committee, which includes psy-
chologists, physiologists, physicians, and engineers, has been in con-
tinuous operation since 1939, and, through a small Executive Subcom-
mittee, has conducted research in aviation psychology involving the
expenditure of well over three-quarters of a million dollars. Early in
1941-with some foresight-the word "civilian" was dropped from the
name of the Committee, and close liaison was established with military
services who nominated representatives to become members of the
Executive Subcommittee. Since that time, the work of the Executive
Subcommittee has been conducted in close association with the Army
and Navy and many of the results of the Committee research have
been applied by the Services.
As in the application of psychology in similar situations, such as
in industry or education, the research program of aviation psychology
has been organized around the three basic functions of selection, train-
ing, and maintenance of personnel.
Since the first objective of the initial phase of the pilot training
program was to build up a large pool of competent pilots, it was nat-
ural to start research with iuvcl)tigations bearing on the problem of
selecting, from a random group of applicants, those men who were par-
ticularly qualified to learn to fly. Investigations were undertaken
simultaneously in many university centers where civilian pilot train-
ing programs were under way. In addition, in cooperation with the
Navy, the Committee had an opportunity to make a highly extensive
study at a Naval training station where approximately 800 aviation
cadets and instructors were available as subjects.1 In this investiga-
tion, a very large number of psychological tests, both of the paper-and-
pencil and of the psychomotor type i a large variety of physiological
tests, including the tilt-table, the electrocardiogram, electroencephalo-
gram and others; and, in addition, the personal interview was sub-
jected to experimental study. Concurrently, individual predictors
were subjected to intensive studies at other centers and, Jater, inte-
grated projects involving the examination of civilian pilot trainees at
Boston and in the Midwest area were employed to check the findings
of earlier investigations.
In the area of psychological tests, it was found that two easily ad.
ministered paper-and-pencil tests could effectively be used in reducing
the proportion of failures in the primary phase of pilot training. These
included a standard mental alertness test and a biographical informa-
222 TRANSACTIONS
tion blank through which the interests, the family background, the
occupational experience, and avocational activities of the candidate
were explored. Later work, done both by the Committee and the
Navy) showed that still a third test-a test of nleehanical comprehen-
sion-could be usefully added to the battery. While it is not per-
missible to state the reduction in failures accomplished through the
use of these tests-because this is still classified information-it is pos-
sible to say that the results were sufficiently good to lead the U. S.
Navy to adopt these as the basic instruments for the selection of Naval
Aviation Cadets.
Repeated studies on larger and larger samplings in the Navy gave
repeated verification that the test results did bear a direct relation to
the prediction of success in learning to By at the primary level, and
while changes have been made in the way of developing new forms of
these tests, the research initiated by the Committee on Selection and
Training of Aircraft Pilots, through the foresight of the Civil Aero-
nautics Administration, has furnished the backbone of the Naval Avia-
tion Cadet selection program.
In addition to the paper-and-pencil tests, a number of psycho-
motor tests have proven to be extremely useful in the prediction of
flying success. In passing, it should perhaps be again pointed out that
flying success, as used in this address, refers to success in learning to
fly the plane. So far, it has not been able to obtain the data neces-
sary to reveal the relationship between predictors and success in the
actual combat situation. However, combat data are being assembled
by the military services, and it will be possible, before this war is
ended, to obtain signiBcant information on such relationships.
Psychomotor tests, which have held up for pilot selection, include
a two-hand coordination test requiring coordination analogous to that
of lathe operation, and an eye-hand coordination test, in which the
hand is required to follow a moving visual stimulus. Among psycho-
motor tests which have proven to be particularly satisfactory, is one
developed during the last war, the Mashburn Test, which simulates
certain aspects of the task of Bying, in that the subject is required to
make adjustments of an airplane control stick and rudder pedal in
response to visual stimuli. This test, which is essentially of the com-
plex reaction type, when combined with the eye-hand and the two-
hand coordination test, gives substantial correla.tion with a rigorous
criterion of success in learning to fly.
Research on psychomotor instruments has been conducted, not
alone by the Committee on Selection and Training of Aircraft Pilots,
but also by the Army Air Forces and, somewhat in contrast to the
Navy test battery, psychomotor tests are major items in the battery
for the classification of personnel used by the Army Air Forces.
The selection research program of the Committee on Selection and
Training of Aircraft Pilots has been eclectic in character. Since, in
military, as well as in industrial situations, considerable attention has
been given to the interview, it seemed well to investigate efficiency of
this device in predicting the success in learning to fly. An experiment
was therefore designed in which a Board of Interviewers conducted a
relatively standardized interview involving the use of a carefully de-
vised rating scale (EXHmIT 1). Agreement among interviewers in
EXHmIT 1
INTERVIEW CHART
Name of Candidate ............................ ..
Name of Rater ............................. .
C. GENERAL SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AS RELATED TO FLYING
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
25 20 15 10 5 1
ESPECIALLY WELL WELL FAIRLY 'WELL POORLY VERY POI'--,'
ADJUSTED ADJUSTED ADJUSTED ADJUSTED ADJUSTED
.. is very popular; •• gets along well " is a "joiner";

.• has many friends; with others; .. is a misfit;
.. gets along in most .. is socially like .. would make an ideal
situations; most people; friend for anyone;
., does not get along .. is a stay-at-home; " is an excellent mixer j
with people; " antagonizes people; .. has antisocial
.. is a "lone wolf' ; .. is very much inter- tendencies ;
.. is sought out by many ested in group .. is out of touch with
people activities the world
IilXPLAN ATION OF RATING:
predicting success or failure proved to be quite high, mean correlations

among independent interviewers in rating "Fitness for Flight Train-
ing" being close to .90 (EXHIBIT 2). The interview fared surprisingly
well in predicting certain objective criteria of competence in flying.
Indeed, in so far as pilot performance can be measured objectively, the
224 TRANSACTIONS
ExHmIT 2
To CORRELATION BETWEEN THE MillAN OF THE RATINOS FOR A GIVEN INTIIlRVlJ!IWIIlR
ON THIll FIRST 8 SCALES AND THill OVlllR-ALL OR IIFlTNIIlSS FOR FLIOHT
TRAINING" RATING FOR EACH INTIIlRVlJ!IWER
School Rater rMI rMI
Ii
Harvard .80
.88
.89
.All Three Raters .86
~
Ohio .90
.93
.88
i
Purdue .86
.84
.85
Michigan .89
fa
All Three Raters
.93
.90
.91
interview reached levels of prediction which are accepted as having
practical significance. 2
The interview met the routine tests of scientific acceptability.
However, it failed of practical justification on a most basic and critical
point. The interview, a technique which requires the services of sev-
erq 1 individuals to obtain a rating for one individual at a time, is very
expensive with regard to time, personnel, and money. To be accepted
as having practical usefulness in selecting pilots, it must add signifi-
cantly to the predictive efficiency that is obtainable by the application
of pencil-and-paper tests to whole groups at a time. The interview
failed to do this.
Using the paper-and-pencil tests, to which reference has been
made, predictions can be made for 500 men with a total time expendi-
ture of about 2 to 10 man-hours. Adding an individual interview to
this prediction does not materially increase the efficiency of prediction,
although it adds at least 750 man-hours to the time expended. Thus,
although the interview shows promise of achieving useful levels of re-
liability and validity in the selection of pilots, its failure to add to the
prediction obtainable by group techniques indicates that its excessive
cost in time and money was proven to be not justifiable. Considering,
for example, the fact that one Committee projectS involved the exami-
nation, for the Civil Aeronautics Administration, of 67,000 applicants
for flight training in 570 centers throughout the United States, it can
be seen that such findings have great practical and economic signifi-
cance.
Individual physiological lDcasur('s used in Committee investiga-
tions proved to be generally unpromising in the selection of pilots.
For example, less than 1% of Naval Aviators revealed electroencephal-
ograms which ('ould be described as detrimental, indicating that what-
ever is measured by the electroencephalogram is, somehow or other,
covered in the course of the established routine examinations and inter-
views given in tho course of selecting Naval aviators. Results for
the electrocardiogram and measures of aniseikonia were likewise nega-
tive in terms of practical considerations in the selection of aircraft
pilots. Respiratory and cardiovascular measures proved to be largely
unreliable, apparently giving, in the main, biological instants of or-
ganic functions rather than consistent measures of such functions to be
relied upon as predictors of flight proficiency. These findings are of
particular interest in relation to observations showing lack of con-
sistency in medical examinations reported in studies for the Division of
Research, Civil Aeronautics Administration, made independently of
the Committee research program, by D. R. Brimhall and R. Franzen."" G
Work continues in this area, particularly in the development of physio-
logical measures with satisfactory reliability. An evaluation of 23
respiratory measures, for example, showed five measures to be suffi-
ciently reliable for experimental comparison with Bight success.!!
Because of the basic importance of such standards of achievement
in aviation research, early in the research program of the Committee,
attention was centered upon the development of acceptable criteria of
flight performance. Initial studies were, of course, centered on the
adequacy of criteria actually in usc. These studies showed that in-
structor ratings; scores on final examinations by inspectors; daily
grades on Bight performance and even, to some extent, the pass-fail
criterion (at least for civilian pilots) were not of sufficient reliability
or sufficiently discriminating to justify their use for research on the
relative value of selection and training techniques. As a result, it was
found necessary to proceed with the development of more objective,
more reliable, and more discriminating measures of Bight performance.
One of the first steps in the development of acceptable criteria was
the preparation of 8tandard fLight8, so that observation or recordings
of :Bight performance could be made under essentially uniform condi-
tions. A series of such Bights: suitable for use at various levels of the
226 TRANSACTIONS
primary training course, was developed in research conducted at the

University of Pennsylvania by the speaker with the assistance of Dr.
EXHmIT 3
D
STANDARD FLIGHT
(for use at Boston Metropolitan Airport, Norwood, Mass.
and Muller Field, Revere, Mass.)
1000' ,"_"
IS"'" -'I'
1"
K
Cli",b
'
: f
"'I~Slip
I ! ,,1/ I
~:I ~ T :! :~.
/0 0'
-~/":
7()O' tH I
tIS11 . 11
~ I 20""
IO.ta-" : c~
"
rlc" iJe
I
: C)'U '8
.. .... 16
L.
:
I
9
:
:"' _____ .-,,.
I
I
<f..\
ZO:"
I r
e.o..... - - - "PRAC.:nC'E
'Rec1'.."'S"I... ,!--
- - - -,,'
A7(cA
, ',-----1-------
/ I A
,,,, I
, I Win'
f l: Direr-til",
I
I
I
I
'I
1
If I
1 tt1~'
,
I
\. ..? :LO
~'-+
--------------------------J,
November !lO, 19'1 Prepared ~: Horrb S. Vitelea
Albert S. ThompaoD
UDiv. of PeDDa.
A. S. Thompson of the Department of Psychology.1 Such flights rep-
resent a "work sample" which calls for prescribed maneuvers to be
carried through in a definite order and under stated conditions of wind
velocity, etc. When standard flights are used it becomes possible to
compare the flight proficiency of one individual with that of others,
since all are required to perform the same maneuvers under essentially
the same conditions.
EXHmIT 3, Standard Flight D, describes a flight suitable for use in
observing the performance of student pilots nearing the completion of
the final stage in the C. P. T. primary program. It includes the more
advanced maneuvers such as 360 0 turns, figure 8's, rectangular course,
1800 approach to landing, etc. It is to be noted that the maneuvers
included in these flights are of two types, "critical maneuvers" (indi-
cated by solid lines), and "transition maneuvers" (indicated by dotted
lines). Each transition maneuver is designed to put the plane into
position for the succeeding critical maneuver. The transition ma-
neuvers can be changed so as to adapt the flight to any level or type of
civilian or military training program and to any airport.
With standardization of the situation under which the pilot's per-
formance is evaluated, it became possible to take steps towards the
improvement and objectification of criteria of achievement in learning
to fly. The general character and reliability of direct observations of
EXHmrr 4
CLIMBING TURN
~
OONTROL USE
E g!
~ ~
g
~ PREOISION
SIMULTANEOUS ..... 1:81 01:81 Bank: CONSTANT .... 181
Successive. . . . . . . . . . . .. 0 1:810 Varies .•......• _ 0
Speed .............•..••.. 55 MPH
Slips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. t8I 1:81 0
OORREOT Climbing
Skids ..•..•..•......•• O 0 0 Speed rea.ding is ......•.. 53 MPH
NEITHER ........... 0 0 1:81
CONSTANT ....O
Rudder PT688'Ure: Speed is
CORRECT ..........0 0 1:81 Varies ..... 3 MPH
Incorrect ............. [81 181 0
228 TRANSACTIONS
flip,ht pCl'forllltLIl('(', by instructors or in:-.p('ctorR uC'tually in the plane

with the stu(it-nts, wen' improw(i hy providing specinlly designed forms
cullmg for mt.in~ <Ul blwcific nsp(I(·tI:! of flight performance. A portion
of one I:IUdl form, "7'he Ohio State PL,ght Inventory" prepared by H.
A. Edgerton and It. Y. Walker,s is illustrated in EXHIBIT 4.
Considerable work was done at Tulane University and n.t the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania in analyzing the possibilities of commercial
graphic instruments which provided a record of control movements
and of changes in the attitude of the plane during flight.9 Commercial
recorders were found unsuitable, but the study led to the development
of specifications for the construction of a new flight recorder which
provides a graphic record of skids and slips; of changes in altitude; of
variations in air speed i and of control movements associated with
changes in plane attitude.
Perhaps the most significant development in the way of tech-
niques for recording and evaluating flight performance has taken the
form of a motion picture camera mounted in the plane to provide rec-
ords for analysis on the ground. Problems of photographic recording
were attacked independcntly at the University of Rochester and at the
University of Pennsylvania.10 While the Rochester project, with the
cooperation of the Director of Research, CAA, proceeded immediately
to the development of a concealed photographic unit, including an in-
strument panel and control movement indicator, the Pennsylvania
group, in its earlier studies, photographed directly the plane instru-
ment panel and the actual manipulation of controls by the pilot.
Present installations, adapted with the aid of the staff of the In-
stitute of Aviation Psychology, University of Tennessee, provide for
photography of an instrument panel containing fiight instruments and
a control movement recorder located in tho baggage compartment of
the plane. BQth the photographic installation and methods of analyz-
ing photographic records developed in research at the University of
Pennsylvania have been widely used in obtaining objective criterion
data in Committee research projects.
Graphic and photographic records and associated methods of
analysis do not yield direct measures of certain aspects of pilot per-
formance, such as observance of safety precautions, use of certain types
of judgment, etc. They yield measures primarily of value in analyz-
ing the skill displayed in the execution of maneuvers and are particu-
larly useful in research where detailed and objective information on
the level of skill exhibited by the pilot is desired. Because of these
objectives, graphic and photographic records provide basic data for de-
termining the l'cli.Lbilii.y of a single test flight, and in selecting, for
pilot assessment, those Rtlpects of flight performance which are rela-
tively stable from flight to flight. It is also possible that graphic
and photographic methods could be used for diagnosing specific faults
of students who have difficulty in learning to fly, in much the same way
as motion photographs arc currently employed in the analysis of the
faults made by members of football teams during actual play.
As the selection program has become stabilized, and improved
criteria for the measurement of pilot performance have become avail-
able, it has been possible for the Oommittee on Selection and Training
of Aircraft Pilots to center increasing attention upon the very important
problem of improved methods for training pilots. Research in this
area has, without question, placed the United States in the forefront of
all nations in the matter of an experimental attack upon the problems
of learning and teaching in aviation.
The Committee went about the job of research in pilot training in
a very practical way. It started by finding out just what flight in-
structors actually did and said in teaching pilots. Discussions with
both flight instructors and students showed that there were wide varia-
tions in instructional practices. However, nobody had had an oppor-
tunity to observe directly how the instructor went about the job of
training pilots, especially in the primary and secondary phases of in-
struction, since observers could not be carried in the two-place planes
used for such instruction. It was therefore found necessary, as a first
step in research on training, to develop methods for listening in on con-
versations between an instructor and student during training flights
and for recording such conversations. This was done by E. L. Kelly
through the construction, at Purdue University, of ground-to-air trans-
mission and recording apparatus which made available for analysis
student pilot-instructor conversations.
Such an analysis made available many interesting items about the
nature of instruction in the air. Frequently, the recordings were most
revealing to the instructors who, when given an opportunity to listen
to their conversations, were amazed to hear just what they had said.
So, for example, until he heard his recorded conversation, one instructor
refused to believe that he was telling students that the airplane steered
just like a "sled," when the reverse is actually the case. Another be-
230 TRANSACTIONS
came aware, for the first time, why so many of his students were failing
spins in the final flight examination when he heard his voice consist-
ently go into a high pitch of hysteria as the student went into the spin
and undertook to recover.
Qualitative observatioDs of this type proved to be extremely help-
ful in revealing how the instructor taught and what students went
through in learning to :fly. Even more interesting were the findings of
the systematic analyses of :flight instruction recordings. One of the
most significant of these was the revelation of great variation in vo-
cabulary or terminology from instructor to instructor. In a study
made of pre-solo dual instruction of four students by four instructors,
it was found that 500 technical terms or phrases were used.l1 Many
of these terms were peculiar to the instructor and were used without
explanation to the student. Only one-seventh of the 500 terms were
UI:!ed by all four instructors. Over half of them were used by only one
of the four instructors. Approximately one-third of the terms used
were emplQYed only once and by only one instructor. Such terms rep-
resent not only a private language of the individual instructor, but also
are rarely used by that instructor.
These and other findings, in studies by E. L. Kelly and E. S. Ewart,
led to the recognition of two very real needs: (a) for a set of short,
simple, uniform, descriptive study sheets describing each maneuver to
be studied by the student before receiving instruction in the maneuver;
and (b) for a standardized patter for use by instructors during :flight
instruction. There was therefore prepared, for student use, a series of
study sheets known as the "Fundamentals of Basic Flight Maneuvers"
providing a description in the simplest and most straightforward fash-
ion of the minimum essentials of information concerning each ma-
neuver, which should be known by the student before attempting the
maneuver. Sheets are bound loose-leaf to permit an instructor to
hand out the sheet covering the particular maneuver which the student
will take up in his next lesson, and which he is required to review before
the next session of flight instruction. This is then again gone over on
the ground before the student and instructor take to the air for :flight
instruction.1Z
For the instructor, there was provided a little bound volume of
PATTER, including a standardized statement concerning the ma-
neuver for use during :flight instruction. The PATTER substitutes
uniform descriptions of the maneuvers to be performed for the vary-
ing statements made to different students, when the instructor depended
more or less upon the inspiration of the moment to decide how he
would go about giving instructions on the maneuver. In passing, it is
interesting to note that the idea of using PATTER was borrowed from
the British, but that the PATTER books developed for use in training
American student pilots were unlike those used by the British, in that
they were based upon a factual analysis of :flight instruction, to which
reference has been made.
Perhaps the best cue to the value of these manuals, derived from
the experimental studies of instructional techniques, is to be found in
the fact that the Committee on Selection and Training of Aircraft
Pilots was asked to supply personnel to help the Navy in preparing
similar manuals for use in training Naval aviation cadets, and in the
additional fact that the first order for such manuals for use by the
Navy called for twenty thousand of each. The preparation of PAT-
TER for the primary course was followed by the preparation of similar
materials for the secondary course, and this material has been widely
used in the instructor program of the War Training Service of the Civil
Aeronautics Administration, as well as in modified form by the serv-
ices.
Another practical outcome of Committee research in the area of
training has been to focus attention upon the need of giving pilot in-
structors training in how to teach. In 1943, the Committee adminis-
tered for the War Training Service of the Civil Aeronautics Adminis-
tration two institutes at which methods instructors were given an in-
tensive and practical course in training methods based on Committee
research findings. 13 In addition to receiving instruction at the Insti-
tute, methods instructors were furnished with a "kit" of demonstration
materials and samples of training aids which might prove effective in
their teaching. A number of synthetic training devices were also
added to aid in the instruction in the field. Both the Army and the
Navy have also recently established special schools for instructors at
which procedures similar to those embodied in the methods instructors'
manual prepared by the Committee on Selection and Training of Air-
craft Pilots are being used to put psychology to work in improving the
training methods employed by pilot instructors.
Research on training continues. For current research, the Com-
mittee on Selection and Training of Aircraft Pilots has available a new
instrument which is proving to be an effective aid in its investigations.
232 TRANSACTIONS
This is an air-borne model of a magnetic wire recorder developed at

the Al'lUour Research :Foundatioll, with the cooperation of E. L. Kelly,
as the result of the initiative and cooperation of the Committee on
Selection and Training of Aircraft Pilots and of the Division of Re-
search of the CAA. In this air-borne instrument, conversation between
pIlot and instructor is recorded on a steel wire only four-thousandth of
(Ill mch in diameter. With an instrument weighing only approximate-
ly 12 Ibs., it is possible to rccord in the all' a conversation lasting for
one hour on a reel of wire only approximately four inches in diameter
and one inch across.
The air-borne model of the magnetic wire recorder has been used
to great advantage in the current research program of the Committee
on Selection and Training of Aircraft Pilots. One item in this research
program involved a comparison of two groups of student pilots, one
receiving instruction with the use of certain training aids and the other
without the usc of training aids. Photographic records of the per-
formance of both groups during standard flights have been made, as a
means of determining whether the use of the training aid makes a sig-
nificant contribution to the improvement of flight proficiency. In an-
other experiment, inspectors made check flights and recorded their ob-
servations verbally through the use of the magnetic wire recorders.
Simultaneously, photographic records were made of the actual control
movements of the pilot and of the attitudes assumed by the plane. In
this manner, it becomes possible to determine items of plane and pilot
performance which can, and those which cannot be accurately ob-
served and reported upon by inspectors. In numerous other studies,
the combination of wire recording of conversations and photographic
recordings of pilot control movements and plane attitude furnishes the
basis for an objective and factual analysis of what aetually goes on in
the plane, as a substitute for the arm chair rationalization and artificial
laboratory investigations which were employed prior to the present
war, in research on the human element in aviation.
As indicated earlier, Committee investigations have also been con-
cerned with the problems of pilot maintenance and adjustment. In
one such study, by D. Lewis, the effect of noise and vibration upon
pilot performance has been studied. Considerable work has been done
by C. Taylor and R. Franzen upon the evaluation of the Schneider
Index and other standard tests of "exercise tolerance," and such inves-
tigations have suggested the possibility of substituting a more reliable
and effective measure of so-called IIphysical fitness," or of what might
better be described as "exercise tolerance," for the existing meas-
ures.1 ,,15 Considerable attention has been given to problems of mo-
tion sickness in the air in experiments by G. R. Wendt at Wesleyan
University. These have led to the publication of a popular pamphlet
entitled "How to Prevent Airsickness" which presents to the Bight in-
structor and the student pilot a few simple rules which, there is reason
to believe, can be effective in reducing the incidence of airsickness.
The problem of tension has also been investigated in some detail.
In a major study/6 the causes of civil aviation accidents, and the
maneuvers most closely related to these accidents, are being investi-
gated by D. R. Brimhall and R. Franzen. The extent to which fatal
accidents are associated with stalls, particularly those growing out of
turns at low altitudes, has suggested the necessity of important shifts
of emphasis in the training program (EXHIBIT 5). A practical outcome
of such research findings and conclusions would be a shift in emphasis
EXHIBIT 5
LEAD MANEUVERS IN 257 fATAL ACCIDENTS

WITH NO STR.UC.TURAL DEfECT
~ 168 (65') FATAL ACC..DENTS INVOLVING STALLS
c:=l 89 (55~) FATAL A(.(.IDENTS NOT INVOLVING STAW
FATAL ACCIDENT
'UGHTS
*:·····tiu·······
.. ·······-:···········.
.
:
:
.
so ...
~
t :
: 10
1
:
\ 0 :
'. i i .-
.... ;;I~ h oll ...-
:::J::»
'. ••• ;: '"
..,t- ::l '"
Vl'lo 0 ..... "
....................
ALL
OTIIUS\
234 TRANSA.CTIONS
during training to thc avoidance of and immediate recovery from the

stall condition, possibly through cxtended practice in slow flying.
It is apparcnt from what has been said that the research interests
of the Committee on Selection and Training of Aircraft Pilots have
been wide and varied. They have been directed toward civilian as
well as military flying. They have led to the development of tools
and techniques which have received wide acceptance both in civilian
pilot training and by the military serviccs. Nevertheless, the sur-
face has only been scratched, and there is every reason to believe
that continued and extended investigations are needed for the solu-
tion of many of the real problems experienced when human beings
undertake to fly bigger, faster, and different planes.
To this end, the Committee, in cooperation with the Civil Aero-
nautics Administration and the Tennessee Bureau of Aeronautics, has
already taken steps toward the assurance of postwar research through
the establishment of an Institute of Aviation Psychology at the Uni-
versity of Tennessee. A similar center is currently being set up at
Ohio State University where the relationship between visual efficiency
and flight performance will be carefully determined. In this way, the
work of the Committee on Selection and Training of Aircraft Pilots,
supported by the Civil Aeronautics Administration, is serving to reduce
the danger of cessation of research in aviation psychology which oc-
curred at the end of World War I.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. McFarla.nd, B. A., & B. I'ra.nzen.
1944 (Nov.). CAA Division of Research, Report No. 38. Washington, D. C.
2. Dunlap, J. W., & lIII. J. Wantman.
1944 (Aug.). An investigation of the interview as a technique for selecting air-
craft pilots. CAA Airman Development Division, Report No. 33.
Washington, D. C.
S. nc Committee on Selection and Tra.iDiDg of Aircraft Pilots.
1944 (Nov.). CAA Division of Research, Report No. 39. Washington, D. C.
4. 1'raDzen., B., &; D. :a.. BrimhaJl.
1942 (Feb.). Problems of consistency arising from CAA medical examinations.
Division of Research, Civil .Aeronautics Administration. Washington,
D.C.
6. J'r&DzeD, :a.., & D. B. BrimhaJl.
1942 (July). Analysis of nhysical defects found_by the armed services in pilots
certified to be wfthout ~ualeying defect b Civil Pilot Training
examination. Division of R.eses.rCh, Civil Aero[autics Administration.
Washington, D. C.
6. Franzen, B.., &; L. Blaine
1944 (Jan.). Oli Division of Research, Report No. 26. Washington, D. O.
T. Viteles, M. S., &; A. S. Thompson.
1943 (May). The use of standard flights and motion photography in the
analysis of aircraft pilot performance. Oli Division of Research, Re-
port No. 15, Wasliington, D. O.
8. Edgerton, H. A., &; R. Y. Walker.
- History and development of the Ohio State Flight Inventory, Part I:
Early versions and basic research. {A final re~rt. in preparation for
publication in the Oli Technical Sanes.) Washington, D. C.
9. Viteles, M. S., &; O. Backstrom, Jr.
1943 (Nov.). An analysis of graphic records of pilot performance obtained by
means of the R-S ride recorder. Part. L OAA Division of Research,
Report No. 23. Washington, D, O.
10. Viteles, M. S., &; A. S. Thompson.
1944 (July). CAA Division of Research, Report No. 31. Washington, D. C.
11. ltellJ, E. L.
1943 (Oct.). The flight instructor's vocabulary. OAA Division of Research,
Report No. 22. Washington, D. O.
12. ltellJ, E. L., &; E. S. Ewart.
1942 (Dec.). Cli Division of Research, Report No.6. Washington, D. O.
13. Viteles, M. 8., B.. Y. Walker, E. S. Ewart, H. S. Odbert, R. O. Rogers, A. S.
Thompson, &; D. B.. Brimhall.
1943 (Sept.). Oli Division of Research, Report No. SO. Washington, D. O.
14. Taylor, C.
1941. Studies in physical fitness. Unpublished final report.
15. Franzen, R.
1943 (Aug.). Notes I, II, III. Correlations with treadmill scores and inter-
correlations of functions of cubic heart rate trends during exercise.
Progress report. Washington, D. C.
16. Franzen, R.
1944 (July). Report on a study of fatal airplane aCllidents. In: Annual Meet-
ing of Committee on Selection and Training of Aircraft Pilots. National
Research Council Division of Anthropology and Psychology. Washing-
ton, D. C.
236 TRANSACTIONS
SF.CTIONS OF BIOLOGY AND PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY

MAY 18 AND 19, 1945
Conference on "Blood Groupmg."
The Sections of Biology and Physics and Chemistry held a Con-
ference on "Blood Grouping/' as the seventh in the series for the Aca-
demic Year 1944-1945. Doctor William C. Boyd, Boston University,
School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, was the Conference Chair-
man in charge of the meeting.
"Introduction to the Conference," by William C. Boyd.
"Isolation and Purification of Blood Group A and B Substances;
Their Use in Conditioning Universal Donor Blood, in Neutralizing
Anti-Rh Sera, and in the Production of Potent Grouping Sera," by
Ernest Witcbsky, University of Buffalo, Medical School, Buffalo, New
York.
"Method for the Production of Anti-A, Anti-B and Anti-Rh Iso-
agglutinin Reagents: A. Choice of Plasma. B. Fractionation Process.
C. Absorption and Neutralization Process. D. Standardization of
Product," by J. L. Oneley, M. Melin, J. W. Cameron, D. A. Richert, L.
K. Diamond, Harvard Medienl School, Boston, Massachusetts.
"Recent Advances in the Immuno-Chemistry of Isohemaggluti-
nins," by Louis Pillemer, Western Reserve University, Institute of
Pathology, Cleveland, Ohio.
IIProeurement and Preparation of Blood Grouping Serum," by
Captain John Elliott, Army Medical School, Washington, D. C.
liThe Assay of Blood Grouping Sera j Variation in Reactivity of
Cells of Different Individuals Belonging to Groups A and AB," by
William C. Boyd, Boston University, School of Medicine, Boston, Mas-
sachusetts.
"Genetic and Constitutional Causes of Fetal and Neonatal Mor-
bidity," by Philip Levine, Ortho Research Foundation, Linden, New
Jersey.
"The Rh Series of Allelic Genes, with Special Reference to Nomen-
rlatuTe," by A. S. Wiener and Eve B. Sonn, Medical Examiner's Office,
New York, N. Y.
ANNOUNCEMENT OF ADDITIONAL PUBLICATIONS

FOR 19451
The following publications, in addition to those announced in the
April number of the TRANSACTIONS, will be issued by the Academy
during the current year. Members of the Academy who desire to re-
ceive these will kindly request the Executive Secretary to send them,
and they will be mailed, free of charge, as they are ready for distribu-
tion, except as qualified in the footnotes: 2
ANNALS
7. "Non-Projective Personality Tests." Papers delivered at the

conference by this title. (Approximately 75 pages.)
8. "Lymph." Papers delIvered at the conference by this title.
(Approximately 150-200 pages.)
9. "Blood Grouping." Papers delivered at the conference by this
title. (Approximately 125 pages.)
10. "The Golgi Apparatus-A Modem Interpretation," by Leon-
ard G. Worley. (Approximately 40 pages.)
11. "Brain and Body Weight in Man: Its Antecedents in Growth
and Evolution," by Earl W. Count. (Approximately 110 pages.)
1 Notice of any addltlonal pa.pers to be added to thlll hit 11111 be sent to Memben u they are
approved for _pubbcatlon
• Acttve, SustlUIllllC, Llfe, and Honorary Memben may feCe1ve, upon request, a copy of aU cur-
rent numbers of the Annals
.Aasoe18te and Student Members are entitled to _va one complete monograph, or up to 150
paces of lBXI18l1er pa.per8.
238 TRANSACTIONS
NEW MEMBERS
ELECTED MAY 15, 1945
ACTIVE MEMBERS
Crowninshield, Vincent F., M.A., Psychology. Assistant to Personnel Director,
Johnson and Johnson, New Brunswick, New Jersey.
Friedmann, Jechiel Moses, M.D., Psychology, Biology. Practicing Neuropsychia-
trist, New York, N. Y.
Gardner, William Rowlett, PhD., Chemist, New Products Division, National Ani.
line Division, Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation. New York. N. Y.
Haring, Robert C., Ph.D., Industrial Organic Chemistry. Research Chemist. Na-
tional Aniline Division, Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation. New York,
N. Y.
Hill, Ella C., B.s., Anthropology. Natural Sciences. Docentry. American Museum
of Natural History, New York, N. Y.
Lederberg. Joshu~1o AB'-lpell Physiology. Student. Columbia University Medical
School, New lork, J.'1. Y.
Meister, Alton. B~!1 Medicine and Biochemistry. Interne in Medicine, New
York Hospital• .L'Iew York, N. Y.
Seigle, L. W., PhD. Organic Chemistry. Research Chemist. New Products Divi·
sion, Nationa! ~line Division, Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation, New
York, N Y.
Watts, Nellie Perry, PhD.• Drugs. Research Associate. Department of thera-
peutics, New York University, New York. N. Y.
ASSOCIATE MEMBERS
Bartner, Elliot, B.s., Chemistry. Research Assistant. Rutgers University. New
Brunswick. New Jersey.
Howard, Gerald V., B.A., Fisheries Conservation. Junior Biologist, International
Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission, New Westminster, British Columbia,
Canada.
TRANSACTIONS
of
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OIl' SCIENCES
SER. II, VOL. 8 NOVEMBER, 1945 No.1
OCTOBER 1, 1945
DOCTOR HORACE G. RICHARDS, Associate Curator of Geology and Pale-

ontology, Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pa.: The
Sub8Urjace Stratigraphy of the Atlantic Coa8tal Plain. (The lec-
ture was illustrated by lantern slides.)
Since the beginning of the war, there has been a considerable in-
crease in the number of wells drilled along the Atlantic Coastal Plain.
This increase was caused by two factors: (1) the construction of many
army camps, naval bases and industrial plants and the consequent need
for additional supplies of ground water; and (2) the oil shortage and
the increased search for new supplies.
With the aid of a grant from the Penrose Bequest of the Geological
Society of America, the writer has undertaken a study of the samples
from many of these wells, and has endeavored to correlate the subsur-
face formations. 1 While emphasis has been placed on the macrofossils,
especially mollusks, all other available evidence has been considered,
including the microfossils, lithology and a study of the literature. The
reglon under consideration extends from New Jersey through Georgia
• Blaharda, B. G. Subsurface stratigraphy of Atlantic Coastal P1a.m between
New Jersey a.nd GeorgIa. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol. 89: 885-955. 1945.
TRANSACTIONS of The New York Academy of ScleI1Cell, Benes n, Volume 8, No.1,

November, 11146
TIua j)IIbhcatlol1 is dIStributed to Members alld is 'Published II10IItbly from November to
JUI1~, mC!USlve, at 109 West CheatDut Street, Lancaster, PD'I by The New York Academy of
SClImaes, SevelltY-l1mth Street ud Cmtral Park West, New YorE Clty.
Ec:htor: Roy Waldo MIIW".
Executive Secretary. Eumce Thomas Mmer.
EI1tered as BeCOlld-clau matter December 2, 1938, at the post oIIice at LIIlIaaBteI', Pa., 'UDder the
act of August U. 1912.
1
2 TRANSACTIONS
and, so far, samples from about 200 wells have been studied in more or
less detail. The proj ect is being continued.
So far, no productive oil wells have been drilled along the East
Coast, north of Florida. The various dry holes drilled in this area have
yielded considerable information on the subsurface and, while the evi-
dence can not be said to be encouraging, nevertheless, the East Coast
can not yet be written off as impossible.
A few of the more significant oil tests along the East Coast are
listed here:
Base- Total
Appro:timate Location Company ment Depth Date
Jacksons Mills, Ocean Co., N. J. N. J. Oil & Gas Fields Co.;

-- --
W. & K. 011 Co. 1336 5022 1921
Bri~eville~ussex Co., Del.
Salis u~ icomico Co., Md.
Sussex Oil Co.; Sun Oil Co.
Ohio Oil Co.
-
5529
3010 1935
5563 1944-5
Berlin, orcester Co., Md. Socony Vacuum Oil Co. 7150 7168 1945
Meadows, Prince G~ Co., Md Eikixi~ oil C~:·· ......... 15221 1522 1918
Matthews, Matthews 0., Va. 2307 2325 1929
Ha.vel0!i Craven Co., N.C. Great I,akes DriUi~ Co. 2318 2318 1927
Moreh City, Ca.rtaret Co., Coastal Plains Oil o.
N.C. (Karsten) 4021 4044 1945
Cape Hatteras, Dare Co., N.C. Standard Oil of N. J. now dulling
Conway, Ho~ Co., S.C. Pioneer Oil Co. 1400 1429 1939
Summervil~ orchester Co., S.C. 2450? 2450 1921?
&~a.n~~h oii C~: ........
Savannah, hatham Co., Ga.
Offerman, Pierce Co., Ga. Pan American
- 2130 1920
4355 4375 1938
Offermann PIerce COeoGa. Donald Clark 4335 4355 1939
s
Albany aughtery ., Ga.
Cedar prings, Early Co., Ga.
J. R. Sealy, No.1
Mont Warren et al-Chandler
- 501311942
- 7240 1943
Ca.mills., Matchell Co., Go.. St&nolind 011. & Gas Co. 7474 7488 1944
McKinnon, Wayne Co., Ga.. California. Co. 4575 462611944
Pearson, Atkin60n Co., Ga.. Sun Oil Co. 4220 4283 1944
For more complete list of oil tests see Richards (op. cit.). The
tests have been distributed along the Coasta.l Plain as follows:
New Jersey ................................ 9
Delaware .................................. 3
Maryland .................................. 5
VirgInia .................................... 1
North Carolina ............................. 4
South Carolina. ............................. 6
Georgia. ....................................30
Among the more significa.nt results, may be mentioned the follow-
ing:
1. Shell fra.gments and Foraminifera. were found in wells at Asbury
Park, N. J., Fort Dix, N. J., and Freehold, N. J., in the Englishtown
formation, from which no fossils have hitherto been reported.
2. Shell fragments and/or Foraminifera have been found in the
Raritan formation at Fort Dix, N. J., Clementon, N. J., Bridgeville,
Del., and Salisbury, Md. This formation is correlated with the Tus-
caloosa.
3. The presence of Lower Cretaceous non-marine sediments is sug-
gested from a well at Salem, N. J.
4. Jackson Eocene fossils were found in wells at Atlantic City,
N. J., Brandywine Lighthouse, N. J., Bridgeville, Del., and Salisbury,
Md. These mark the northernmost extension of the late Eocene.
5. Midway (Paleocene) fossils are reported from the subsurface
in New Jersey (lower Hornerstown), Delaware, Maryland and Virginia.
6. The well at Salisbury, Md. showed a remarkable thickness of
non-marine Lower Cretaceous (3000 feet). Preliminary studies show
an even greater thickness at Berlin, Md.
7. At both Salisbury and Berlin, the Lower Cretaceous was under-
lain by rocks of probable Triassic age. Basement was struck at Salis-
bury at 5529 feet and at Berlin at 7150 feet.
8. Although the Eocene is very thin in Virginia, south of the James
River, Lower (Midway), Middle (Pamunkey) and Upper (Jackson)
fossils have been recognized.
9. Marine fossils assigned to the Tuscaloosa (Upper Cretaceous)
have been found in wells at Norfolk, Va., Drivers, Va., and Franklin,
Va. This formation does not outcrop in Virginia.
10. Middle Eocene (Pamunkey) fossils have been found in a well
at Williamston, North Carolina. This is the first record of older
Eocene from this State.
11. The Tuscaloosa, which is non-marine in outcrops in the Caro-
linas, contains marine fossils at Havelock, N. C., Morehead City, N. C.,
Conway, S. C., and Parris Island, S. C.
12. The well at Havelock, N. C., encountered granite at 2319 feet,
while the Karsten well, near Morehead City, only 17 miles away,
reached granite at 4021 feet. Havelock may represent the top of an
ancient hill, while Morehead City may be the base. A similar hill in
the basement is noted at Fountain, N. C., where the granite is exposed
at the surface, whereas a mile or so to the east and west, it is buried
200 feet or more.
4 TRANSACTIONS
13. The Triassic has been reported from wells at Florence, S. C.,
and Summerville, S. C. However, no samples are available for stUdy.
14. An exceptional thickness of marine Tuscaloosa is noted in the
Scaly No.1 well, near Albany, Ga. (2313 feet).
Descriptions and notes on the rare or new species of macrofossils
a.re being prepared and will be submitted to the Journal of Paleontology.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY
OCTOBER 8, 1945
DOCTOR M. J. KOPAC, Assistant Professor of Biology, Washington

Square College of Arts and Science, New York University, Ncw
York, N. Y.: Cellular Mechanism8 in Chemotherapy. (This lee·
ture was illustrated by lantern slides.)
The selective destruction of neoplastic cells by chemical compounds
is more difficult than the control of invading microorganisms. One
may expect sufficient biochemical differences between the host and
parasite to make possible the destruction of the microorganisms with-
out dl:.maging host tise.ues. On the other hand, the differences between
neoplastic cells and their normal ancestors are far more subtle and, in
many cases, so slight as to make difficult the destruction of one cell
type without seriously damaging the normal precursors.
Differences between neoplastic cells and their normal ancestors do
exist. For example, Chambers, Cameron and Kopac 1 showed that
lymphoid cells obtained from malignant tissues were more susceptible,
in tissue cultures, to destruction by tetramethyl-o-phenylenediamine
than '\\'ere the lymphocytes obtained from normal lymph nodes. Cam-
eron, Kensler and Chambers2 demonstrated differences in reactivity to
certain chemical compounds between other neoplastic cells and their
normal prototypes.
The methods used in testing chemical eompounds for oncolytic ac-
tivity generally fall into two groups: (1) enteral or parenteral adminis-
tration of the compound to animals with spontaneous or transplantable
neoplasms, and (2) exposure of established tissue culture gro'\\-ths con-
taining mixed populations of neoplastic and non·neoplastic ('ells to solu-
tions of the compound. Hundreds of organic and inorganic compounds
have been tested for oncolytic activity by many invcstigators, \'\ith the
majority using the first method. The s('cond mcihorl, hl1\\·e"cr, ¢W$
more specific data on the action of a compound on the n('oplastic cells.
Roffo' reportcd that hydrolysates of striated lUusrIe inhibited the
growth of certain rat and mouse neoplasms in vivo and in vitro. Boy-
land' localized the growth-inhibitory substances in the trich1orac('tic
acid-soluble, phosphotungstic acid-insoluble fraction of mineral acid
6 TRANSACTIONS
extracts of muscle tis&ues. Such fractions would contain the amines,

guanidines, and related nitrogenous bases.
The problem of neoplastic chemotherapy is considered from three
points of view: (1) the nature of cytological changes produced by the
action of those compounds that selectively destroy neoplastic cells with-
out seriously damaging normal cells; (2) the determination of the
action on secretory activity of kidney tubules, in tissue culture, of those
compounds that destroy neoplastic cells; and (3) the determination of
various physico-chemical properties of those compounds that destroy
neoplastic cells and comparison with the properties of related com-
pounds that do not destroy neoplastic cells.
A variety of organic compounds including ethylamines, diphen-
ylethylamines, isothioureas, thioureas, aromatic diguanidines, and
aromatic diamidines were tested on kidney tubules, in tissue culture. 5
The most interesting compounds, on the basis of their chemical struc-
ture and of their action on kidney tubules and on neoplastic cells, are
the aromatic diamidines. s, e In the kidney tubule preparations/ the
action of the compounds can be tested simultaneously on secreting and
non-secreting epithelia, connective tissue cells, wandering cells, and
others. For example, the compound S-methylisothiourea, at certain
concentrations, destroys all non-secreting structures, while the secreting
structures continue to function almost normally. By comparison, N-
methylthiourea, at the same concentrations, is non-toxic to both secret-
ing and non-secreting components of the tissue culture preparation. 5
The action of selected compounds on protein molecules, as well as
on nucleoprotein systems, is being determined by surface-chemical
methods. For the study of protein denaturation, the procedure is to
expose protein molecules to interfacial forces in the presence of a given
compound, at concentrations of the same order as those used in bio-
logical tests. Any incipient denaturating action of the agent will pro-
duce a signifioant increase in surface-denaturation of the protein and
this can be measured by the surface-chemical methods employed
(Kopac8 ).
Of the 6 aromatic diamidines tested, stilbamidine diisethionate, at
concentrations not affecting normal tissues, showed a specific destruc-
tive action on the neoplastic cells of the rat mammary adenocarcinoma,
R2426 (Eisen9 ), and of the transplantable lymphosarcoma of the rat
(Murphy and Sturm10) • The other diamidinea, including phenamidine,
propamidine, and pentamidine, killed all normal and neoplastic cells
at the higher concentrations and failed to destroy any of the cells at
lower concentrations.s
Several effects were observed in the nuclei of the adenocarcinoma
cells treated with stilbamidine. These changes include: irregularity in
nuclear size and shape, increase in nuclear granules and blebs, and
pyknosis. Stowelll l reported similar changes in the nuclei of the
R2426-tumor cells following treatment, in VWO, with 4000 roentgens
of 200-kv x-radiation. Furthermore, stilbamidine blocks mitosis in
neoplastic cells at concentrations that have no effect on the mitotic
processes of normal or non-neoplastic cells.
Stilbamidine enhances the surface-denaturation of serum albumin
to a considerable degree. The other diamidines do so slightly, or not
at all. These results indicate that stilbamidine, more so than the other
dia.lllidincs, can weaken or rupture certain structural linkages, pre-
sumably, the side chains held together by hydrogen bonds in the albu-
min molecule. These weakened hnkages, when augmented by inter-
facial forces, produce a significant increase in surface denaturation.
The micro-surface-chemical methodsS-simultaneous exposure of
protein molecules to surface forces and the diamidine-therefore per-
mit the measurement of incipient denaturation in protein molecules as
produced by low concentrations of a denaturating agent.
A recent development12 involves the action of stilbamidine, and
other diamidines, on protamine-ribonucleates which represent simple
models of the nucleoproteins. Stilbamidine diisethionate, at 0.002 M
or less, produces an unfolding (denaturation) of the protamine mole-
cule, as indicated by surface-chemical methods. Stilbamidine, at
similar concentration levels, dissociates protamine-ribonucleate to re-
lease the protamine and simultaneously traps the ribonucleate by the
formation of an insoluble stilbamidine-ribonucleate complex.
The surface-chemical methods are so employed that the degree of
protamine-ribonucleate dissociation can be estimated by measuring the
interfacial adsorption of liberated protamine at appropriate oil-water
interfaces. The reactions include:
Protamine-ribonucleate + n Stilbamidine~Stilbamidinen-ribonucIeate
...... ... [insoluble complex]
parti~l denaturation
+ [Prota~ine] Increased interfacial adsorption.
8 Tl.U.NSACTIONS
The dissociation of protamine-ribonucleate results from the partial

denaturation of protamine and possibly from the denaturation (altera-
tion in configuration) of ribonucleic acid. Nucleoproteins, therefore,
can be destroyed by low concentrations of stilbamidine.
Propamidine diisethionate, on the other hand, docs not dissociate
protamine-ribonucleate, nor does it produce any significant unfolding
(denaturation) of the protamine molecule. However, it does form
complexes with Na-ribonucleate, although these may be slightly more
soluble than the stilbamidine-ribonucleates.
In all probability, the property of a compound to dissociate pro-
tamine-ribonucleate is dependent on its ability to denature the protein
moiety.
The first toxic, intracellular action of stilbamidine appears to be
the dissociation of protamine-ribonucleate complexes. Stilbamidine
thereby releases partially denatured protamine and simultaneously
binds the nucleic acids. Destruction of certain nucleoproteins, per 86,
may be sufficient to kill the cell.
The second toxic reaction follows the liberated and partially de-
natured protamine molecules. These protamine molecules, situated
intracellularly, can now react by salt linkages with a variety of phos-
phorylated compounds including: adenosine di- and tri-phosphates, di-
phosphopyridine nucleotide, phosphocreatine, diphosphothiamine, and
the phospholipids. Many of these substances may be temporarily or
permanently inactivated depending on the nature of the complexes, e.g.,
solubilities and dissociation constants. Although stilbamidine can in-
teract directly with the phosphorylated compounds, there is some evi-
dence to indicate that the resulting complexes are less stable and more
soluble than are those formed with ribonucleic acids.
Propamidine diisethionate does not dissociate protamine-ribo-
nucleates and, accordingly, this substance cannot destroy nucleopro-
teins nor can it release partially denatured protamine. Propamidine
may, however, inactivate some of the phosphorylated compounds by
forming complexes with them. In this way, the toxic nature of prop-
amidine becomes evident, although this agent lacks the specificity
shown by stilbamidine.
Differences in nucleoprotein content, between neoplastic cells and
their normal ancestors, both quantitative and qualitative, have been
THE NEW YOn ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 9
described by several investigators, especially by Stowell,18 and Stowell
and Cooper.14o
One may likewise expect considerable variation in physico-chemical
properties of these nucleoproteins. Accordingly, it should be possible
to dissociate certain nucleoproteins without damaging others. Such a
task would require the synthesis of compounds possessing the necessary
specificity to denature the protein moiety and thereby dissociate the
desired nucleoprotein components of a given cell.
The specificity shown by stilbamidine in destroying certain neo-
plastic cells may be interpreted in two ways: (1) that this diamidine is
sufficiently specific to dissociate those nucleoproteins essential to the
neoplastic cells, or (2) that neoplastic cells contain nucleoproteins more
readily dissociated by stilbamidine, than are those present in normal
cells.12
Propamidine, on the other hand, does not denature protamine and
thereby lacks the ability to dissociate similar nucleoproteins. One
should recall that, with stilbamidine, the nucleoprotein complexes can
be broken, while stilbamidine itself becomes bound by the liberated
nucleic acids. The released protamine, in turn, provides the additional
toxic factor by binding essential phosphorylated and other acidic meta-
bolic intermediates. Propamidine, instead, reacts directly with the
acidic substances and, if its intracellular concentration becomes high
enough, it functions as a general protoplasmic poison.
The key to specificity, therefore, lies in the dissociation of certain
nucleoproteins. Not only can the latter be destroyed by appropriate
substances but the activated or denatured protamine molecules, the dis-
sociation products, are toxic.
It is hoped that the various data outlined herein may provide the
necessary physico-chemical methods for evaluating the potential chem-
otherapeutio effectiveness of new compounds as they become available.
Several of these are now being synthesized.
It seems clear, at present, that any compound, to be capable of de-
stroying neoplastic cells selectively, must first have the property of dis-
tluciating certain key nucleoproteins. The dissociating potency of such
compounds should be of the same order as that demonstrated by stilb-
amidine on simple protamine-ribonucleates.12
10 TRANSACTIONS
LITERATURE CITED
1. Chambers, R., G. Cameron & M. J. Xopa.c
1943. Neopl8lJm Studios. XI. The e1Tects in ti!.Sue culture of N, N, Nl, W,
tetramethyl-o-phenylenedinmine and other compounds on malignant
lymph nodes. Cancer RCbCnrrh 3: 293-295.
2. Cameron, G., C. J. Kensler & R. Chambers
1944. The action of heptanal sodium bisulfite methyl salicylate and of 2, 4,
6-trimethyl-pyridine on tissue cultures of human nnd mouse carcinoma
and rat lymphosarcoma. Cancer Resea.rch 4: 495-501.
3. Roffo, A. H.
1938. The action of a hydrolysate of striped muscle on malignant tumours.
Lancet 235: 184-187.
4. Boyland, E.
1941. Experiments on the chemotherapy of canCE'r. 5. The effect of muscle
e'l':trart and aliphatic bases. Biochem. J. 35: 1283-1288.
5. Kopac, M. J., G. Cameron & R. Chambers
1945. The action of aromatic diamidines and other compounds on kidney
tubules in tissue culture. (To be published.)
6. ltopa.c, M. J., G. Cameron & R. Chambers
1945. The action of aromatic diamidines on tissue cultures of rat and mouse
neoplasms. (To be published.)
7. Chambers, R., 8& R. T. Kempton
1938. Indications of function of the chick mesonephros in tissue culture, with
phenol red. J. Cell. Compo Physiol. 3: 131-167.
8. ltopa.c, lIII. J.
1948. Micrurgical application of surface chemistry to the study of living cells
26-71. Micrurgical and. Germ-Free Methods. J. A.. Reyniers, ed.
Springfield, Ill.
9. Eisen, M. J.
1940. Transplantable carcinoma of the rat breast. Amer. J. Cancer 39: 36-44.
10. Murphy, J. B., 8& E. Sturm.
1941. The transmission of an induced lymphatic leukemia and lymphosarcoma
in the rat. Cancer Research 1: 379-383.
11. Stowell, R. E.
1945. The effects of roentgen radiation on the thymonucleic acid content of
transplantable mammary carcinomas. Cancer Research 6: 169-178.
12. ltop&c, M. J.
1945. Some cellular and surface-chemical aspects of tumor chemotherapy.
(To be published in Gibson Island Conference on Cancer Monograph.)
13. Stowell, R. E.
1945. Thymonucleic acid in tumors. Cancer Research 6: 283-294.
14. Stowell, R. E., 8& Z. K. Cooper
1945. The relative th:ymonucleic acid content of human normal epidermis,
hyperplastic epidermis, and epidermoid carcinomas. Cancer Research
6: 295-301.
THE NEW YOB.][ ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 11
OCTOBER 15, 1945
DOCTOR ROBERT A. BBOTEMABKLE, Director of Psychological Laboratory

and Clinic, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.: Prob-
lems in the De8cription of Per80nality. I. Sociability or UExtro-
version-Introversion." (The lecture was illustrated by lantern
slides.)
The long history of man's attempts at the description of personality
is well-known. In this paper, some problems in the description of per-
sonality are presented, which have been high-lighted anew for us by
the most recent findings in the excellent studies by Raymond B. Cattell
in his article on the "Principal Trait Clusters for Describing Person-
ality.1I1 In the review of his findings Cattell remarks: "In closing, it
is relevant to point to the possibilities by some entirely free speculation.
Once the data are preserved in the above index system against the
sclerosis of premature verbal coinage and the insidious assault of im-
plicit interpretation, freer discussion may safely be indulged in 'out of
court.' One can note that a majority of the clusters established by
correlation procedures seem to be actually well known syndromes of
the clinic and the laboratory."
It is my desire to investigate with you some of the problems to be
observed in these syndrome relationships, which prompts me to run
the risk of considerable "implicit interpretation." However, since we
cannot presume upon undue familiarity with the more recent and ex-
tensive findings of Cattell, I shall of necessity have to place before you
something of the entire picture of his work, before turning to my study
of the particular area of our discussion.
Cattell, in "The Description of Personality: Basic Traits Resolved
into Clusters,"! adopted an approach which must be satisfactory to
most of us when he states, "The position we shall adopt is a very direct
one, verging on a pragmatic philosophy, and making only the one as-
sumption that all aspects of human personality which are, or have been,
of importance, interest, or utility have already become recorded in the
substance of language."
1Psych. Bull. 40IiI (8): 129-161. 1946.
IJ. Abnormal &; Soc. Psych. 88 (4): 476-506. lSU.
12 TRANSAcn'lONS
Proceeding to the selection of a "categorized trait list," based upon

the study of previous collected lists and certain known syndrome ele-
ments, Cattell listed 171 dichotomous or opposite pairs of traits in his
"Final Population of the Trait Sphere."d From these traits, his exten-
sivll correlation studies resolved a series of "clusters" falling under cer-
tain "sectors" in the total personality "sphere." It should be noted that
each trait-pair includes a number of trait terms which some might con-
sider synonymous, or as giving expression to modifications or varia-
tions of the trait dichotomy.
At this point, it is important for us to have before us the briefly
d(.'srribed "('lusters" in their relationship to the "sectors" and the total
"sphere," and likewise the commonly known syndrome or experimen-
tally determined patterns related thereto.
In presenting Cattell's "Sphere of Personality,"2Iet us assume that
each of us is standing in the center of the "sphere" and from this point
of vision we will have coming to us the lines representing the various
"sectors," "clusters" and trait-pairs, and we shall find innumerable lines
of reference or relationship passing through us as they establish the
numerous ('ross-relationships between the various "clusters."
THE SPHERE 01' PERSONALITY

By RAYMOND B. CATTELL
BegiOllA
Chara.cter, Personality Integration
VR
Moral Character Defect, Neurosis, Psychosis
SECTOR AA
Fineness of Character
vs
Moral Defel't, Non-persistence
CLUF.TEIt AA I
Integrity, Altruism "psychopathi(' personality"
VIS (collbtitutionai character) RAB·
Dishonellty, Undependu.bility
AA2
Conscientious Effort (meJ).tal chu.racter)
vs
Quittillg, Incoherence
BECTOR AB
ReuJism, Emotional Integration
vs
Neuroticism, Evasion, Infantilism
• ThlR, and the succeeding "Interpretative statements are added by the author
of thls article. [Ed.}
THE NEW YORK A.CADEMY OF SCIENCES 13
CLtTSTER ARt
Realism. Reliability "pre-pl!'ychotic simple
VB schizophrenia"
Neurotiriqm. Changeability
CI.(TFlTnR AB2
Practicalness, Determination "pre-psyrhotir simple
VB schizoplu onia"
Daydreaming, Evasiveness
CJ.U&TER ABS
Neuroticism, Self-deception, "general neuroticilitm"
Emotional Intemperateness
vs
CLUbTER AB4
Infantile, Demanding, "conversion hysteria"
Self-centeredness
VII
Emotional Maturity,
FrUl'ltratlon Tolerance
SECTOR AC
Balance. Frankness. Optimism
VB
Melancholy, Agitation
CLURTER ACt
Agitation, Melancholy, Obstinacy "constitutional agitated
VB melanchoha"
Plaridity. Sorial Interest
CLUSTER AC2
BIIl81ICE', Frankness, SportsmansNp "prt"-psv('hofic ratntonic
vo! schizophrenia"
Pessimism, Secretiveness,
Inordinateness
SECTOR B
Inwlligence, Disciplined Mind,
IndepE'ndence
VFI
Fooliqh, Undependable. Unreflectiveness
CLUSTER HI
Emotional Maturity, Clarity of "emotional maturity"
Mind (emotional toned)
V8
Infantilism, Dependence
CLU!'ITER B2
GentlE'manly, Disciplined, (social toned)
Thoughtfulness
VII
Extraverted, Foolish,
Lack of Will
CLUSTER B3
Creativity, Self-determination, (volitional toned)
Intelligence
va
Narrowness of Interests,
Fogginess
CLusT.... a B4
Intelligencel Penetration, <Ii'
General Taltmt
V8
Lack of "i'
14 TRANSACTIONS
:Region C
Self-assertion, Venturesomeness,
Clamourousness
va
General inhibition, Modesty,
Timidity
SECTOR CA
Egoism, Assertion, Stubbornness
va
Modesty, Self-eft'acement,
Ada.ptability
CLUSTER CAl
Crude social assertion, "inferiority over-compensation"
Exhibitionism.
va
Modesty, Obedience to Authority
CLUSTERCA2
Stubbornness, Pugnacity, ('assertive-submissive"
Clamourousness
vs
Tolerance, Self-eft'acement
CLUSTERCA3
Rigidity, Despotism, Egotism
vs
Adapta.bility, Friendliness, "assertive-submissive"
Tactfulness
CLUSTERCA4
Shrewd, Dictatorialness "assertive-submissive"
vs
Naive, Unassertiveness
CLUSTERCA5
Assertion, Rivalry, Conceit "assertive-submissive"
va
Modesty, Unassumingness
CLusTERCA6
Eager, Self-assertion (Iassertive-submissive"
vs
Lack of Ambition
SECTOR CB
Boldness, Independence. Toughness
va
Timidity, Inhibition, Sensitivity
CLUSTER CBI
Energy, Boldness, Spiritedness "somatotonic"
va
Apathy, Timidity, Langour
CLUSTER CB2
Independence, Cleverness, "somatotonic"
Confidence
va
Timidity, Dependence,
LanguidD.ess
CLUSTER CBS
Lack of restraint, Adventurousness "general inhibition"
va
General inhibition, Fearlessness
CLUSTER CB4
Poised sociability, Inertia, "hyper-thyroid hyper-
Toughness sensitivity"
VB
Introspectiveness, Sensitivity,
Haste
CLUSTER CB5
Smartness, Assertiveness, Independence
VB
Unsophistication, Submissiveness,
Reverence
SECTOR D
Sociability
VB
Timidity, Hostility, Gloominess
CLUSTERDI
Sociabllity, Adventurousness, "extrovert-introvert"
Heartiness (general sociability)
VB
Shyness, Timidity, Reserve
CLUSTER D2
Sociability, Sentimentalism, "extrovert-introvert"
Warmth (general social interest)
VB
Independence, Hostility, Aloofness
CLUSTER DB
Interest in group life, "extrovert-introvert"
Liking to participate (social group interest)
vs
Self-sufficiency
CLUSTER D4
Personal attractiveness, "extrovert-introvert"
Sociability, Pleasure seeking, (socio-personal reactions)
Frivolity
VB
Earnestness, Asceticism,
Mirthlessness
CLUSTER D5
Cheerful, Enthusiastic, Witty "extrovert-introvert"
VB (socio-evaluation reactions)
Cold-hearted, Sour, Mirthless
SECTOR E
General emotionality, High-strungness,
Instability
va
Placidity, Deliberateness, Reserve
CLUSTER El
High-strungness, Impulsiveness, "hypomania"
AriXiety
VB
Apathy, Relaxation,
Deliberateness
CLUSTERE2
Sthenic emotionality, Hypomania, "hypomania"
Instability
VB
Self-control, Patience, Phlegm
16 TRANSACTIONS
CLUSTER E3
Intrusiveness, Frivolity, "pre-psychotic hebephrenic
Neuroticism, Instabiltty schizophrenia.'·
VB
Dl'liooro.tencss, Seriousness,
RebCrve
CLU&TDR E4
General emotionality, Dissatis- "general emotionality"
tied, Intense "physiolowcal and
vs constitutional"
Content, Placid, Temperate
SECTOR F
Gratefulness, Friendliness, Idealism
vs
Sadism, Slanderousness, Suspiciousness
(Benign Cyclothyme vs Hostile Schizothyme)
CLUSTER Fl
Gratefulness, Eosygoingness, Geniality
vs
Hardness, Vindictiveness,
Cold-heartednoss
CLUSTER F2
Gratefulness, Kindness, Christian Idealism
VB
Hostility, Cynicism, Selfish-withdra.wal
CLUSTER F3
Friendliness, Generosity, Cooperativeness "obsessional compulsive"
va
Hostility, Meanness, Obstructiveness
CLUSTER F4
Cynicism, Suspicion, Dishonesty "paranoid personality"
vs
Idealism, Trustfulness, Respecting Self
and Others
CLUSTER F5
Obstructionism, Cynicism, Unstable
hostility
VB
Idealism, Affection, Sensitive
consideration
CLUIIITER F6
Benign emotional maturity "emotional maturity"
vs
Slanderous, Jealous, Self-pitying,
Infantilism
CLUSTERF7
Sadistic, VIndictiveness, Suspicion
VB
Temper, Unresentfulness, Complaia&nce
(Paranoid schizoid VB Trusting
c:yclothyme)
SECTOR G
Liveliness, Insatiability, Verbal Expressiveness
VB
Reserve, Quiescenee, Naturalness
CLlJ'STEB Gl
Austerity. Thoughtfulness, Stability
VB
Playfu1neaa, Changeability, Foolishness
CLUSTEB02
Verbal Skill, Interesting ideas, Inquisitive
VB
Narrow interests, Absence of Flattery
CLUSTER G3
Eloquence, Affectedness, Conversationalism
VB
Self-etiacement, Inarticulateness, Naturalness
CLUSTER 04
Creativity, Wit, Emotional color
vs
Dullness, Banality, Stability
SECTOR H
Imaginative intuition, Curiosity, Carelessness
vs
Thrift, Inflexible Habits, Smugness
CLUSTER HI
Thrift, Tidiness, Obstinacy "anal eroticism"
VB
Lability, Curiosity, Intuition
CLUSTER H2
Creativity, Curiosity, Intuition
VB
Stability, Insensitiveness
SECTOR I
Bohemian, Disorderly
VB
Persevering,Pedantio
CLUSTER 11
Profligacy, Planlessness, Friendliness
VB
Austerity, Hostility, Perseverance
SECTOR J
Aesthetic interests, Thoughtfulness,
Constructiveness
VB
CLUSTEBJI
General aesthetic interests, Thoughtfulness,
Construotiveness
VB
SECTOR K
CLUSTEltKl
Physical strength, Endurance, Courage
VB
Physical inactivity, Avoidance of danger
SECTOR L
CLUSTEltLl
Amorousness, Playfulness
VB
Propr!ety
SECTOR M
CLUSTEBMI
Alcoholism, Rebelliousness, Carelessness
VB
Piety_, Reverence, Thrift
SECTOR N
CLuSTlillt N1
18 TRANSACTIONS
Curiosity, Wide interests

VB
Limited Interests
SECTOR 0
CLUSTER 01
Hypochondriacal, Taciturn, Retroversion
VB
Eloquence, Interest in future
SECTOR P
CLUSTER P1
Asceticism, Eccentricity "hermit-eccentrio sohizophrenia"
VB
Comfortrloving conventionality
SECTOR Q
CLUBTERQ1
Inflexibility, Wandering
VB
Adaptableness, Ease of settling dowD
In addition to quoting the relationships which Cattell has stated,
you will note the necessity of my having added certain interpretative
statements to enable our further discussion of certain clusters and
traits.
In approaching the work here so briefly described, Cattell has said,
"A few such aspects of personality as extraversion, character integra-
tion, general emotionality, and various psychotic and neurotic syn-
dromes exist in clinical observation, but they float freely in relation to
each other and in an uncharted universe of large possibilities. For
alone they contribute very little to the total definition of personality.
The problem of primary importance at the outset of systematic factor
analysis of personality, therefore, is to find means of choosing so com-
plete a universe of traits that (1) no possible trait will escape detec-
tion, and (2) the inter-relations of all important constellations will be
given by the analysis."
Feeling that Cattell has, without question, gone far toward the con-
summation of the task he set for himself, we recognize one cannot pos-
sibly study the in-relations of the entire sphere of personality at one
time. It is our desire to study together one sector and its clusters.
We have chosen the area of Sociability and the commonly related syn-
drome known as "extraversion-introversion."
We have chosen this area, first, because of its great importance in
the organization of human personality, and secondly, because we sense
the tremendous confusion which arises from its description in our
every-day clinical and consulting activity. Can the study of Cattell's
findings in this area help us in our own clinical and consulting descrip-
tion of personality? Certain commonplace observations about the
area will enable us to enter into Cattell's findings more readily.
First, the "man in the street" makes clear to us certain facts about
the description of Sociability. Ask him to describe for you the per-
sonality of a friend, and the chances are tremendous that his first state-
ments will attempt to describe the social patterns of the individual's
life, which may be stated very simply as "how he gets along with other
people." Any lengthy description on his part or through persistent
urging or questioning on yours will result in the "man in the street"
telling you "how he gets along with other people" in terms of affective
or emotional patterns, or "how he feels" i intellectual or mental pat-
terns, or "how he thinks i" and motor or physical patterns, or "how he
does things." And in all probability in this order or sequence.
We are facing here the fact that the area of sociability is a spe-
cific area of personality in which the descriptive language used reveals
how an individual uses the other areas or factors of human behavior to
respond to the specific stimulus of other persons, to that stimulus which
man has long recognized as the most important in his environment and
which has, therefore, been elevated to a "sector" or specific area of per-
sonality itself.
Second, the physiologist and others interested in the biophysical
organism, in, and through which the human personality is given ex-
pression, have made clear to us that all structures and functions of the
biophysical organism are required to explain the reactions and pat-
terns of human behavior usually subsumed under the affective, the
mental, and the motor areas of human personality. Some have given
emphasis to the developmental unfolding through their discussions of
the biophysical organism related to each area, and the possibility of
dominating emphasis of certain areas in the total pattern of personality.
We are here facing the fact that there is no specific part of the bio!
physical organism set aside for the specific function of Sociability as
such, but that, again, Sociability is the pattern of response established
by each of these three areas in reaction to a specmc stimulus of an-
other or other individuals.
Third, the psychological clinician, in attempting the development
of psychometric techniques to investigate Sociability in terms of Social
Maturation has given emphasis to the same fact. Doll, in the t~ine_
20 TRANSACTIONS
land Social Ma.turity Scale,"lI uses a large series of questions, each taken
directly from the pattern of affective, mental or motor behavior, but
seeks to find in what manner this specific behavior affects the pattern
of the individual's response in the social situations or environment.
It is not only important to know whether a child cats with his fork and
knife; the greater problem of Sociability is whether others in the social
group, the family, must disrupt their individual or social reactions to
feed him, or whether he uses the eating tools himself and in accordance
with patterns acceptable to the social group, and thus causes no dis-
turbance to the family group activity. He may learn to read and to
write, but the greater question in Sociability is whether he uses this
accomplishment to attain the necessary interchange in communication
of ideas to take his place in the social group without failure or dis-
turbance.
The remaining emphases in the study of Sociability have had to
do with the learning of patterns of reaction, their organization, their
function, and the dynamic aspects of their inter-play in social living.
With these facts in mind, let us turn to the analysis of sector D-
Sociability, and its clusters and traits as revealed by Cattell's findings.
It will be observed that the Sociability Sector makes use of 24
trait-pairs, or 14% of the total list of 171 trait-pairs. This might
seem to contradict the significant fact that the Sociability Sector could
employ all of the traits of human behavior in a specific way. On the
other hand, it might reveal the fact that, in our desire to describe this
area, we have narrowed it quite significantly. What is this descriptive
pattern recorded in Cattell's findings and in the related syndromes of
the clinic and laboratory?
First, we must observe that there are five, more or less, specific clus-
ters subsumed under this sector J all of which are commonly referred to
under the syndrome "extroversion-introversion." Our first necessity is
to clarify the differences which may be found in the five clusters. To
analyze the trait-pairs found under each cluster it seems necessary to
designate them for the moment as follows:
SECTOR D-80CIABILITY
CLUSTER DI-General Sociability
CLUSTER D2-General Sooial Interests
CLUSTER D3-Social Group Interests
CLuSTElI. D4-SOClo-Personal Reaction
CLuSTElI. D5-Socio-Evaluation Reaction
Til:Doll, JlC\A1! A. Vll1ela.nd 80c1a.l ma.tur1ty llcale. V1I1elan4 Tratl11l1C SchooL
nela.nd, N. J. 1985.
Some considerable difference accrues from the description of the
SociabilIty of an individual in terms of Dl-a general over-all sociabil-
ity, or D2-a general interest in social actions, or D3-an interest pri-
manly in specific social group actions, or D4-an emphasis upon the
retroflex action of social life upon the temperament of the individual
himself, or D5-an emphasis upon the retroflex action of social life upon
the individual in terms of an evaluation made by the other members of
the social group and in terms of their acceptance or rejection of certain
standards of conduct.
This would likewise indicate the same considerable difference in
the various patterns of the related parallel or synonymous syndrome of
"extroversion-introversion," and in somewhat similar terms. The pat-
tern of "extroversion-introversion" might be described as Dl-a gen-
eral over-all sociability, or D2-a general interest in social actions, or
D3-an interest primarily in specific social group actions, or D4-an
emphasis upon the retroflex actions of social life upon the temperament
of the individual himself, or D5--an emphasis upon the retroflex action
of the social life upon the individual in terms of an evaluation made by
the other members of the social group and in terms of their acceptance
or rejection of certain standards of conduct.
The analytical chart of D Sector's five clusters will enable us to
see more readily what trait-pairs are specific or common to each cluster,
and what such finding may mean to us.
Cluster DI is composed of trait-pairs 95, 130, 149, 162, and ISO,
giving emphasis to the General Sociability of the individual. No
single trait-pair is specific to this cluster. It has trait-pairs common
to clusters D2, DB and D4, particularly those involving 150--Seclusive-
ness-Gregariousness, and 95--General Social Interest. Other traits are
shared with clusters under entirely different sectors of personality
which will be discussed later.
Cluster D2 has three trait-pairs, numbers 14,90, and 143, specific
to itself and giving emphasis to interest in home and family group ac-
tivity in an affective or sentimental way. D2 shares its emphasis upon
95-general interest in social life-a.long with DI, 132-Responsive-
ness-Aloofness-with DB; and an emphasis on 83-Dependence-Inde-
pendence-with D3. One of these and other traits are shared with
other clusters under entirely different sectors of personality.
Cluster D3 has no trait-pairs specific to itself. It shares the trait
22 TRANSACTIONS
CHART 1
ANALYTICAL CHART OJ)' SECTOR D-SOCIABILITY (CATTELL)
--
Trait
List Trait Pairs D Clusters ReInted Clusters
Number
- 14 Affectionate-Frigid D2
90 Interest in Home and Family D2
143 Sentimental-Rard-hcarted D2
114 Optimistic-Pessimistic D5
95 Interest in Social DID2
132 Responsive-Aloof D2D3
104 Laughterful-Mirtbless D4D5
66 Frarik.-Secretive D2 AC2
69 Genial-Cold-hearted D2 Fl
23 Ascetic-Sensuous D4 PI
92 Interest in Physical Activity D4 ~l
169 Witty-Humorous D5 04
130 Reserved-Intrusive D1 E3,Gl
]49 Sh~-Sociable I (Forward) Dl CB3,CB4
162 Bo d-Timid D1 CBl,CB3
142 Sensitive-T0'6;h D2 ACl,CB4
40 Cooperative- b:;tructive
109 Mischievous-
D3
D4 ~},n
144 Serious-Frivolous D4 E3,Gl
57 Enthusiastic-Apathetic D5 CBl,E4
67 Friend:Ce-HostiIe D2 CA3,F2 F3,Il
83 Depen ent-Independent D2D3 Bl,B3,CBl,CB2,CB5
31 Cheerful-Gloomy D4D5 AB3,ACl
150 Seclusive-Sociable II (Gregarious) Dl D3D4 ACl
132-Responsiveness-Aloofness-with D2; 83-Dependence-Indepen-

dence-with D2; and 150-Seclusivcness-Grego.riousness-with Dl and
D5. Some of these and other traits are shared with a number of clus-
ters under entirely different sectors of personality.
Cluster D4 has no trait-pairs specific to itself. It shares trait-
pair lO4-Laughterful-Mirthless-with D5; and 31-Cheerful-Gloomy
-with D4. Some of these and other trait-pairs are shared with clus-
ters under entirely different sectors of personality.
Cluster D5 has specific to itself trait-pair 114-0ptimistic-Pessi-
mistic. It shares lO4-Laughterful-Mirthless-with D4. All other
trait-pairs are shared with other D clusters, as 31-Cheerful-Gloomy-
with D4, and, at the same time, with a number of clusters under en-
tirely different sectors of personality.
By now, we must be convinced of the scarcity of traits definitive
of specific aspects of sociability or "extroversion-introversion." I am
fully appreciative of the fact that I am not clarifying the descriptions
by this detailed analysis. For the time, I am asking you merely to
observe the relationships involved.
When we turn to the trait-pairs shared by the five Sociability
clusters with other clusters under entirely different sectors of personal-
ity, we shall observe the added confusion in syndrome description of
personality.
Cluster DI-General Sociability-shares its very basic trait-pair
I30-Reserved-Intrusive-with E3-"prepsychotic hebephrenic schizo-
phrenia" and GI-stability of a thoughtful type; its most basic trait-
pair 149-Shy-Forward-with CB3-"general inhibition" and CB4-
"hyper-thyroid hypersensitivity"; I62-Bold-Timid-with CBl"soma-
totonic" and CB3 "general inhibition"; and I50-Seclusive-Gregarious
-with ACI "constitutional agitated melancholia."
Cluster D2-General Social Interests-shares 66-Frank-Secre-
tive-with AC2 "prepsychotic catatonic schizophrenia"; 69-Genial-
Cold-hearted-with Fl-a pattern of Gratefulness and Geniality; 142
-Sensitive-Tough-with ACI "constitutional agitated melancholia"
and CB4 "hyper-thyroid hypersensitivity"; 67-Hostile-Friendly-
with CAS "assertiveness-submissiveness," F2-idealistic gratefulness,
F3 "obsessional compulsiveness" and l1-a pattern of Bohemian Dis-
orderliness; and 83-Independence-Dependence-with Bl-the emo-
tionally toned pattern of "emotional maturity," B3-the volitionally
toned pattern of "emotional maturity," CBl "somatotonic," CB2 "so-
matotonic," and CB5-a pattern of sophisticated behavior.
Cluster D3-Social Group Interests-shares 40-Cooperative-ob-
structive-with F3 "obsessional compulsive," and F5-a pattern of af-
fectionate idealistic behavior; 8S-Dependence-Independence-with BI
-emotionally toned "emotional maturity," B3-volitionally toned
"emotional maturity," CBI "somatonic," CB2 "somatotonic," and
CB5-a pattern of sophisticated behavior; and 150--Seclusiveness-
Gregariousness-with ACI "constitutional agitated melancholia."
Cluster D4-Socio-Personal Reactiona-shares 23-Ascetic-Sen-
suous (comfort loving) with PI-a pattern of asoetic behavior; 92-
Interest in Physical Activity-with Kl-a pattern of physical activity
and endurance; lO9-Mischievousness-with Gl-stability of a
thoughtful type, and Ll-a pattern of propriety; I44-Seriousness-
Frivolousness-with Gl--stability of a thoughtful type, and E3 "pre-
24 TRANSACTIONS
psychotic hebephrenic schizophrt'nia"; 31-Cheerful-Gloomy-with

AB3 "general ncuroticisDl,1I and ACl "agitated constitutional melan-
cholia"; and 150-Scclusivcness-Gn'suriuusncss-with ACl lI agitated
constitutional melancholia. II
Cluster D5-Socio-Rvaluation ncactions-sharC's 169-Witty-Hu-
morous-with G4-a pattern of creative stability; 57-Enthusiastic-
Apathetic-with CBl "somatotonic," and E4 "general emotionality"
of a constitutional and physiological type; and 3l-Chcerful-Gloomy
-with AB3 "general neuroticism and ACl "constitutional agitated
melancholia."
The overlap of syndromes in use of certain trait-pairs may be ob-
served as follows:
Cluster l!yndrome rolutC'd by mtmber of trait-pairs
ABS "genera! neurotiri'lm" 1
ACl "eonstitutional agitated mclancholill." 8
AC2 "pre-psychotic cntntonic schizophrenia" 1
Bl "emotional maturity" (cmotionlllly toned) 1
B3 "emotional maturity" (volitionlllly toned) 1
CAS "ast!ertive-suhmissive" 1
CBI "somatotonic" (1) 3
CB2 "somatotonic" (2) 1
CB3 "general inhibitIon" 2
CB4 "hyper-thyroid hy?ersensitivity" 2
CB5 (Eattcrn of sophisticated behavior) 1
E3 I prepsychotil' hebephrenic schizophrenia" 2
E4 "general emotionality" 1
Fl (pfLttern of grateful geniality) 1
F2 (rattcrn of grnteful idealism) 1
Fa I obsessional compulsive" 2
F5 (pattern of u.fTectlOnitte idealism) 1
01 (pattern of tho~htful stability) 3
04 (pattern of creative stl1.bility) 1
II (pnttern of bohemian disorderliness) 1
Kl (pattern of physiC'lIJ. endurance) 1
Ll (pattern of propriety) 1
Pl (pattern of aseetieiRm) 1
Of the 24 trait-pairs found under the five D-Sociability clusters,

7 are specific to D clusters alone or in combinations, while 17 are
shared with a total of 23 other clusters or syndrome patterns of known
observable personality reactions.
Let us assume that we are observing the behavior of an individual
which we might describe as falling under the trait-pairs 150-Seclu-
sive-Gregarious, 31-Gloomy-Cheerful, and 142-Tough-Sensitive.
We would note that, in combination with certain other trait-pairs, we
might readily refer the behavior to one or two clusters of 4 possible
clusters under D~ociability, either Dl, D2, D3, or D4; or observed

with certain other trait~pairs we might refer the behavior to the cluster
ACl-"Constitutional agitated melancholia." It must be clear to us
that, even under the cluster ACl-"Constitutional agitated melan-
cholia," we are observing one of 4 possible forms of Sociability reaction
now recognized and reported. It is quite possible that there are other
specific Sociability clusters not yet recognized to which this series of
trait-pairs might also readily refer.
Such cross~relationships would be observed among the 23 clusters
and the 5 D~clusters, if we should take time to carry out all possible
combinations of personality reactions.
Our present analysis, I trust, must somehow force upon us the con~
viction that the clinician, or consultant, is seldom so thorough in the
basic description of behavior reactions. At the same time, it must
convict us of our own carelessness when confusion arises in the syn~
drome description of personality patterns.
Cattell has pointed to the possibility of more exact studies based
upon experimental research under this method of more precise descrip~
tion of personality. The clinician and consultant should likewise be
able to profit greatly in his analytical diagnosis under this form of
more precise description of personality. It would repay the clinician
and consultant to spend the time necessary to thoroughly familiarize
himself with the findings now available through the analysis of Cat-
tell's studies and the related phenomenological studies. The clinician
and consultant must also face the challenge to make his much-needed
contributions in the more accurate clinical description of personality,
which are long awaited and necessary to the final solution of this gi-
gantic task.
26 TRANSACTIONS
OCTOBER 22, 1945
DOCTOR ERWIN H. ACKERKNECIIT, American Museum of Natural His-

tory,NewYork,N. Y.: Primitive Medicine.
One of the most important aspects of primitive medicine is the
pharmacopoeia of most primitive tribes. Except for a very few re-
gions, like the Arctic and Melanesia, where drug lore has been devel-
oped only slightly, an amazing percentage of the herbs, barks and roots
used by the natives-a percentage which is far above the mathematical
probability of random sampling-is of objective medicinal value.
Even today, our own pharmacopoeia is heavily indebted to the
primitives. Picrotoxine, the powerful stimulant of the respiratory
center; strophantine, the well known mcdicament in heart diseases;
emetine, the alkaloid of ipecacuanha and specific in amebic dysentery-
all are of Indian origin. Salicylic preparations for rheumatism were
first used by the Hottentots, etc., etc. Yet our culture, which, some-
what prematurely, but all the more firmly, believes that the test tube
is superior to the plant cells in synthesizing drugs, refuses, in general, to
analyze the primitive material which anthropologists and missionaries
have brought back from the field. A large scale analysis of primitive
drugs would be of great practical importance to modern medicine.
All human societies, primitive and civilized, suffer from disease.
Disease is much older than man. It is one of the fundamental, vital
problems which face every societ.y, and every known human society
dcvelops methods to deal with diseasc, and thus creates a medicine.
But the attitude towards disease ann the methods of fighting disease
vary enormously in the different primitive tribes. Disease may be of
extreme concern to a society, quite beyond its objective frequency.
Anxieties arising from other sources may be projected into medicine.
The Navahos are said to spend one-fourth to one-third of their produc-
tive time in religious ceremonials, most of which are concerned with
disease. Disease and its healing or prevention plays a similar pre-
ponderant role in the religions of the Cuna, Chiricahua-Apache, Chero-
kee, Pima, and Liberian Manos. It is the main concern of the Pit
River Indians of N ortb_eastern California and, next after sex, of the
Yavapei. The attitude towards disease may take a strange twist, as
in Dobu, where healing practices are subordinated to the all-absorbing
problem of how, by appropriate spells, one can make one's neighbor
sick I The attitude toward disease may change under our very eyes,
as Redfield describes it for Yucatan, when acculturation occurs. Dis-
ease theories, diagnostic and therapeutic measures, all may vary widely.
There may, or may not, be special medicine men. They may be poor
or rich, all-powerful or uninfluential. Here, the magic power of the
drug may be the central element of native medicine. There, the power
of the healer or of the medical society.
We are accustomed to look at disease as a purely biological phe-
nomenon, and at medicine as a kind of reflex reaction toward it.
These differences in approach are therefore extremely disturbing to us,
and all the more so as they are not founded primarily on the objective
amount of disease in a given tribe. We may encounter various atti-
tudes combined with about the same kind and amount of morbidity,
and in very similar climatic and economic conditions. Under such cir-
cumstances, medicine has much more clearly the character of a func-
tion of the culture pattern than of the environmental conditions.
Though it is necessary to bear in mind these underlying variations,
it is nevertheless possible to make a few generalizations ('oncerning
primitive medicine, especially with reference to some of their func-
tional and psychological implications. I should lIke, however, to re-
mind you of the following facts:
Disease and death among primitives are, for the most part, not ex-
plained by natural causes, but by the action of supernatural forces.
In general, the disease mechanisms are either the intrusion of a dis-
ease-producing foreign body or spirit, or the loss of one of the souls
which may be abducted or devoured. These mechanisms may be pu~
into motion either by a supernatural agency (God, spirit, etc.) who
feels offended, or by a fellow man who avenger, himself either by hiring
a sorcerer or by himself acting as a sorcerer. Supernatural causes must
be discovered by supernatural means, and thus the primitive diagnosis
consists of various types of divination-bone-throwing, crystal-gazing,
trances, etc. The therapeutics cover a whole gamut of methods, reach-
ing from purely matter-of-fact treatments (herbs, massage, bath, etc.),
combined with magic spells or prayers, to purely magico-religious rites.
One of the common traits of primitive llledicine, which makes it
28 TRANSACTIONS
rather different from ours, is the social rate that disease and medicine
assume in primitive society. Disease with us is, in the last analysis, a
biological, individual, and non-moral problem. No guilt is involved
when we suffer from hereditary, infectious, or degenerative diseases.
Even in venereal diseases, we strive to eliminate the moral aspect as it
has proved to be a handicap in their eradication. If you get appendi-
citis or cancer, you will never think of associating this with your be-
havior toward your neighbor or mother-in-law or your ancestral spirits.
We do not usually associate disease with whether or not our personal
relations are good, whether we keep certain religious or social rules or
not. But this is exactly what the primitive does. Disease derived
from sorcery, from taboo violation, from the anger of ancestral or other
spirits is the expression of social tensions. A seemingly independent,
biological problem is thus woven into the whole socio-religious fabric
in such a way that disease and its healer playa tremendous social role,
a role that, in our society, is assumed rather by judges, priests, soldiers,
and policemen.
In many primitive societies, disease becomes the most important
social sanction. Primitive medicine contains a moral element which
is almost absent in ours. "Be peaceful, pay your debts, abstain from
adultery, in order to protect yourself and your family from disease."
It thus becomes possible to treat disease by pacifying offended persons.
New light is here thrown on the marked interest of the primitive com-
munity in the diseased person and its participation in healing rites.
This social role of disease may also partly explain the persistency
of primitive medicine, quite apart from its intrinsic medical value.
The purely curative effect of certain rites may be negligible, but th(;'y
are upheld because they fulfill important social functions.
In a way, disease, being thus regarded as a direct consequence of
personal, social behaviour, makes more sense to primitive man than it
can make to the patient in our society. Only rarely, are we able to
relate the non-personal biological notions, which to us explain disease,
directly to the actual life history of the patient. There is a tendency
of the patient and his family in our society, well known to every med-
ical practitioner, to bridge this gap, in constructing such relations even
where they actually do not exist. You all might remember cases of
cancer being referred to a slight and perfectly irrelevant bodily trau-
matism, cases of epilepsy explained by fright, etc. This tendency has
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SOIENCES 29
disappeared from medical science only gradually and at a relatively
late period.
The social concept of disease in primitive society is also reflected in
the belief that the disease sanction may affect every member of the
family as well as the sinner himself. This is a far more inclusive notion
than our concept of hereditary or infectious diseases. Therapeutic
measures-whether it be confession or medication-have, therefore,
very often to be applied not only to the patient, but to his whole family.
It is obvious how this specific social role, assumed by disease in
primitive society, contributes to the formation of a type of medicine
which differs considerably from the one to which we are accustomed.
I think it is safe to state, as a further general characteristic of
primitive medicine, that it is primarily magico-religioU8, utilizing a few
rational elements; while our medicine is predominantly rational and
scientific, employing a few magic elements. * We are naturally inclined
to think of primitive medicine in terms of rationality, just as primitives
usually interpret our medicine in terms of magic. It is not difficult to
see that both procedures are projections. One can, of course, argue
that our medicine is magic, or that theirs is rational; but both state-
ments need closer examination and qualification. I believe tl!at I am
more aware of magical elements in our medicine than many of my
medical colleagues are. For the anthropologists, it is not difficult to
discover the magic character that vitamins, germs, number complexes,
etc. often assume in the mind of the patient. But one of the important
strictures which have to be made is that magic elements in our medicine
are overwhelmingly on the side oj the patient. As far as our medical
system and its representatives are concerned, they remain rational in
intent, content and procedure. In order to obtain a clear picture, it
is also necessary to look at the problem from a more quantitative angle,
and I doubt whether anyone would seriously argue that the modern pa-
tient's approach to medicine and disease is predominantly magico-
mystical.
Nobody will deny that, in a great number of primitive tribes, not
all diseases are interpreted in a supernatural manner and that some
are regarded as due to natural causes. This holds true, especially, for
very common diseases, such as colds, toothache, malaria, etc., those
resulting from old age, and those of which the imported character is
• I am usiDg the term "ratiODal" not 88 a mere e_quivalen't of logiaa1-ma~1! iI! ICIIPeI!l ill ita
wq too--but, as it is DOW CIO!XUDOIIly llIIderatood. logical on the basIa of empIriCal. ~
30 TRANSACTIONS
clearly realized. Yet the inconsistency with which such ideas are used
is noteworthy. The same disease might be naturally or supernaturally
caused, and a natural disease might be treated supernaturally, or vice
versa. It is also remarkable that positive knowledge concerning the
"natural diseases" is about as poor as that concerning "supernatural
diseases" and that primitive sceptics, in general, doubt the supernatural
character of individuals or isolated events, but not the whole super-
natural system.
There are a certain number of purely rational treatments, such as
bleeding, massage, and drugs. Yet the number of such treatments de-
creases considerably after closer examination and appears at least to
be "mixed." The rational character of the use of the tourniquet in
snake bite among the Liberian Manos becomes, for instance, somewhat
doubtful, when we hear that a ring of white clay might also be applied
around the bitten limb. Rivers, observing an apparently rational ab-
dominal massage for constipation, on Eddystone Island, was very dis-
appointed in learning that it was destined to drive out a magic octopus.
Another case in point is the Cherokee patient, who keeps a strict diet
all day long, but devours everything at night when the taboo under-
lying his diet is no longer valid. The widespread division between
medicine men and herbalists in primitive tribes has given rise to the
premature conclusion that only the former are guided by supernatural
ideas, while the latter are rationalists. This thesis seems to be unsup-
ported by the facts.
The fundamental error in all this reasoning about primitive ration-
alism is the basic assumption that what is objectively effective, is also
rational and scientific. Also, there are so many objectively effective ele-
ments in primitive magic treatments, such as, for example, drugs, baths,
massage, sucking, bloodletting, isolating of infectious diseases, diet,
inoculation against snake bite, etc., such treatments are without hesita-
tion christened rational or even scientific, whereas they might be
magical or purely habitual, almost automatic or reflex-like. Yet this
identification of the objectively effective, the rational and the scientific
can be nothing but a permanent source of confusion. The attribute of
rational should be reserved for actions which are actually based on
thought ide!ltifiable with our rational thinking. The notion of scien-
tific should be handled with the same sense of discrimination. Even
animals use objectively effective healing methods, while science has
nothing of an instinctive reaction. Linton has lately very justly
written of science as an invention. One might as well speak of scien-
tific thought as a great and late revolution in human behavior. Science
aims primarily at truth, not at success or psychic relaxation. Science is
unthinkable without a certain amount of individualism. It means a
complete misunderstanding of scientific thought and methods, and of
the whole history of science, to bestow the name of scientific, or even
rational, upon practices which are, in general, uninfluenced by experi-
ence, free from scepticism, and where no numerical notions, no abstrac-
tion, no induction, and no systematization are underlying ideas. Call-
ing every objectively effective procedure scientific seems to me to dilute
the notion of science almost to complete meaninglessness.
This misunderstanding is also favored by the assumption that
supernatural, irrational ideas and practices are always highly emotional.
Thus, unemotional behavior ought to be rational. But experience with
primitives shows that magic might be something highly unemotional.
I fully agree, therefore, with the following statement of the great
American medical historian, Fielding H. Garrison:
"If we are to understand the attitude of the primitive mind toward the
magnoSlS and treatment of disease, we must recognize that medicine, in our
sense, was only one phase of a. set of magic or mystic processes, designed
to promote human well being, such as averting the wrath of angered gods
or evil spll"its, fire making, making rain, punfying streams or habitations,
fertIlizing solI, imprOVIng sexual potency or fecunmty, preventing or re-
movmg blight of crops and epidemic diseases."
Isolated rational elements, the existence of which nobody denies,

do not and are not able to change or even to influence considerably the
fundamental character of this magico-religious system.
It is for pragmatic reasons that I have given so much importance
to what might seem a quite superfluous discussion of terminology.
Primitive medicine's contribution to our medical understanding consists,
in addition to its great treasury of drugs, just in the fact that here
we are able to observe So whole system of medicine, different from ours
and yet functioning with considerable success. It is, perhaps, because
of this difference, which seems to me greater than in other fields like
religion, art, or law, that the study of primitive medicine has been
rather neglected.
It is true that in merely calling primitive medicine, "magic," not
much is accomplished. Limitations of space and time make it im-
32 TRANSACTIONS
possible for me to enter here a detailed discussion of magic. But I

cannot abstain from alluding to the fact that, in my opinion, under the
headmg of magic, at least two very different sets of practices and be-
liefs have been lumped together.
I would like to mention here a few of the many e1Iects which super-
naturalism has on medical practice. The extreme ignorance oj anatom-
icaZ facts among primitives has often been commented upon, and has
been attributed to the absence of dissections. Quite apart from the
fact that experience in hunting, sacrifices, and cannibalism could well
compensate for this shortcoming, I have been able to point to four
areas in Siberia, Oceania, South America and West Africa where autop-
sies arc practised quite extensively in order to discover whether the
deceased died as the result of witchcraft or not. Yet these dissectors
are just as ignorant of the most elementary anatomical facts as are
their non-dissecting brethren. It is not a mere technique, but a com·
plete change in outlook that almost brings about a change in perception
and opens the eyes of the super-naturalist to anatomical facts.
There is, in general, satisfactory wound and fracture treatment
among primitives, but almost nothing which resembles our major sur-
gery (amputations, excisions of tumors, abdominal surgery). In the
few places where such major surgery is practiced, it is mostly of very
low quality. Here again, technical explanations are insufficient. Prim-
itives certainly do not lack technical skill, as is shown by the widespread
and successful performance of trepanation, an operation which had
an extremely bad prognosis, even with western surgeons, until a few
decades ago. Neither do primitives lack occasions to gain surgical
experience, because of numerous accidents, ritual and judiciary mutila-
tions occurring in primitive society. The greater resistance of those
individuals who reach adult age in primitive societies, and the absence
of particularly virulont bacterial strains as we cultivated them through·
out centuries in our hospitals, would be a special asset for primitive
surgeons. But the magic fear to appear mutilated in the spirit world is
an all-powerful obstacle to the development of surgery. This fear
creates opposition even to tooth extractions. For example, Linton
says of the Tanala that they do not fear death, but mutilation. It is
this supernatural character of mutilation which makes it so particularly
an impressive form of punishment; and, in turn, people refuse amputa-
+.ion which would put them on the le'Vel of criminals.
Supernaturalism also makes for a strange inflation of the pharma-
copoeta, where the effective and the ineffective are used without dis-
crimination. This obvious lack of experimentation reduces claims of
primitive rationalism that otherwise could find strong support in the
primitive's use of effective drugs.
While supernaturalism, in general, serves as an obstacle to tech-
nical improvements in medicine, it sometimes brings them about as
unintended by-products, as is shown by circumcision, certain forms of
sex hygiene, and other sanitary measures. The most striking example
of this kind is probably the invention of the incubator for premature
births by certain Eskimos and Bantus. This inyention seems to have
arisen from particularly stringent taboos against miscarriage prevailing
in these two tribes, otherwise so different from each other.
The irrational need not be ineffective, and with all its peculiarities,
primitive medicine, which, by the way, in terms of space and time,
covers a much larger field than does our scientific medicine, seems to
have served its purpose more or less satisfactorily. In some places
and periods, it seems to have been even superior to our medicine. Some
of its successes (as are those of our medicine) are undoubtedly due to
the fact that man is a fairly solid animal, and many diseases are self-
limited anyway. The aforementioned objectively active elements
in primitive medicine and its particular social mechanisms may account
for other successes.
One particular character of primitive medicine, which is derived
from primitive mentality, in general, and which makes description of
primitive medicine on the basis of our categories so difficult, deserves
special notice in this context. This is the unitarian or total character
of primitive medicine. When, for practical reasons, for instance, we
have spoken above of diagnosis and therapeutics, of bodily and mental
diseases, we have done violence to the facts. Actually, there is no diag-
nosis separated from therapeutics in such acts as divination or con-
fession. The diagnostic act is at the same time a therapeutic one; and
that old dichotomy between mental and bodily disease, which we seem
largely unable to overcome even with psychosomatic medicine, just
does not exist among primitives, either in pathology or in therapy.
The whole individual is sick and the whole individual is treated. This
partiCUlar form of integration offers undoubtedly certain therapeutic
advantages, as disease is fundamentally a. process of disintegration on
34 TRANSACTIONS
all levels, the physical, mental, and social. Magic or religion seems to
satisfy better than any other device a certttin eternal psychic or "meta-
physical" need of mankind, sick and healthy, for integration and
harmony. The non-empirical character of primitive medicine also pro-
vides it with an elcment of certainty which undoubtedly, gives it con-
siderable curative powers.
Weare inclined to isolate certain clements of primitive therapeu-
tics, to which I have just alluded, under the label of psychotherapeutics.
We easily discover in most primitive treatments certain effective mech-
anisms, which we have applied consciously and on a large scale for a
number of years in our own medicine, such as suggestion and confes-
sion. We have gained a certain understanding of these processes.
Through work initiated by men like Pavlov, Cannon, or Freud, we have
learned a good deal about the importance of certain mental stimuli for
coordination of the whole organism and of the catastrophic physio-
logical consequences of conscious and unconscious fear. In addition,
two wars have provided many of us with a certain amount of altogether
undesired practical experiences in this respect. It is in the nature of
things or, more exactly, it is a consequence of the particular ways in
which our sciences and our society have developed that, in no other
branch of medicine, do primitive and modem medicine overlap to such
an extent as in psychotherapy. We started much later in dealing
scientifically with psychological and social problems than with those
of matter. The decline of official religion has brought into the office
of the doctor many problems which were formerly handled by the priest.
A number of years ago Opicr published a very interesting analysis of
the methods of an Apache medicine man in the light of modern psycho-
therapy, pointing to parallels as well as to differences. Without deny-
ing to modern psychotherapy any of its successcs and its merits, I am
rather inclined to think that it labors under many delusions as to the
degree oI rationality it has reached. Many of its cures seem to me due
far less to its rationalizations than to the simple mechanisms of sugges-
tion and confession, also underlying certain practices of the medi-
cineman.
We have insisted, above, on the social determinants of primitive
medicine; but every consideration of primitive medicine that does not
at least try to gain an insight into the biological bases of this medicine,
that is, the pathology of primitives, would be utterly incomplete.
Everybody who has ever tried to study so-called racial pathology
knows that, in no field of primitive medicine, are the data as scanty
and contradictory as in this one. Nevertheless, it seems safe to state
that truly primitive communities, perhaps because of their relative iso-
lation, of the lower life expectancy of their members, show a relatively
low morbidity of their adult population. This has been the impression
of qualified observers, not only in the Arctic, Polynesia or North
America, but even in such unhealthy regions as South America or Africa.
We must not forget that the same process, which ultimately
brought about the development and diffusion of a highly qualified
medical science, meant primarily a tremendous increase and spread of
disease all over the world. This continent probably knew nothing of
measles, smallpox, malaria, yellow fever, cholera, pest, and many other
infectious diseases, before its discovery by the white man. Infections
were the most deadly automatic weapon of the European in his con-
quest of the country. It is of historical interest that one of these in-
fections, small pox, on a few occasions, in both North and South Amer-
ica, was used consciously in the warfare against the Indian. It is
true that primitive medicine proved, in general, unable to adapt itself
to these new situations. Application of traditional methods, like baths
in the case of small pox, even had particularly fatal consequences.
Degenerative diseases, which form such an important part of our
pathology, had little chance to develop in populations which had an
average life expectancy well below 30. Besides frequent accidents and
other forms of violent death, this low life expectancy is undoubtedly due
to a high infant mortality, which is known and feared, but badly con-
trolled by primitives.
Mental disease, at least in the form of our psychoses, particularly
schizophrenia, progressive paresis, or delirium tremens, seem equally
rare among primitives. On the other hand, the diseases called "func-
tional" in our terminology often seem particularly frequent. They,
together with rheumatism, digestive disorders, colds and respiratory
diseases, skin and eye affections, and gynecological disturbances, seem
to form the stock-in-trade of primitive pathology. This, and not the
post-conquest situation, is the background against which the accom-
plishments of primitive medicine should be measured. Such a com-
parison leaves a far more favorable impression of the adequacy of
primitive medicine.
36 TRANSACTIONS
I cannot leave my subject without saying at least a few words

about the primitive medical practitioner, the medicine man. For a
long time he has been labeled in anthropologicalliterll.ture, even of the
highest caliber, e.g., Tylor, as a fake. I think this point of view has
now completely died out and, therefore, need not be insisted upon. We
know now tho.t the percento.ge of fakes among medical practitioners is
not higher in primitive than in other societies. We have won a juster
appreciation of the so-called tricks of primitive medicine men, that were
so highly offensive to early travelers and missionaries, by understanding
their symbolical character. It is also interesting to note that less
articulate parts of the population have never shared in this contempt for
the medicine man. The "Indian Doctor ," that is, the native medicine
man or an Indian-trained white lay practitioner, was a very widespread
phenomenon in frontier settlements throughout the first half of the
19th century, and when Indians were removed to reservations, white
settlers petitioned for exception of their Indian Doctor. At early AMA
conventions of the 1840's, reports on Indian pharmacopoeia were read.
The intensive government-sponsored study of Indian medicine by
Hernandez in Mexico and by Piso in Dutch South America, during the
16th Century, belong in the same category.
Another, hardly less complimentary or correct label for the medi-
cine man, that of "psychopath" or "epileptic," still lives in many an-
thropological textbooks or articles.
I am unable to take up, here, the whole complicated problem of
abnormality in primitive society. I refer you to the excellent work of
Ruth Benedict, Hallowell, and later writers, which forms one of the
most valuable contributions modern anthropology has made to the
problems of medicine, psychopathology, and psychology in general.
I would, nevertheless, like to stress one technical question which, so far,
has been given little attention and whieh might have played an impor-
tant role in the genesis of this misunderstanding. Mental disease in
primitives, recognized as such by both natives and whites, manifests
itself often in so~called states of involuntary possession; that is, par-
oxysms, accompanied by spastic motions, incoherent language, etc.
To the non-initiated, these accidents look like epilepsy, though actually
they are not, and fall rather in the group of diseases that we usually call
hysteria. Many medicine men, too, are subject to trances and states
of possession. Though these forms of possession are voluntary, very
often induced by drugs, perfectly normal and clearly differentiated
from the possession-disease by many tribes, to the untrained observer
they look very similar to epilepsy or hysteria. I suspect that, through
this confusion, the medicine man has undeservedly acquired the title
of an epileptic or psychopath.
There is no doubt that psychopathology plays an important role
in the life of certain groups of medicine men, the best known of whom
is the Siberian shaman. In view of the very special character of the
Siberian shaman, it is extremely regrettable that the term, shaman,
has been used very loosely as a synonym for medicine men in spite of
the protests of Loeb and others. Closer study of the Siberian shaman
reveals the perplexing fact that the individual who is to become a
shaman passes through a stage of very marked mental disturbance,
but that he is more or less cured of this affliction by becoming a shaman.
Even without detailed discussion of the problems of abnormality,
it should be fairly obvious that an individual who successfully plays
such an important role in society, as the medicine man actually does,
cannot, because of mere similarities, be put on the same level as our
mentally diseased individuals, whose main characteristic is that they
are unable to function successfully in society.
The successes of the medicine man cannot be fully understood, un-
less one realizes that, acting in small communities, he possesses a more
perfect personal knowledge of his patient than most of our doctors do,
and that his non-medical activities greatly enhance his authority as
a healer.
We hear a great deal about specialists in primitive medicine. It
should be realized that this form of specialization seems just the oppo-
site of ours. We have specialists because the volume of our knowledge
has become so great that one man can no longer handle all of it. Spe-
cialization among primitives seems to result from the fact that there
has not yet developed a total body of medical knowledge. One man
knows only one or a few spells and practices for one or a few diseases,
and thus becomes a specialist for this or that disease.
38 TRANSACTIONS
SECTION OF PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY
OCTOBER 12 AND 13,1945
Conference on "Amino Acid Analys1's of Proteins."

The Section of Physics and Chemistry held a Conference on
"Amino Acid Analysis of Proteins," as the first in the series for the
Academic Year 1945-1946. Doctor William H. SLein, Rockefeller In-
stitute for Medical Research, New York, N. Y., was the Conference
Chairman, in charge of the meeting.
The program consisted of thc following pt~pers:
Introductory Remarks, by William H. Siein.
"The Contribution of the Analytical Chemist to Protein Chem-
istry," by Hubert Bradford Vickery, The Connecticut Agricultural
Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut.
"The Use of Specific Precipitants in the Amino Acid Analysis of
Proteins," by William H. Stein and Stanford Moore, The Rockefeller
Institute for Medical Research, New York, N. Y.
"The Isotope Dilution Method for Amino Acid Analysis," by David
Shemin, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University,
New York, N. Y.
IIChromatographic and Ion Exchange Methods in Amino Acid
Analysis," by R. Keith Cannan, College of Medicine, New York Uni-
versity, New York, N. Y.
uMicrobiological Methods in Amino Acid Analysis," by Esmond E.
Snell, College of Agriculture, University of Wisconsin, Madison,
Wisconsin.
uAmino Acid Composition of Simple Protoins,1I by Erwin Brand,
College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York,
N.Y.
Concluding Remarks, by Hans T. Clarke, College of Physicians
and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
NEW MEMBERS
ELECTED FROM MAY 15 TO OCTOBER 25, 1945
LIFE MEMBER
Wiener, Alexander S., M.D., Medicine, Blood Grouping, Genetics. Serologist,
Office of the ChIef Medical Exammer: Head Blood Transfusion Division,
Jewish Hospital of Brooklyn; Director, Wiener Laboratories, New York, N. Y.
SUSTAINING MEMBERS
Clemens, Carl F., Psychology. Corporal, Chemical Warfare Division, Army Air
Forces, South Pacrlic Theater.
Mendell, Wayne, Psychology, Physics and Chemistry, Meteorology. Vice-Presi-
dent, American Machme and Metals, Inc., Moilne, lllinois.
Patterson, Katharine 0., Iso-hemagglutinins. In Charge, Serology Department,
Reichel Division, Wyeth, Inc., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
ACTIVE MEMBERS
Applezweig, Norman, A.B., Biochemistry. Research Consultant, Wyeth Inc., New
York,N. Y.
Bach, George Robert, Ph.D., Psychology, Anthropology, Sociology, Biology. In-
structor, Western Reserve UniverSIty, Cleveland, OhIO.
Barnes, Elinor J., Ph.D., Psychology. Field Director, Market Research Division,
Psychological Corporation, New York, N. Y.
Britt, Steuart Henderson, Ph.D., Psychology. Lieutenant, USNR, Headquarters,
Commander in Chief, U.s. Fellet, Washmgton, D. C.
Chargaff, Erwin, Ph.D., Chemistry. Assistant Professor of Biochemistry, Colum-
bia. University, New York, N. Y.
Crowninshield, Vincent F., M.A., Psychology. Assistant to Personnel Director,
Johnson and J oMson, New Brunswick, New Jersey.
Davis, Selby B., Ph.D., Organic Chemistry. Resear~h Chemist, American Cy-
anamid Company, Stamford, Connecticut.
Disher, Dorothy Rose, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Psychology, Adelphi Col-
lege, Garden City, New York.
Farris, Edmond J., Ph.D., Biology. Executive Director, Associate in Anatomy,
The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Friedmann, Jechiel Moses, M.D., Psychology, Biology. Practicing Neuropsychia-
trist, New York, N. Y.
Friedmann, Max Martin, Ph.D., Biochemistry, Physical Chemistry. Senior Bio-
chemist, Queens General Hospital, Jamaica, New York.
Gardner, William Howlett, Ph.D. Chemist, New Products Division, National
Aniline Division, Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation, New York, N. Y.
GerstI, Bruno, M.D., Pathology and Biochemistry. Director of Pathology and
Research, Connecticut State Tuberculosis Commission, Hartford Connecticut.
Haring, Robert C., Ph.D., Industrial Organic Chemistry. Research Chemist, Na-
tional Aniline Division, Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation, New York,
N.Y.
Heintz, Herbert W., D.D.s., Dentistry, Anatomy. Private Practice, Oral Surgery,
Utica, New York.
Henderson, John, M.D., Medicine. Assistant Attending Surgeon, Dispensary Serv-
ice, New York Post-Graduate Hospital; Assistant Surgeon and Member of
Teaching Staff, New York Post-Graduate Hospital, New York, N. Y.
Herzog, George, Ph.D., Anthropology~ Linguistics. Assistant Professor of An-
thropology, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
Hill, Ella C., B.s'1 Anthropol~gy, Natural Sciences, Docentry. American Museum
of Na.tural History, New York, N. Y.
40 TRANSACTIONS
Hitchings, George H., PhD. Biochemist, WeUcome Research Laboratories, Tuck-

ahoe, N('w York.
IIoaglund, Hudson, Ph.D., Sc.D., N('urophysiology and Endocrine Physioiocy.
Bx('cuti\'e 1)11('('101', Worcetlter FoundatIOn lor Experi~('ntlll Biology, Wor-
cPllter, Mabl!!lciluselts j Lecturer, Harvard University, CambrIdge, Massa-
clllt~etts.
HO'WJ.rd, Hartley W., Ph.D. Research Chemist, PrescrIption Products Division,
The Dorden Company, New York, N. Y.
Jaeger, Lucena, Ph.D., Embryology. Research Associate, Department of Zoology,
Columbia Unh'C'rsity, New York, N. Y.
Kern, Edwnrd gU!1.('n(', Ph.D., PhysICal and Organic Chemistry. Research Chem-
ist, General Electric Company. Pittsfit'ld. Massnchus('tts.
Kibrlck, Andre C., Ph.D., Proteins lind Amino Acids. Chemist, Research Depart-
m('nt. Amino Products Company, Toledo. Ohio.
Klopf('r. Bruno. Ph.D., Pbycholo$Y' ROI'schnch Method Instructor in Guidance,
Columbia Unlvel·bity. New): ork, N. Y.
LC'd('rb(,l'g. Joshua, A.B., Cell Physiology. Student. Columbia University Medical
S(·hool. New York, N. Y.
Liebprmnn, Charles F., A.D., Medicine. Sergeant, Army Air Forces, South Pacifio
Tht'alC'r.
Lowry, Oli\'C'r H., Ph.D., M.D., Nutrition. Associate Chief, Division of Physiol-
ogy I\nd Nulrltion, Pubhc Heo.llh R.csC'Rl'ch Inslltllte, NC'w York, N. Y.
McGr('w, Frank C., Ph.D., Organic Chemistry. Research Group Leader, DuPont
Experimental Station. Wilmington, Delaware.
Macalu~o. Put, M.~., PhYSIcal ChemIstry. Res('arch Chemist, Foster D. Sneil,
Inc., N('w York, N. Y.
Meis\ror, Alton. B S, M('dirine and Biochemistry. Interne in Medicine, New York
Hospital. Now York. N. Y.
Morris, Mark L., D.V.M., Animal Nutrition. Raritan Hospital for Animals, Inc.,
Raritan Laboratories, Inc., Raritan, New Jersey: Consultant in Animal Nutri-
tion. Raritan, New Jersry.
Novlkoff. Alex B., Ph.D., Embryology, Biochemistry. Instructor, Brooklyn Col-
IrgC'. Brooklyn, New YOI·k.
Oneley, John Lawrence, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Physical Chemistry, Harvard
M('dlral S(·hool. Boston. Ma~~Il('hllsC'Us.
Paul. Amm G., M.S .. Gcology and Paleontology. Consulting Petroleum Geologist,
N('w York. N. Y
Pctermnnn. Mary Lockr. Ph D. Head, Department of Protein Chemistry, Memor-
ial HOE'Piinl. New York. N. Y.
Phillips. Wrndell, A.B., PalE.·ontology. Formerly Student, University of Cali-
fornia; MC'rchnnt Murine.
Reiner. Miriam, M.S., Biochemistry. Assistant Chemist, Mt. Sinai Hospital, New
York, N. Y.
Reiss, FrC'derirk. M.D., Mycology, Dermatology. Professor and Hend, Depart-
mrnt of Drrmatology, National Collep;c.> of Medicine and St. John's Univer-
sity, School of ME"dicinc, Shanp;hai, China; Physician. Out-Patient Dep~rt
mpnt of Dermatology. New York Hospital; Instruclor, Cornoll Medical
College. New York, N. Y.
Ricciuti. C'onf'tnntin(', Chrmistry. S('nior Scientific Aide, U.s. Dl'partmE"nt of
Awic'lliturej Chemical Warfare Sergeant, Army Air Forces, South Pacific
Theat('r.
Richardllon. Arthur P., M.D. Belld. DIvision of Pharmacology, Squibb Institute
for MediC'sl Rel':(,llrch. New firllnswick. Nt'w JC'~y.
SnmuelllCn, George Severine, Ph D., Biological Chemistry. Assistant Professor,
Long Island College of Medicine, Brooklyn, New York.
Seaman, Emily C., PhD., Biochemistry. Research Worker, Cornell Medical Col-
lege, New York, N. Y.
Scott, Mrs. R. T. M., Psychology. Rorschach Specialist, U.s. Marine Hospital,
Ellis Island, N ew York, N. Y.
Seigle, L. W., PhD., Organic Chemistry. Research Chemist, New Products Divi-
1I10n, National Anlime Division, Allied ChemlCal and Dye Corporatlon, New
York,N. Y.
Siegel, Bernard J., Ph.D., Anthropology. Instructor, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn,
New lork.
Stiller, Eric T., PhD., Organic and Biological Chemistry. Chief, Organic Chem-
istry Department, Wyeth Institute of Applied Biochemistry, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania.
Thalhimer, William, M.D., Pathology, Serology. Assistant Director of Labora-
tories, Bellevue Hospital, New York, N. Y.
Tittler, Irving A., Ph.D., Cytology'! Protozoology. Assistant Professor of Biology,
Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, New York.
Warren, Charles 0., M.D., Ph.D., Physiology. Assistant Professor of Physiology
and Anatomy, Cornell University Medical College, New York, N. Y.
Watts, Nellie Perry, PhD., Drugs. Research Associate, Department of Thera-
peutics, New York University, New York, N. y,
Webb. Alfred M., PhD. Research Bacteriologist, Lederle Laboratories, Pearl
River, New York.
Weill, Blanche C., EdD., Child Psychology. Free--Iance Consulting Psychologist,
New York, N, Y.
ASSOCIATE MEMBERS
Akerlof, Gosta C., Ph.D., Physical Chemistry of Solutions. Chief Physical Chem-
ist, Monsanto Chemical Company, Dayton, Ohio.
Bartnel', Elliot, B.S., Chemistry. Research Assistant, Rutgers University, New
Brunswick, New Jersey.
Doherty, David G., M.s., Protein Structure, Proteolytic Enzymes, Ensign,
U.s.N.R., Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda. Maryland.
Gordon, Irving, M.s., Pathology, Bacteriology. Medical Bacteriologist, Commis-
sion on Acute Respiratory Dir:.eases, Army Epidemological Board, Fort Bragg,
North Carolina.
Haas, Erwin, Ph.D., Biological and Enzyme Chemistry. Member, Worcester
Foundation for Experimental Biology and Worcester State Hospital, Wor-
cester' Massachusetts.
Holzberg, Jules D., M.s., Psychology. Lieutenant, A.G.O., Chief, Psychology
and Social Work Section, Mason General Hospital, Brentwood, New York.
Howard, Gerald V.. B.A., Fisheries and Conservation. Junior Biologist, Inter-
national Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission, New Westminster, British
Columbia. Canada.
Jones. Sarah R., A.M. Assistant, Department of Zoology, Connecticut College,
New London, Connecticut.
Kazal. Louis A., Ph.D, Research Biochemist, Sharp and Dohme, Glenolden,
Pennsylvania.
Kennedy, John D .. M.D.. Pathology and Bacteriology. Assistant in Pathology,
Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore. Maryland.
Pa.wlowski. Jaroslow. Physics and Chemistry. Geology and Mineralogy. Student,
Laboratory Technician. Education Institute of Canada, Toronto. Canada.
Pritchett, Henry Lucian, PhD., Psychiatry, Psychosomatic Medicine. Head, De-
partment of Sociology, Southern Methodist University. Dallas, Texas.
Sargent, Frederick, m, S.B., Medical Sciences (Physiology) and Meteorology.
Student, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts.
Stauber, Leslie A., Ph.D., Parasitology. Assistant Professor of Zoology, Rutgers
University, New Bnmswick, New Jersey.
42 TRANSAOTIONS
Worzc1, John LIUnal', B S., Physics and Oceanogrll.phy. Research Associa.te, Woods
Hole OceanographIc Instltute, Woods Hole, Ma&sachusetts.
STUDENT MEMBERS
Atlas, She-ldon M., B.s., Chemistry. Teaching Fellow, Queens College, Flushing,
New York.
Field, Alice G., A.B., Psychology. Gradua.te Student, New York University, New
York,N.Y.
Newma.n, Pauline, Physics a.nd Cheml8try. Student, Vaasar College, Pough-
keepsie, New York.
Yamin, Millicent Lois, B S., Zoology, Pharmacology. Fellow, Columbia. Univer-
Slty, New York, N. Y.
TRANSACTIONS
of
SER. II, VOL. 8 DECEMBER, 1945 No.2
NOVEMBER 5,1945
DOCTOR MORLEY E. WILSON, Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa,

Ontario, Canada: The Reg~onal Structural Relatwns of the Ore
Deponts of the N oranda District, Western Quebec. (This lecture
was illustrated by lantern shdes )
Up to a few years ago, most geological maps of Archaean areas in

the southern part of the Canadian Pre-Cambnan Shield showed the dls-
tribution of formations, but gave httle informatlon regarding their
structure. In recent years, it has been dIscovered, however, that
Archaean rocks are charactensed by features from which their struc-
tural succession can be determined. These are mainly pillow and
brecciated flow tops in lavas and change of grain and cross-bedding
in sediments.
One of the regions in the Shield that has been studied most inten-
sively, during the last 15 years, lies along the fault zone that extends
from Kirkland Lake in Ontario eastward for 130 miles to Louvicourt
Township in Western Quebec. Most of the zone has been remapped
on scales ranging from 500 to 1,600 feet to 1 inch, and it has been
ascertained-
(1) That the superficial Archaean rocks of the Noranda-Rouyn
TRANSACTIONS of The New York AcadeD!Y of SCIences, Senes II, Volume 8, No ll,
December, 1945
Tlus publlcatlon 18 dJStnbuted to Members and IS publIShed monthlv from No"ember to June,
mcl_ve, at 109 West Chestnut Stleet Lancaster, Pa. by The NeW' York Acad~' of SC1eIlCeS,
Seventy-nmth Street and Central Park West, New York Clty
Editor Roy Waldo Mmer
Executlve Secretary Eumce Thomas Mmer
Entered as second-class matter December 2, 1938, at the pest office at Lancaster, Pa, 1IDder
the act of August 24, 1912
43
44 rrRANSACTIONS
area in Western Quebec belong arelllly to three divisions: the TiInis-

kaming Selies, the AbItIbi (Keewatin) Series, and the Pontiac Group.
The Timiskaming ScrICs r('sts unconformably on both the Abitibi Series
and the Pontiac Group, but because of their separate distribution, the
relationships of the Abitibi Series to the Pontiac Group is not known.
The Pontiac either belongs to a third separate Series, or is a part of the
Abitibi Series;
(2) That the zones of carbonate-tale-chlorite alteration with
which many of the are deposits of the Kirkland Lake-Louvicourt fault
zone are associated lie along overthrust faults, which developed as an
accompaniment of the Pre-Cambrian mountain folding in the region;
(3) That the structure of the Kirkland Lake-Louvicourt fault
zone in Western Quebec centers around the Cadillac-Bouzan Lake
fault, and, in Ontario, around the Larder Lake "Break." These are iII
alignment with one another and underlie a deep depression beneath the
late Pre-Cambrian Cobalt Series, which forms extensive hills and ridges
near the inter-Provincial boundary between Ontario and Quebec. Ob-
viously, they belong to the same fault zone and may be parts of a single
fault;
(4) That the fault zones usually contain disseminated pyrite or
arsenopyrite and gold in places, but ore deposits of workable extent
and grade occur only where a change in strike, a change in wall rock,
increased local deformation, or other structural features have permit-
ted more extensive and concentrated deposition from ore-bearing solu-
tions.
Weare at the beginning of a new era in Canadian Pre-Cam-
brian geology, for geological maps, now, not only show the distribution
of formations, but their structure as well, and thus direct attention to
localities where ore deposits may be present, and development work by
diamond drilling or in other ways, may be undertaken. They thus as-
sist more directly than formerly in mineral discovery.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY
NOVEMBER 12, 1940
DOCTOR GEORGE GAYLORD SIMPSON, Chairman, Department of Geology

and Paleontology, The American Museum of Natural History;
and Professor of Vertebrate Paleontology, Columbia University:
Tempo and Mode in Evo~ution. (This lecture was illustrated by
lantern slides.)
INTBODUCTION
The tItle assigned to me for this paper will be taken as symbolic

rather than descriptive. "Tempo and Mode in Evolution"! is the
name of a book by me, completed in 1942, and published last year.
This book attempts to take some of the data available to paleontolo-
gists and not to geneticists, and to relate these to recent developments
in general evolutionary theory. These data have mainly to do with
rates of evolution, including such phenomena as inertia and momentum;
and with patterns of evolution, including the modes of radical transfor-
matio~ or of differentiation of populations over long periods of time.
It is not proposed here to repeat what has already been discussed at
length in this published work. What merit the book may have prob-
ably arises for the most part from its attempt to synthesize results ob-
tained in two widely distinct fields of investigation-paleontology and
genetics. The aims of this paper will be to give some of the historical
background of modem evolutionary theories, to follow the divergence
of paleontological and genetical thought on this subject, and to say
something about the recent movement by which they are again con-
verging on common problems, with great hope for fruitful future co-
operation.
THE EVOLUTION OF EVOLUTION
The major thesis of pure Darwinism, the Darwinism of Darwin,
was that individuals vary and transmit their variations to their off-
spring, that some individuals produce more and some less than their
proportionate share of young, that those leaving relatively few or no
offspring are, on an average, different from those that do produce the
46 'l'ltANSA{,"rION8
bulk of the next generation, and that the llew generation, therefore, in-
cludes fewer of some variants and more of others than did the parental
group. This differ('ntial, continuing over many generations, involves
steady structural cbange in t he group as a whole, and this change is
evolution. "Natural selection," tll(' ul:!ual h\bcl of Darwinian explana-
tions of evolution, is a subsidiary theory Hocking to explain why some
individuals contributed more than othC'rs to the heredity of following
generations. Darwin did not know how variations arise, how they are
inherited, or which variations are heritable and which are not. If it
be granted that heritable variations do exist and that new variants do
occasionally appear, facts empirically established then, and now con-
firmed, this ignorance regarding heredity did not at all invalidate Dar-
win's theory, but it made it quitE' incomplete and open to question, in
application to partiCUlar evolutionary sequences.
Darwin's Darwinism was eclectic and it did not exclude the hy-
pothesis, generally labeled as Lamarckian, although it was broadened
beyond the scope originally given it by Lamarck, that heritable varia-
tions arise by the interaction of an individual and its environment.
Variations arising in this way could supply materials for natural selec-
tion, but if hereditary variations do arise in this way, it would be pos-
sible for a population to evolve without the action of selection. The
later 19th century naturalists tended to develop the ideas of selection
and of modification by individual interaction with the environment as
two antithetical schools, restricting Darwinism to the first, and calling
the second Lamarckism. The separation became complete when Weis-
mann promulgated his germ theory (1892). 2 He correctly identified the
physical basis of heredity and, on logical rathE:'r than experimental or
observational grounds, he (.'oncludC'd that somatic modificatione could
not affect heredity.
Weismann's neo-Darwinism was more Darwinistic than Darwin
It excluded any Lamarckian (or neo-Lamarckian) factor and made
natural selection not merely the essence of the theo:ey but the whole
theory. Darwin, himself, did not envisage natural selection as a com-
plete and sufficient cause of evolution and, even by 1892, many difficul-
ties had been found in accepting so simple an explanation. Weis-
mann's extremism made the situation still less satisfa.ctory. While he
distinguished more clearly than had Darwin between hereditary and
non-hereditary variations, Weismann was largely unsuccessful in dis-
tingull:ming adequately which characters were, in fact, hereditary or in

providing evidence of the origin of new characters or a mechanism for
sustained evolution. The espousal of neo-Darwinism by Weismann's
school eventually was a factor in the decline of Darwinism, instead of
leading to its general adoption.
The 19th century ended with naturalists and other students of
evolution in quite fundamental disagreement. Various forms of modi-
fied Darwinism were still dominant, but they were bitterly opposed by
some able students and had been subjected to criticisms for which no
adequate answer had been found. Progress in the field of general
evolutionary theory demanded more knowledge of heredity and, from
this time, the students of that subject began to playa leading role.
Their influence, at first, was far from unifying. Instead of producing
evidence in favor of one or another of the competing types of evolution-
ary theory, they split the field still farther. De Vries, who published
his mutation theory in 1901,~ showed that distinctive types of plants
may arise all at once and at random and he generalized this as the
mooted normal course of evolution, a theory consistent neither with
Darwinism nor with Lamarckism in any of their diverse forms. As
Mendelism was rediscovered and the modern science of genetics devel-
oped, de Vries' concepts turned out to be limited and even a little crude,
but the evidence of genetics still seemed to many to favor the origin of
new forms of life at random, without reference to the environment, and
without any subsequent adaptation under the influence of selection.
The coup de grace seemed to have been given to Darwinism and
neo-Darwinism. A host of alternative theories, old and new, found
support in what sometimes was like a battle-royal among the evolution-
ists. Varied as these theories are, most of them can be dassed in four
broad schools:
1. Neo-Lamarckism continued to have a few adherents. They
emphasized the fact (particularly evident to paleontologists) that pro-
gressive adaptation does occur, but they agreed with the criticism that
natural selection is not an adequate explanation of this phenomenon.
Cope, Hartwig, Kammerer, and McDougall exemplify students of dif-
ferent but generally Lamarckian shades of opinion, over a consider-
able period. Despite their efforts, they failed to provide reasonable
nea-Lamarckian explanations of many of the phenomena of evolution.
Especially, they failed to controvert the growing genetical evidence
48 TRANSACTIONS
that nco-Lamarckism is impossible, becausc modifications (as opposed

to mutations) cannot be inhcrited as such, if at all.
2. The many thl'oricl:I that may bt, classed broadly as vitalistic (in
some CUI:ICS, but misleadingly styl<'d "orthogenetic") assume that evolu-
tion follows well-defined lines tlU\t arc not mcehanh,tically determined
but are set by !:lome inner caus(' or non-mat('rial force. Bergson's
"ltan vitaL," Dries('h's "entelc('hy," Osborn's "aristogenesis," Berg's
"nomogenesis," and Broom's evolution directed by spiritual agencies are
well-known and, in their various ways, typical. Such theories are es-
sentially non- and sometimes even anti-genetic. They either assume
that the directive force operates by producing directional (non-random)
mutation, or that mutation is a mere accident having little to do with
evolution in the long run. Opponents of these views object to them on
the grounds that they are not science but metaphysics or philosophy,
and that they are explanations that do not explain, examples of the
naming fallacy. As J. S. Huxley has remarked, saying that progressive
evolution is caused by an elan vital is like "explaining" the motion of a
railroad train by an elan locomotif.
3. A small and not very popular class of theories is exemplified by
Lotsy's evolution by means of hybridization4 and by Clark's "zoogen-
esis/'s Different as these theories are, they have in common that they
practically deny the reality of evolution, if we assume that evolution
necessarily includes the appearance of new characters from time to
time. Lotsy's theory involves little more than the reshuffling of genes
and Clark's is essentially baAed on the sudden segregation of existing
genetic characters. Critics of these theories grant that these are un-
questionably processes that do occur in evolution, but insist that at-
tempting a general explanation of evolution on such a basis is begging
the question. It is necessary to explain how the gen(ls originated in the
first place, how they came to bc distributed as they were before shuffiing
and segregation, and what the mechanism of these redistributions is.
4. Finally, there is a group of theories more important than those
already listed and stemming from de Vries and the early geneticists.
De Vries called his theory "mutation," but this is now misleading, be-
cause the word mutation has come to have quite a different meaning.
It might be called the saltation or the catastrophic theory, although
the leading modern exponent of a theory of this type (Goldschmidt) II
particularly objects to the latter label. Other geneticists, without nec-
essarily believing that species arise all at once by one big "systemic
mutation," have held essentially I)imilar views, maintaining that new
variants (or new species) arise spontaneously, at random, and then live,
if they can, or die, if they must. These students believe in pre-adapta-
tion but not in adaptation. They believe that selection eliminates the
monstrously unfit, but has no further bearing on evolution.
It was theories of this fourth class that were claimed to have put an
end both to Darwinism and to Lamarckism. Yet their proponents ig-
nored a vast amount of evidence, accumulated especially by the pale-
ontologists, that seemed quite inexplicable by the current genetic
theories. The result, culminating in the early '20's, was hopeless dis-
agreement among paleontologists, geneticists, and systematists theirs
of the old naturalists), the three main groups of students of evolution-
ary theory. Nor were the students in anyone of these groups in agree-
ment among themselves on any fundamental point, except that evolu-
tion has somehow managed to occur.
PALEONTOLOGY AND EVOL'UTIONARY THEORY
It seems obvious to us that evolution is the only rational explana-

tion of the paleontological record and that that record is the most direct
and unmistakable exemplification of evolution. It seems paradoxical
that the paleontologists were not the first to observe this. The fact is
that early paleontologists regularly cited the fossil record as evidence
against the reality of evolution. It was not until Darwin had over-
whelmingly established the probability of evolution, with no real help
from the paleontologists, that they accepted this as the great unifying
principle in their science and began systematically to produce evidence
in its favor. Even so, Owen, one of the most eminent of paleontolo-
gists, lived for 33 years after the publication of "The Origin of Species,"
without ever accepting the reality of evolution, still less of Darwin's ex-
planation of it. Meanwhile, however, men like Kowalevsky, in Europe,
and Cope and Marsh, in America, had produced conclusive paleonto-
logical evidence that evolution is a fact.
This simple but laborious and necessary demonstration was the
first and remains one of the greatest contributions of paleontology to
evolutionary theory. The function is almost entirely descriptive, and
it must be admitted that the tradition of treating paleontology as a de-
scriptive science is still strong. Even now, relatively few paleontolo-
50 TRANSACTIONS
gisU:! I1I'C contributing to theory above the del;criptive level. This is

less tru(." in Europe than in AmC'rica, where (although it may surprise
some to think of practicality in connection with paleontology) paleont-
ology is pursued as much for practical as for truly scit"ntific reasons.
It is also less true of vertebrate than of invertebrate paleontology,
which has developed more as a geological than as a biological science.
Most of the paleontological theories that will be found in books on
evolution or on fossils are really generalized descriptions and not theo-
ries in any other sense of the word. For instance, Dollo's so-called law
of irreversibility is properly no more than a description of what has
been found by observation to be usual in the fossil record. Dollo made
no serious attempt to relate this generalization to the evolutionary
factors that must be involved. When such an attempt at higher or
more truly theoretical study of these phenomena was belatedly made,
Dollo's "law" had to be profoundly modified. Similarly, Osborn's
adaptive radiation, Gregory's isomerism, and even orthogenesis, as
paleontologists have commonly used the word, are really descriptions of
what usually or sometimes happened, and not attempts to explain these
phenomena in terms of broader evolutionary prin('iples. These descrip-
tive generalizations are extremely important and interesting and have
a great contribution to make to the study of evolution and of life, but
this contribution cannot well be rE'alized until they are more closely re-
lated to the results of genetics and other branches of neobiology. On
the other hand, the neobiologists have been dC'prived of data of crucial
importance in their studies, becau!'l(." they have not themflelvcs (with
very rare exc<'ptions) understood the bearing of these paleontological
generalizationFl in the broadcr fields of theory.
Of course, there have always b('en some pu.Ieontologists who were
oompetent and interested studt'nta of ('volution, ill addition to being ob-
servers of the course of evolution. Even so, it is rather striking how
often they seem to have been working at cross-purposes with the neo-
biologists-I do not mean to say which group, if either, was at fault.
Thus, Cope, who still stands out as the most soundly philosophioal pale-
ontologist that America has produced, was a confirmed neo-Lamarckian,
and this throughout the period of the first strong enthusiasm for Dar-
winism and even, at the end of Cope's life, into the period of violently
anti-Lamarckian Weismannian neo-Darwinism. Neo-Lamarckism has
always had more adherents among paleontologists than among neobiol-
ogists and, to this day, there is a neo-Lamarckian tinge in much pale-
ontological writing. This viewpoint has been so thoroughly under-
mined by the geneticists that it can barely be called intellectually
respectable, at present, and yet the paleontologist, if so inclined, can
justly point out that the facts that suggest neo-Lamarckism to him
have been ignored by the geneticists.
Growing divergence between paleontologists and neobiologists be-
came acute or apparently complete when the geneticists first came into
the ascendency as students of evolution. As has been seen. the main
early contribution of the experimental study of heredity to evolution-
ary theory was mutation in the sense of de Vries. But, in the mean-
time, paleontologists had produced several descriptive generalizations,
apparently inexplicable by de Vriesian mutation or similar later theo-
ries of the geneticists, and nevertheless demanding explanation in any
acceptable general theory of evolution. One of these generalizations
was that evolution is gradual. In the nature of things, this can never
be observed in all cases, but even in the '90's it had been found so fre-
quently that most paleontologists believed then, as they do now, that
this is usual, if not universal. This is consistent with either Lamarck-
ism or Darwinism. It is not consistent with de Vriesian mutation, at
least as a general pattern of evolution, and so it was instrumental in
the widespread rejection of that theory and its successors by paleon-
tologists.
Another major generalization involved in the rift between pale-
ontology and genetics was that evolution is often, perhaps usually, sus-
tained and directional. This, too, has been considered inconsistent
with de Vriesian or Mendelian mutation, which seems to be essentially
random and to provide no mechanism for prolonged, gradual change in
a single direction. Some paleontologists considered the phenomenon
consistent with Darwinism ("orthoselection") and some did not. On
the whole, it seems to have weighed against the complete acceptance of
Darwinism, by paleontologists. It is not inconsistent with neo-La.-
marckism. Indeed, PlateT defined orthogenesis as caused by the direct
influence of the environment.
Paleontologists were and a.re also very insistent that progressive
adaptation is typical of evolution without necessarily being universal.
Adaptive radiation is one of many paleontological generalizations bear-
ina: on this point. Adaptation is one of the leading features of Dar-
52 TRANSACTIONS
winian theory and their observations on this point were instrumental in

the fact that so many paleontologists W(,Tt' Darwinists even in the period
when Darwinism's demise had bl'en widely announced. Until recently,
most geneticists were anti-Darwinian on this point, and this was an-
other reason why paleontologists and geneticists could find no common
ground. Like directional evolution, adaptation is consistent with La-
marckism, but, for other reasons, neo-Lamarckism was being abandoned
even by paleontologists. Most of them recognized that the geneticists
had disproved the inheritance of modifications, even though they could
not see that the geneticists had any suitable substitute to offer.
Paleontologists who wished to push their theoretical enquiries be-
yond the important but relatively superficial level of descriptive gen-
eralization were thus in a serious dilemma. None of the three current
mechanistic schools, those typified by the names of Lamarck, Darwin,
and de Vries, seemed fully adequate to interpret paleontological obser-
vations, and the paleontologists themselves failed to find a satisfying
alternative. It was in this situation that some paleontologists began
to support a non-mechanistic, that is, in a broad sense, a vitalistic ex-
planation. The outstanding example is Osborn's theory of evolution
characterized by the (supposed) phenomenon that he called successive-
ly definite variation, rectigradation, and aristogenesis. It was almost
inevitable that such an escape from the dilemma would be sought by a
deeply philosophical paleontologist of his period.
Osborn's theory was not adopted in its entirety or in his terms by
any other student. This was, in part, due to the fact that most pale-
ontologists were not sufficiently interested or instructed in biological
theory to be aware of the reality and intensity of the dilemma and, in
part, it was due to the obscurity and the personal terminology of Os-
born's expositions of his views. Nevertheless, his espousal of a form of
vitalism (which he did not call by that name) was more important and
had more influence than has been generally recognized. Belief in some
sort of non-mechanistic factor in evolution, often expressed only vague-
ly or by implication, became rather widespread among the more
thoughtful paleontologists and is by no means negligible at the present
time. Yet to most of us, paleontologists, geneticists, and systematists
alike, no such theory is acceptable, any more than Bergson's elan vitaZ
was acceptable as science, and for the same reasons.
The failure of the geneticists to provide explanations really applic-
able to some of the paleontological data and the failure of the pale-
ontologists to find for themselves a really satisfactory way out of their
dilemma led to mistrust and even to open antagonism, as between Os-
born and Morgan, in one period of theIr work. The genetioists tended
to consider that paleontology was incapable of rising above pure de-
scription and they did not even take the trouble to study descriptive
paleontology for its bearing on genetics. It was easier to conclude that
it had no such bearing. The paleontologists were, as a rule, quite will-
mg to accept this stultifying conclusion, which also spared them the
trouble of learning genetics. Many of them felt that genetics was a
milk-bottle science, with little or no bearing on evolution in the large,
and if this attitude now seems ridiculously provincial to us, it must be
admitted that the geneticists did nothing to change it until quite re-
cently.
The position of the systematists was, if anything, still less happy.
It was their predecessors who discovered evolution. Darwin's demon-
stration of the reality of evolution and his particular theory as to how
evolution occurs had been based almost entirely on work in fields now
included in systematics. The workers of the subsequent three decades
who so actively discussed the subject and who seemed for a time about
to carry the field for Darwinism were also systematists, for the most
part. But it was also the systematists who led the first scientific at-
tacks on Darwinism and who accelerated its decline by helping to re-
veal its real and great defects. As an example, Robson's work comes
immediately to mind. The period of the rise of genetics and decline of
Darwinism was also one of decline for systematics The science became
unpopular and the systematists were even despised by many genetit'ists
and other experimental biologists.
Involved in a dilemma. even more pressing than that of the paleon-
tologists, many of the surviving systematists simply ignored the new
developments and carried on as if they were still in the 19th century,
contributing thereby to the scorn heaped on their subject by more pro-
gressive students. Others, in the manner of Lotey and Clark, tried to
synthesize genetics with their data but produced only abortive, radically
incomplete, or otherwise unsatisfactory solutions. Some, and they are
the ones who now seem to have been justified, continued to support
modified Darwinism, while broadening and modernizing their methods
tlond lines of study in an attempt to find solutions to the difficulties that
54 'l'RANSACTIONS
had arisen. Many of them came to agree with Kellogg ("Darwinism

Today," 1907)8 that selection must work, even though it was not ap-
parent how it docs so.
SYNTHESIS
The history of evolutionary theory, as followed in outline up to
this point, is one of disillusion and growing confusion. When a sci-
ence is advancing along sound lines, it is to be expected that its various
avenues of enquiry will tend to converge as regards the more funda-
mental problems, however diverse may be opinions regarding details.
Students of different aspects of evolution in the latter part of the 19th
and first quarter of the 20th centuries seemed, on the contrary, to be
diverging more and more, perhaps irreconcilably. So extreme and in-
creasing was the conflict, that it was questionable whether all the work
done after 1859 had really resulted in any real progress as regards the
basic factors of evolution. There is some justification for Shull's sug-
gestion ("Evolution," 1936)9 that evolutionary theory would now be on
a sounder basis if all speCUlation concerning it had been banned after
publication of "The Origin of Species," until the 1920's or '30's.
Yet, in retrospect, it does not really appear that Shull is right on
this point or that the efforts made between 1859 and 1920 were wasted.
The great accumulation of concrete data has permanent validity and is
indispensable. The intelligent gathering of those data required some
theoretical aim, even when the data eventually proved that the theories
were wrong. The Baconian system of first ga.thering all possible facts
and then proceeding to inductive theorizing has long sin('c been found
sterile and is not, in truth, part of thc scientific method as it actually
works. Nor is it true that all the theories advanced during this period
have had to be abll.ndoned, or are likely to be.
It now appears that most of the students of evolution, in its various
different aspects, were really converging toward the same fundamental
conclusions, but that they were unaware of this because of the barriers
between their different avenues of approach. Or, to change the figure
of speech, it is as if each student had found a piece of a jigsa.w picture,
along with a piece or two that was not part of the same picture, and
that each was so convinced that he had the essential pieces that they
never got together and pooled their pieces to see what the whole picture
was really like, to learn what pieces did not fit in, and to determine
what pieces were still missing and must be the objects of further search.
Even in the '20's, a pattern and a consensus were beginning to
emerge from the welter of facts and theories that had so long been piling
up. One symptom was the swing of the geneticists toward Darwinism,
as soon as the fundamentals of individual inheritance were fairly well
in hand and the geneticists began to think in terms of gene systems,
and, especially, of popUlations rather than of single genes and isolated
lines. For instance, Morgan, dean of geneticists, was an outspoken
apponent of Darwinism earlier in his career, but had become definitely
neo-Darwinian by 1925 (when he published "Evolution and Genet-
ics") .10 It was not long before geneticists had taken over the defense
of Darwinism from the systematists and were assisting in the synthesis
of genetics and systematics. A feature of this movement is the mathe-
matical treatment of popUlation genetics, by Fisher,ll Haldane,12
Wright,18 and others. Their work has reinstated natural selection as
an effective evolutionary agency. It has finally solved the major prob-
lem of how the adaptive results observed by the systematists and pale-
ontologists could be achieved with the hereditary materials and mecha-
nisms observed by the geneticists. An overwhelming mass ()f genetical
data has been marshalled and interpreted in neo-Darwinian terms by
Dobzhansky in his great work "Genetics and the Origin of Species"
(1937, 1941).u
The systematists found their field in favor again. They found,
too, that they were no longer at cross-purposes with the geneticists, but
were able to work at the same problems with the great force of the
eombined tools of these two branches of science. "The New Systemat-
ics" (1940, edited by J. S. HuxleylB) illustrated and accelerated this
hopeful trend. Mayr's "Systematics and the Origin of Species"
(1942)18 did for the systematists what Dobzhansky's book had done for
the geneticists, as the intentional similarity of title suggests. J. S.
Huxley provided a balanced treatment from both points of view in
"Evolution, the Modem Synthesis" (1942) Y This epochal book is
crowded with examples (in the Darwinian tradition) and it fully, ably,
and convincingly presents the neo-Darwinian position as newly reached
by geneticists and systematists in unison. It stands as a landmark
for a new era of evolutionary theory.
The name "neo-Darwinism" for this recent deve]opment is not 801.
together happy. It is a far cry from Darwinism to this modern theory.
56 TRANSACTIONS
As a matter of fact, it is a still farther cry from the nco-Darwinism of

the turn of the century, to what Huxley and others arc now calling neo-
Darwinism. Yet, the new nco-Darwinism-pcrhaps, should one say
neo-nco-Darwinism-has evolved from Darwin's original and complex
theory, and it is not inappropriate that it should perpetuate his name.
Besides adding a wealth of detail. the theory differs essentially
from that of Darwin in identifying the truly hereditary units, in accept-
ing the evidence that, they are particulate and not continuous, and in
recognizing that they do not directly represent or correspond with
somatic characters. Strictly Lamarckian factors are rejected. Vital-
ism in all its guises and disguises is alF;o excluded, not necessarily as be-
ing false but as being outside the field of scientific enquiry and not re..
quired to explain the facts of evolution, at least on the material level.
The Lotsian factor of bybridization and the various other factors in-
volving shuffling and segregation of genes are recognized as parts of the
evolutionary process, but not particularly the most essential parts and
not, certainly, the whole process. Pre-adaptation is accepted as a fact
and as another of the multiple factors of evolution, but, again, it is not
considered to be the leading element in evolution. Adaptation, in the
Darwinian sense, or post-adaptation, under the influence of natural
seleotion, is held to be an important and widespread phenomenon.
Another, more important difference from the original mutation theory,
either as proposed by de Vries or in the modern form supported by
Goldschmidt, is the belief that small mutations have, on the whole,
been more effective than large mutations and, especially, that groups
with essentially new genetic systems usually arise gradually under the
directive influence of selection and not all at once or at random. Selec-
tion is emphasized as an essential, but, of cours~, not as the only factor
in evolution, and it is given a truly creative role. It determines, on the
whole and with certain fairly well-defined exceptions, not only what
particular mutations will survive, but also what particular combina-
tions of genes or genetic systems and, hence, what somatic types, will
be realized.
It would not be expected and it is not the fact that all students of
this neo-Darwinian school agree in all respects, nor that all students of
evolution now adhere to this school. The degree of agreement and the
extent of the consensus are nevertheless quite remarkable. In England
and America, only one outstanding and thorough-going dissenter has 80
far raised his voice: Goldschmidt.6 It remains to be seen how rapidly
and how generally this movement will spread elsewhere. It reached
its full formulation only immediately before and during the war and the
reaction of, for instance, the French, German, and Italian students is
not yet evident. Non- and anti-Darwinian theories, in great variety,
were rather widely held among these students, but it is not unlikely
that they will find the new synthesis as useful as have so many English
and American (one may add also Russian) students.
So far, this is an impressive and apparently most satlbfactory out-
come, but, in fact, the synthesis as presented up to this point is not
really satisfactory. It is decidedly incomplete and it still has funda-
mental weakness, because it has not taken adequate notice of the pale-
ontological data and theories. Several of the recent neo-Darwinian
works, already refeITed to, mention paleontology in passing, but they do
not derive much from it. Sometimes, the attempt is made to explain
away inconvenient paleontological descriptive principles, and some-
times these are mentioned with an admission that they are inexplicable
by neo-Darwinism. No theory of evolution can long be satisfactory,
even to the geneticists and the systematists, unless it is explicitly shown
to be harmonious with the factual record of evolution as revealed by
paleontology. Moreover, there are very essential parts of a general
theory of evolution that cannot be based on the study of recent animals
and plants, alone.
This weakness is revealed, among other indications, by the repeti-
tion of the classic Darwinian expression, lithe origin of species," in the
titles of the books by Dobzhansky and Mayr. They are, of necessity,
dealing with the lowest taxonomic levels and with the smallest steps in
the evolutionary scale. This is indubitably an excellent point of attack,
indeed the only good point when paleontology is left out of the picture,
but it does not suffice for a thorough synthesis. There may be some
a yriqri likelihood that the factors of evolution involved in large-scale
evolution, effecting major morphological changes, and extending over
millions of years, will be the same as those involved in speciation, but
this can by no means be taken as a firm assumption. It is not even
likely that those factors will combine in the same way and produce
identical patterns or modes in the larger picture as in the smaller.
Until these points and others related to them have been restudied
with the aid of paleontology, the theory cannot be well established. It
58 TRANSACTIONS
is even possible to arbrue, as GI)lds(:hmidt has done so fluently and force-

fully, that the n(.'o-Do.rwinians are amusing themselves with mere
minor fluctuation!:! and tha.t all the evolutionary changes that have
really mattered ha.w d('pC"nd('d on totally difi'erC'nt principles.
It is not only that the theory is incomplete until it is supplemented
by the inclusion of paleontology in the synthesis, but also that it may
he quite wrong, even on its lowest levels, as long as there are apparent
inconsistencies between theory and what the fossil record suggests as
fact. Both Haldane and Huxley, two of the leading nco-Darwinians,
indicate that such inronsistcncies lllay still exist. It is thus not un-
likely that their partial synthesis will have to be not only expanded but
also altered when it becomes a complete synthesis of evolutionary
studies.
The testing of the neo-Darwinian synthesis and, at least, a first
step toward its enlargement and modification by the inclusion of pale-
ontology were two of the problems that I set for myself in "Tempo and
Mode in Evolution." My proposal for this paper to show how such a
study became necessary and what place it has in the development of
evolutionary theory has now been carried out. I do not propose to go
into any detail as to the results of that study, and those who have read
the book know what results were there reached, and also that these re-
sults are tentative and quite incomplete. It would, however, be disap-
pointing to conclude this essentially historical study without any men-
tion of the present position or t.he possible future.
It is my belief that nco-Darwinism is capable of resolving the
paleontologists' dilemma to which I have referred. With some modifi-
cation in detail, partly to be contributed by paleontology, I do not find
the nco-Darwinian theory inconsistent with any evolutionary phenome-
non as revealed in the fossil record and known to me. It is, to be sure,
a long way from mere lack of inconsistency to anything approaching an
acceptable scientific explanation. On many points, nco-Darwinism, in
its present stage, does provide such an explanation. On others, it does
not, but it seems to come as close to this goal as any alternative yet
proposed. The further development of this theory seems to me likely
to come as close as we are ever going to come to a really general ex-
planation of evolution. It is, of course, inevitable that the theory itself
will evolve and it may even change almost completely as more and
more is added to the synthesis. The essential and hopeful point is that
paleontologists, geneticists, and systematists have found a common
ground at last, that a synthesis is seen as a real possibility, and that
all three types of students, and others, are interested in this aim and
are actively working toward it together.
LITERATURE CITED
1. SimpsC'n, George Gaylord
1944. Tempo and Mode in Evolution. Columbia University Press. New York
2. Weismann, August
1892. Das Keimplasma, eine Theorie der Vererbung. Gustav Fischer. Jena.
S. De Vries, Hugo
1901. Die Mutationstheorie. Veit. Leipzig.
4. Lotsy, John P.
1916. Evolution by Means of Hybridization. Martinus Nijhoff. The Hague.
6. Olark, Austin H.
1930. The New Evolution-Zoogenesis. The William &: William Co. Balti-
more.
6. Goldschmidt, 'B.ichard
1938. Physiologioal Genetios. MoGraw-Hill Book Co. New York &: London.
1940. The Material Basis of Evolution. Yale University Press. New Haven.
'1. Pilote, Ludwig H.
1913. Selektionsprinzip und Probleme der Artbildung. 4 Aufl. Verlag von
Wilhelm Engelmann. Leipzig &: Berlin.
S. !tellOi, Vernon L.
1907. Darwinism Today. Henry Holt &: Co. New York.
9. Shull, As.ron F.
1936. Evolution. 2nd ed. MoGraw-Hill Book Co. New York.
10. Morgan, Thom,as Hunt
1925. Evolution anJ Genetics. Princeton University Press. Princeton.
11. Fisher, R. A.
1930. The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection. Clarendon Press. Oxford.
12. Ha.lda.n.e, John B. S.
1932. The Causes of Evolution. Harper &: Bros. New York &: London.
1942. New Pa.ths in Genetics. Harper &: Bros. New York &: London.
13. Wright, Sewall
1931. Evolution in Mendelian Populations. Genetics 16: 97-159.
1932. The Roles of Mutation, Inbreeding, Crossbreeding, and &lection in
Evolution. Proc. 6th Int. Cong. Genetics 1: 356-366.
1935. Evolution in Populations in Approximate Equilibrium. J. Genetics
so: 257-266.
1942. Statistioal Genetics and Evolution. Bull. Amer. Math. So. 48: 223-246.
14. Dobzhansky, Theodosius
1937. Genetics and the Origin of Species. Columbia University Press. New
York.
1941. 2nd ed. of above.
liS. Huxler. Julian S.
1940. The New Systematics. The Clarendon Press. Oxford.
60 TRANSACTIONS
lB. Mayr, Ernst.

1942. Systema.tics and the Origin of Spt't·il.'~. ('olumbia Uniwl'lIity Press.
New York.
17. SUJlel, Julian S.
1942. Evolution, tho Modern HYlltilt'Sis. (~eorw-' Allell & Unwin Ltd. London.
NOVEMBER 19, 1945
DOCTOR GoRDON W. ALLpORT and DOCTOR LEO J. POSTMAN,· Depart-

ment of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge: The Ba8ic
Psychology of Rumor. (This lecture was illustrated by lantern
slides.) .
Although the disadvantages of war far outweigh its advantages,

yet we may reckon among its meagre benefits the powerful incentives
and exceptional opportunities that war gives to scientists to advance
their knowledge in fields which normally they neglect to explore or 8l'e
wont to explore in a desultory fashion. Social psychology is one of the
sciences whose work has been greatly stimulated during the recent
conflict. Under the stress of wartime needs, it has made significant prog-
ress in several areas of investigation. Among them, we name propa.-
ganda analysis, morale studies, public opinion measurement, food hab-
its, group therapy, situational tests for selecting personnel, minority
group problems, the nature of prejudice, of re-education, and of rumor.l
It is the last area of progress that we shall here explore.
RUMORS IN WARTIME
During the year 1942, rumor became a national problem of consid-
erable urgency. Its first dangerous manifestation was felt soon after
the initial shock of Pe8l'1 Harbor. This traumatic event dislocated our
normal channels of communication by bringing into existence an un-
familiar and unwelcome, if at the same time a relatively mild censor-
ship of news, and it simultaneously dislocated the lives of millions of
citizens whose futures abruptly became hostages to fortune.
This combination of circumstances created the most fertile of all
possible soils for the propagation of rumor. We now know that rumor8
concerning II given subject-matter will circtilate within a group in pro-
• This paper was presented by Dr. Allport.
1 For a review of civilian wartime investigations in these field!!:. see G. W.
AD.port; II l!L :a. ValUon Social PSYChology and the Civilian War El[ort. J. Soc.
Psychol. (S.P.S.S.I. Bulletin). 18: 165-233. 1913; G. B. 8chmeidlel' II G. W. All-
'POI'II SociaJ Psychology and the ClvtIian War Eftort, May 1945-Mal' 1944. J. Soc.
PBYChOL (S.P.S.S.I. Bulletin) 801 145-180. 1944.
62 'l'RANSACTIONS
portion to the imp07·tance and the ambiguity of this 8ubject-matter in

the oj individtwt 1ne1nbers oj the group.
li11e8
The affair of Peal'} IInrbor was fruught with both importance and
ambiguity to nenrly every ('itizen. The affair was important because
of the pott'ntio.l do.ngel' it. rl'present('d to all of us, and be('ause its aft-
ermath of mobilization affected every life. It wns ambiguous because
no one seemed quite l'crtain of the extent of, reasons lor, or conse-
quences of the attack. Since the two conditions of rumor-importance
and ambiguity-were at a maximum, we had o.n unprecedented flood of
what became known as "Pearl Harbor rumors." It was said that our
fleet was "wiped out," that Washington didn't dare to tell the extent of
the damage, that Hawaii was in the hands of the Japanese. So wide-
spread and so demoralizing were these tales that, on February 22, 1942,
President Roosevelt broadcast a spe('ch devoted entirely to denying the
harmful rumors and to reiterating the official report on the losses.
Did the solemn assurance of the CommandElr-in-Chief restore the
confidence of the people and eliminate the tales of f>uspi('ion and fear?
It so happens that a bit of objE'etive E'vidence on this question became
available to us almost by accident. On the twenty-first of February,
the day before the President's speech, we had asked approximately
two-hundred college students whether they thought our losses at Pearl
Harbor were "greater," "much greater," or "no greater" than the official
Knox report had stated. Among these students, 68 per cent had be-
lieved the demoralizing rumors in preference to the official report, and
insisted that the losses were "greater" or "much greater" than Wash-
ington admitted. Then came the President's speech. The next day,
an equivalent group of college students werE.' n!.ked the same question.
Among those who had not h('nru or rend the spoech the proportion of
rumor-believers was still about two-thirds. But among those who were
acquainted with the President's spe('lch, the number of rumor-believers
fell by 24 per cent. It is important to note that, in spite of the- utmost
efforts of the highest authority to allay anxiety, approximately 44 per
cent of the college population studied were too profoundly affected by
the event and by the resulting rumors to accept the reaAl::!urancc.
The year 1942 was characterised by floods of similar fear-inspired
tales. Shipping losses were fantastically exaggerated. Knapp records
one instance where a collier was sunk through accident near the Cape
Cod Canal. So great was the anxiety of the New England public that
ibis incident became a fantastic tale of an American ship being tor-
pedoed with the loss of thousands of nurses who were aboard her.2
Such wild stories, as we have said, are due to the grave importance of
the subject for the average citizen and to the ambiguity to him of the
objective situation. This ambiguity may result from the failure of
communications, or from a total lack of authentic news, a condition that
often prevailed in war-torn countries or among isolated bands of troops
who had few reliable sources of news. Again, the ambiguity may be
dne to the receipt of conflicting news stories, no one more credible than
another; or it may be due (as in the case of the Pearl Harbor rumors)
to the distrust of many people in the candor of the Administration and
in the operation of wartime censorship. As the war progressed, a
higher degree of confidence in our news services was rapidly achieved,
and rumors concurrently subsided.
In addition to the fear-rumors of 1942, which persisted until the
tide of victory commenced to turn, there was a still more numerous crop
of hostility-rumors whose theme dealt always with the shortcomings,
disloyalty, or inefficiency of some special group of co-belligerents. The
Army, the Navy, the Administration, our allies, or American minority
groups were the most frequent scapegoats in these rumors. We were
told that the Army wasted whole sides of beef, that the Russians
greased their guns with lend-lease butter, that Negroes were saving ice-
picks for a revolt, and that Jews were evading the draft.
These hostility rumors were the most numerous of all. An anal-
ysis of 1000 rumors collected from all parts of the country in 1942/1 re-
vealed that they could be classified fairly readily as:
Hostility (wedge-driving) rumors = 66 per cent
Fear (bogey) rumors - 25 per cent
Wish (pipe-dream) rumors - 2 per cent
Unclassifiable rumors - 7 per cent
TOTAL 100 per cent

To be sure, the proportion of fear and wish rumors soon altered. As
victory approached, especially on the eve of VE and VJ day, the whirl-
wind of rumors was almost wholly concerned with the cessation of hos-
tilities, reflecting a goal-gradient phenomenon whereby rumor under
special conditions hastens the completion of a desired event. But,
1& . . Knapp A Psychology of Rumor. Pub. Op. Quart. 81 22-3'7. 1944•
• & . . Dapp op. CIt.: 25.
64 TRANSACTIONS
throughout the war and continuing to the present, it is probably true

that the majority of all rumors are of 0. more or less slanderous nature,
expr('ssing hostility against this group or that.
The principal reason why rumor circulates can be briefly stated.
It circulates because it 8erve8 the twin junction oj explaining and re-
lieving emotional temions felt by individuals.'
The Pearl Harbor rumors, for example, helped to explain to the
teller why he felt such distressing anxiety. Would his jitters not be
justified if it were true that our protecting fleet was "wiped out" at
Pearl Harbor? Som('thing serious must have happened to account for
his anxiety. Families deprived of sons, husbands or fathers, vaguely
cast around for someone to blame for their privation. Well, the Jews,
who were said to be evading tht' draft, were "obviously" not doing their
sharc and thus the heavy burden falling on Itl.!;ood citizens" was ex-
plained. True, this draft-evasion charge did not last very long, owing,
no doubt, to the inescapable evidence of heavy enlistments among Jews
and of their heroic conduct in the war. But when shortages were felt,
the traditional Jewish scap<'goat was again trottE>d out as a convenient
explanation of the privations suffered. Their operation of the black
market "explained" our annoying experiences in the futile pursuit of an
evening lamb-chop.
To blame others verbally is not only a mode of explanation for
one's emotional distress, but is at the same time a mode of re~f.
EVE'ryone knows the reduction of tension that comes aftE'r administering
a tongue-lashing. It matters little whether the victim of the tongue-
lashing is guilty or not. Drt'.ssing down anyone to his face or behind
his back has the strange property of temporarily reducing hatred felt
a(!;ainst this person or, what is more remarkl~ble, of reducing hatred.
felt against any person or thing. If you wish to deflate a taut inner-
tube you can unscrew the valve or you can make a puncture. Un-
screwing the valve corresponds to directing our hostility toward the
Nazis or Japanese, who were the cause of our suffering. Making a
puncture corresponds to displacing the hOfltility upon innocent victims
'This brief formula loavet. out of account only the relatively t~w rumors
which seem to berve the purpose of "pha.tic commUnlcatlon,"--a. form of Idle
conversation to facilitate Rocial Intercourse. When a lull occurs in a. conversa-
tion, an Individual may "fill in" with the latest bit of gO'lslp that comes to mlnd~
without being motivated by the deeper tensions that underlie the great bulk Ot
rumor-mongering.
In this paper we cannot enter Into a fuller discussion of the reasons wby
peonle believe some rumors and not others. This question is carefully studied
bv 1'. Eo AUpo1't as JIE. l'aep:t1n Wartime Rumors of Wo.i'lte and SpeCIal Privilege:
Why Some People Believe Them, J. Abnorm. &: Soc. Psychol. 0101 8-36. 1945.
THE Nl!lW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 65
or scapegoats. In either case, the air will escape and relaxation follow.
To blame Jews, Negroes, the Administration, brass hats, the OPA, or
the politicians, is to bring a certain relief from accumulated feelings
of hostility whatever their true cause. Relief, odd as it may seem,
comes also from "bogey" rumors. To tell my neighbor that the Cape
Cod Canal is choked with corpses is an easy manner of projecting into
the outer world my own choking anxieties concerning my son or my
friends in combat service. Ha,ing shared my anxiety with my friend
by telling him exaggerated tales of losses or of atrocities, I no longer
feel so much alone and helpless. Through my rumor-spreading, others,
too, are put "on the alert." I therefore feefreassured.
That rumors were harmful to national morale was quickly recog-
nized both by federal authorities and by civilian leaders of opinion.
The efforts of the FBI to trace subversive rumors constitute a story yet
to be told; the preventive campaign conducted by OWl and other fed-
eral agencies marks another chapter in the story; the establishment of
"Rumor Clinics" in at least 40 newspapers in the United States and
Canada is yet another .. Lectures, pamphlets, movies, posters, and
"rumor-wardens" all formed part of the campaign. This activity was
at its peak during 1942-43. As victory became assured, the emotional
insistency of anxiety and hate subl:!ided, news services became more
widely believed, rumor lessened, and the immediate crisis passed.
Though it was the darker days of the war that focused our atten-
tion upon rumor as a grave social problem, still the mischief of rumor
and gossip is something we always have with us. At the present time,
there is reason to suppose that we may be headed for another critical
period of rumor-mongering, since we anticipate sharp clashes between
minority groups of Americans and majority groups during the coming
years of social readjustment. Records of the bitter race conflicts in
Los Angeles, Beaumont, Harlem, Philadelphia, and Detroit have taught
us what a close association exists between rumors and riot. The tie
is so intimate that one of the best barometers we have of social strain
lit's in the analysis of rumors circulating in a tense community.s
EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH
Leaving now the broader social setting of the problem, we ask
• For an account of the relation of rumors to riots see A. :aroo. :r.ea II N. D.
l!E'D.mphrQ' Race Riot. Dryden Press. New York. 1943; and :t. :II. Wecll:ler II
'!l". B. Ran The Police- and Minority Groups. Internat. City Manage-rs .Association.
Chicago. 1944.
66 TRANSACTIONS
ourselves what proccsses in the human mind account for the spectacular
distortions and exaggerati()ns that enter into the rumor-process, and
lead to so much damage to the public intelligence and public conscience.
Since it is very difficult to trace in detail the course of a rumor in
everyday life, we have <,ndeavored by an ('xperimental technique to
study as many of the basic phenomena IlS possible under relatively well
controlled laboratory conditions.
Our method is simple. A Ellide is thrown upon a screen. Ordi-
narily, a semi-dramatic picture is used containing a large number of
related details. Six or scven subjects, who have not seen the picture,
wait in an adjacent room.' One of them enters and takes a position
wh<."re he cannot sec the screen. Someone in the audience (or the ex-
perimenter) describes the picture, giving about twenty details in the
account. A second subject enters the room and stands beside the first
FlaUM 1. A sample of pictorial material employed in the experiments.-When

the experu:nent WIlS conducted at the New York Academy of Sciences, the teiminal
(sixth) report ran as follows:
"A subwg scene on the IRT, between Van Cortlandt Park and Dyckman
Street. Four people are standing, two are seated. There is a colorC:'d
man and a white man. One of them has a razor." (In the ante-terwlnal
report, it was said that the Negro held the razor.)
subject who proceeds to tell him all he can about the picture. (All
subjects are under instruction to report as "accurately as possible what
you have heard.") The first subject then takes his seat, and a third
enters to hear the story from the second subject. Each succeeding sub-
ject hears and repeats the story in the same way. Thus, the audience
is able to watch the deterioration of the rumor by comparing the suc-
cessive versions with the stimulus-picture which remains on the screen
throughout the experiment.
This procedure has been used with over forty groups of subjects,
Including college undergraduates, Army trainees in ASTP, members of
community forums, patients in an Army hospital, members of a Teach-
ers' Round Table, and police officials in a training course. In addition
to these adult subjects, children in a private school were used, in grades
from the fOUlth through the ninth. In some experiments, Negro sub-
jects took part along with whites, a fact which, as we shall see, had
Important consequenres when the test-pictures depicted scenes with a
"racial angle."
All of these experiments took place before an audience (20-300
spectators). By using volunteer subjects, one eliminates the danger
of stage fright. There was, however, a social influence in all the audi-
ence situations. The magnitude of this influence was studied in a
control group of experiments where no one was present in the room
excepting the subject and the experimenter.
At the outset, it is necessary to admit that in five respects this
experimental situation fails to reproduce accurately the conditions of
rumor-spreading in everyday life. (1) The effect of an audience is
considerable, tending to create caution and to shorten the report
Without an audience subjects gave on the average twice as many de-
tails as with an audience. (2) The effect of the instructions is to
maximize accuracy and induce caution. In ordinary rumor-spreading,
there is no critiral experimenter on hand to see whether the tale i~
rightly repeated. (3) There is no opportunity for subjects to ask
questions of his informer. In ordinary rumor-spreading, the listener
can chat with his informer and, if he wishes, cross-examine him. (4)
The lapse of time between hearing and telling in the experimental
situation is very slight. In ordinary rumor spreading, it is much
greater. (5) Most important of all, the conditions of motivation are
quite different. In the experiment, the subject is striving for accuracy.
68 'rRANSACTrON~
His own fears, hates, wishes are not likely to be arou&ed undtlr the ex-
perimental conditions. In short, he is not the spontaneous rumor-
agent that he is in ordinary life. His stake in spreading the eJl.'peri-
mental rumor is neither personal nor deeply motivated.
It should be noted that all of these conditions, excepting the third,
may be expected to enhance the accuracy of the report in the experi-
mental situation, and to yield far less distortion and projection than
in real-life rumor-spreading.
In spite of the fact that our experiment dOtlS not completely repro-
duce the normal conditions for rumor, still we believe that all essential
changes and distortions are represented in our results. IIIndoor"
rumors may not be as lively, as emotionally-toned, or as extreme as
"outdoor" rumors, and yet the same basic phenomena are demonstrable
in both.
What happens in both real-life and laboratory rumors is a complex
course of distortion in which three inter-related tendencies are clearly
distinguishable.
LEVELING
As rumor travels, it tends to grow shorter, more concise, more easily

grasped and told. In successive versions, fewer words are used and
fewer details are mentioned.
The number of details retained declines most sharply at the begin-
ning of the series of reproductions. The number continues to decline,
more slowly, throughout the experiment. FIGURE 2 shows the percent-
age of the details initially given which are retained in each successive
reproduction.
The number of items enumerated in the description from the screen
constitutes the 100 per cent level, and all subsequent percentages are
calculated from that base. The curve, based on 11 experiments, shows
that about 70 per cent of the details are eliminated in the course of five
or six mouth-to-mouth transmissions, even when virtually no time lapse
intervenes.
The curve is like the famous Ebbinghaus curve for dechne in in-
dividual retention, though in his experiments the interval between
initial learning and successive reproductions was not as short as under
the conditions of our experiment. Comparing the present curve with
Ebbinghaus's, we conclude that social memory accomplishes Q.8 much
THE NEW YORK ACAD.I!.M.Y OF scmNCES 69
INDEX OF LEVELING
.70
.65
.60
.55
0
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.50
z
~ A5
w
£t:
40
~
~
IJJ
.35
0 .30
lL.
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.25
z
LaJ .20
0
ex
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Q. .15
.10
.05
.00
I 2 3 4 5
REPRODUCTION NUMBER
FIaURE 2. Percen.tage of details originally given. which are retained in each
successive reproduction.
70 TRANSACTIONS
leveling within a few minutes as individual memory accomplishe8 in

weeks of time.
Leveling (in our experiments) never proceeds to the point of total
obliteration. The stabilization of the last part of the curve is a find-
ing of some consequence. It indicates (1) that a short concise state-
ment is likely to be faithfully reproduced; (2) that when the report
has become short and concise, the subject has very little detail to select
from and the possibilities of further distortion grow fewer; (3) that
the assignment becomes so easy that a virtually rote memory serves to
hold the material in mind. In all cases, the terminal and the ante-
terminal reports are more similar than any two preceding reports.
The reliance on rote is probably more conspicuous in our experi-
ments than in ordinary rumor-spreading, where accuracy is not the
aim, where time interval interfere!:! with rote retention, and where
strong interests prevent literal memory. There are, however, condi-
tions where rote memory plays a part in ordinary rumor-spreading.
If the individual is motivated by no stronger desire than to make con-
versation, he may find himself idly repeating what he has recently
heard in the form in which he heard it. If a rumor has become so crisp
and brief, so sloganized, that it requires no effort to retain it in the
literal form in which it was heard, rote memory seems to be involved.
For example:
The Jews are evading the draft

The CIO is communist controlled
Wallace believes in a pint of milk for every Hottentot
The importance of rote has been recognized by the writers of advertise-
ments. They endeavor to make their slogans brief, concise, rhythmir
and easy to remember:
Lucky Strikes mean finer tobacco

Smoke Chesterfields-they satisfy
Duz does everything
Similarly, many legends and superstitions have been abbreviated
to such an aphoristic point that it is almost impossible to forget them:
Stuff a cold and starve a fever
An apple a. day keeps the doctor away
A red sky at night, the sailor's delight
Spare the rod and spoil the child
Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy and wealthy anI! wiFe
We conclude that whenever verbal material is transmitted among
a group of people whether as rumor, legend, or history, change will be
in the direction of greater brevity and conciseness. Leveling is not
a random phenomenon-we note in the following protocol how a group
of soldier subjects tends to retain a military orientation throughout their
series of reports.
Protocol A
D63CTiption /ro'm the screen: The scene is laid in France during wartime. Several
men in uniform are obvious. Two of them are firing, one is on hiS back wounded
Wlth a bandage around his knee. There is a Negro soldier standing, ready t~
throw a hand-grenade. Behind them there is a destroyed building wlth one door-
way. There is a sign at the crossroads, reading "Cherhourg 21¥.l km., Paris EO
km." There is also a sign reading "Pain et Vin." There are shells at the Sldes
of the wrecked building. Behind the building there is a church with a big roof
hole. The church has a steeple, With the clock showing ten minutes to two,
There are two aeroplanes behind the church, as there are explosions to be seen.
There is an ambulance at the extreme right, with men commg out with shells.
Sign, "Bread and Wine."
First Reproduction: The scene is laid in France. Tht:'re are two soldiers in &
trench, close behind them, is another, wounded. Nearby there is a wrecked
house. A Negro soldier is throwing a grenade. There are signs reading "liO miles
to Cherbourg and 21 miles to Paris." There is a church with a steeple, showing
ten minutes to two. The designation of shells burstin~ indicates that there is &
battle going on. There is an ambulance somewhere in the picture. There is a
sign "Bread and Wine."
Second Reproduction: The scene is in France. There is a trench with two men,
one firing. A soldier is on his back, wounded. There is a signpost-"Paris 50 miles
and Cherbourg 21 miles." There is an ambulance in the picture. There is a.
house or a barn behind a Negro soldier throwing a grenade. Behind the house is
a. church. On the steeple the time reads ten minutes to two. Behind the church
there are some aeroplanes.
Third Reproduction: The scene is in France. There are two soldiers in a trench
and a wounded soldier. There is an ambulance in the picture, and a house in
the background, also a church with a steeplej the time is .•. I don't remember.
There is a signpost "Cherbourg 21 miles, Paris 50 miles." There is a Negro soldier
in the picture.
Fourth Reproduction: The scene takes place in France, 21 miles from Cherbourg,
50 miles from Paris. This information is given by a signpost. There are two
soldiers in the picture and also a Negro soldier. In the distance there is a church,
and also a house. There is an ambulance nearby.
Fifth Reproduction: The scene IS in France, 21 miles from Cherbourg, 50 miles
from Paris, as we can read on a signpost. There is a Negro soldier in the picture.
There is a church nearby and also an ambulance.
Sixth Reproduction: The scene is in France, 21 miles from Cherbourg, and fO
miles from Paris, as a signpost indicates. There is a Negro soldier in the scene.
An ambulance and a church are nearbr·
Seventh Rep1'oduction: The scene is m France, 21 miles from Cherbourg,liO miles
from Paris. There is a Negro soldier in the scene, and also an ambulance.
Eiuhth RppToduction: The 8('ene is in France. 50 miles from Cherbourg and at a
distance from Paris, and in this scene is an ambulance and also a NelO'o soldier.
This protocol shows the continual shortening of the rumor, but,
72 'l'RANSACTIONS
at the same time, the tendency of military subjects to preserve their

orientation in space. The scene is always correctly laid in France,
somewhere between Cherbourg and Paris. To be sure, kilometers are
transposed into the more familiar measure of "miles," and the figure
"50" gets attached to Cherbourg rather than Paris. Like every other
rumor the report as received from hearsay is worthless, yet there is a
selective type of retention that follows the occupational interest of the
subject. Non-military subjects are much less likely to retain measures
of distance or of time.
SHARPENING
We may define sharpening as the selective perception, retention,

and reporting of a limited number of details from a larger context. In
the military protocol just cited) geographical features are sharpened.
Sharpening is inevitably the reciprocal of leveling. The one cannot
exist without the other, for what little remains to a rumor after level-
ing has taken place is by contrast unavoidably featured.
Although sharpening occurs in every protocol, the same items are
not always emphasized. Sometimes, a trifling detail such as subway
advertising card becomes the focus of attention and report. Around
it the whole rumor becomes structured. But, in most experiments, this
same detail drops out promptly, and is never heard of after the :first
reproduction.
One way in which sharpening seems to be determined is through
the retention of odd, or attention-getting words which, having appeared
early in the series, catch the attention of each succel:isive listener and
are often passed on in preference to other details intrinsicflolly more im-
portant to the story. An instance of this effect is seen in a series of
protocols where the statement, "there is a boy stealing and a man
remon'3trating with him" is transmitted throughout the entire series.
The unusual word "remonstrate" somehow caught the attention of
each successive listener and was passed on without change.
Sharpening may also take a numerical turn, as in the experiments
where emphasized items become reduplicated in the telling. For exam-
ple, in reports of a picture containing the figure of a Negro, whose size
and unusual appearance invite emphasis, we find that the number of
Negroes reported in the picture jumps from one to "four" or "several"
There is also temporal sharpening manifested in the tendency to
describe events as occurring in the immediate present. What happens

here and now is of greatest interest and importance to the perceiver.
In most instances, to be sure, the story is started in the present tense,
but even when the initial description is couched in the past tense, im-
mediate reversal occurs and the scene is contemporized by the listener.
Obviously, this effect cannot occur in rumors which deal specifically
with some alleged past (or future) event. One cannot contemporize the
rumor that "the Queen Mary sailed this morning (or will sail to-
morrow) with 10,000 troops aboard." Yet it not. infrequently happens
that stories gain in sharpening by tying them to present conditions.
For example, a statement that Mr. X bought a chicken in the black
market last week and paid $1.50 a pound for it may be (and usually is)
rendered, "I hear they are charging $1.50 a pound on the black market
for chicken." People arE." morE." interested in today than in last week,
and the temptation, therefore, is to adapt (assimilate) the time of oc-
currence, when possible, to this interest.
Sharpening often takes place when there is a clear implication of
movement. The flying of airplanes and the bursting of bombs are fre-
quently stressed in the telling. Similarly, the falling flower pot in one
picture is often retained and accented. Indeed, the "falling motif"
may be extended to other objects such as the cigar which a man in the
picture is smoking. In one rumor, it is said to be falling (like the
flower pot), though in reality it is quite securely held between his teeth
Sometimes sharpening is achieved by ascribing movement to ob-
jects which are really stationary. Thus, a subway train, clearly at a
standstill at a subway station, is frequently described as moving.
Relative size is also a primary determinant of attention. Objects
that are prominent because of their size tend to be retained and sharp-
ened. The first reporter calls attention to their prominence and each
successive listener receives an impression of their largeness. He then
proceeds to sharpen this impression in his memory. The large Negro
may, in the telling, become "four Negroes," or may becomE.> "a gigantic
statue of a Negro."
Tht're arc verbal as well as physical determinants of attention.
Thus, there is a pronounced tendency for labels to persist, especially
if they serve to set the stage for the story. One picture is usually intro-
duced by some version of the statement, "This is a battle scene," and
this label persists throughout the series of reproductions. Another
74 TRANSACTIONS
story usually opens with the statement, "This is a picture of a race

riot."
To explain this type of sharpening, we may invoke the desire of
the subject to achieve some spatial and temporal schema for the story
to come. Such orientation is essential in ordinary life and appears
to constitute a strong need even when imaginal material is dealt with.
An additional factor making for preferential retention of spatial
and temporal labels is the primacy effect. An item that comes first in
a series is likely to be better remembered than subsequent items.
Usually, the "label" indicating place and time comes at the beginning
of a report and thus benefits by the primacy effect.
Sharpening also occurs in relation to familiar symbols. In one
series of reports, a church and a cross are among the most frequently
reported items, although they are relatively minor details in the original
picture. These well known symbols "pack" meaning and are familiar
to all. The subject feels secure in reporting them because they have
an accustomed concreteness that the other details in the picture lack.
Retention of familiar symbols advances the process of conventionaliza-
tion that is so prominent an aspect of rumor-embedding. In two of
our pictures are a night stick, symbol of police authority, and a razor,
stereotyped symbol of Negro violence. These symbols are always re-
tained and sharpened.
Explanations added by the reporter to the description transmitted
to him comprise a final form of sharpening. They represent a tendency
to put "closure" upon a story which is felt to be otherwise incomplete.
They illustrate the t'effort after meaning" which customarily haunts the
subject who finds himself in an unstructured situation. Such need for
sharpening by explanation becomes especially strong when the story
has been badly distorted and the report contains implausible and in-
compatible items. As an example, one subjert who received a badly
confused description of the subway scene FIGURE 1 inferred that there
must have been "an accident." This e>""Planation seemed plausible
enough to successive listeners and so was not only accepted by them
but sharpened in the telling.
In everyday rumors, sharpening through the introduction of
specious explanations, is very apparent. Indeed, as we have said, one
of the principal functions of a rumor is to explain personal tensions.
To accept tales of army waste or special privilege among OPA o:ffieials
eould "explain" food shortages and discomfort. Such stories, therefore,
find wide credence.
Here, perhaps, is the place to take issue with the popular notion
that rumors tend to expand like snowballs, become over-elaborate, and
verbose. Actually, the course of rumor is toward brevity, whether
in the laboratory or in everyday life. Such exaggeration as exists is
nearly always a sharpening of some feature resident in the original
stimulus-situation. The distortion caused by sharpening is, of course,
enormous in extent; but we do not find that we need the category of
"elaboration" to account for the changes we observe.
ASSIMILATION
It is apparent that both leveling and sharpening are selective
processes. But what is it that leads to the obliteration of some details
and the pointing-up of others j and what accounts for all transpositions,
importations, and other falsifications that mark the course of rumor?
The answer is to be found in the process of a8similation, which has to do
with the powerful attractive force exerted upon rumor by habits, inter-
ests, and sentiments existing in the listener's mind.
ASSIMILATION TO PRINCIPAL THEME. It generally happens that
items become sharpened or leveled to fit the leading motif of the story,
and they become consistent with this motif in such a way as to make
the resulting story more coherent, plausible, and well rounded. Thus,
in Protocol A, the war theme is preserved and emphasized in all reports.
In some experiments using the same picture, a chaplain is introduced,
or people (in the plural) are reported as being killed; the ambulance
becomes a Red Cross station; demolished buildings are multiplied in
the telling; the extent of devastation is exaggerated. All these reports,
false though they are, fit the principal theme-a battle incident. If
the reported details were actually present in the picture, they would
make a "better" Gestalt. Objects wholly extraneous to the theme are
never introduced-no apple pies, no ballet dancers, no baseball players.
Besides importations, we find other falsifications in the interest of
supporting the principal theme. The original picture shows that the
Red Cross truck is loaded with explosives, but it is ordinarily reported
as carrying medical supplies which is, of course, the way it "ought"
to be.
The Negro in this same picture is nearly always described as a
16 TRANSACTIONS
soldier, although his clothes might indicate that he is a civilian parti-

san. It is a "better" configuration to have a. soldier in action on the
battlefield than to have a civilian among regular soldiers.
GooD CoNTINUATION. Other falsifications result from the attempt
to complete incompleted pictures or to fill in gaps which exist in the
stimulus field. The effort is a gain to make the resulting whole co-
herent, and meaningful. Thus, the sign, "Loew's Pa ... ," over a mov-
ing picture theater is inyariably read and reproduced as "Loew's
Palace" and Gene Antry becomes Genl' Autry. "Lucky RakE's" are
reported as "Lucky Strikes."
All these, and many instances like them, are examples of what has
been called, in GestaLt terms, "closures." Falsifications of perception
and memory they are, but they occur in the interests of bringing about
So more coherent, consistent mental configuration. Every detail is
assimilated to the principal theme, and "good ('ontinuation" is sought,
in order to round out meaning where it is lacking or incomplete.
AssIMILATION BY CoNDENSATION. It sometimes seems as though
memory tries to burden itself as little as possible. For instance, instead
of remembering two items, it is more economical to fuse them into one
Instead of a series of subway cards, eaoh of which has its own identity,
reports sometimes refer only to "a billboard," or perhaps to a "lot of
advertising" (FIGURE 1). In another picture, it is more convenient to
refer to "all kinds of fruit," rather than to enumerate all the different
items on the vendor's cart. Again, the occupants of the car come to be
described by some such summary phrase as" several people sitting and
standing in the car." Their individuality is lost.
A.sSIMILATION TO EXPECTATION. Just as details are changed or
imported to bear out the simplified theme that the listener has in mind,
so too many items take a form that supports the agent's habits of
thought. Things are peroeived and remembered the way they usually
are. Thus, a drugstore in one stimulus-picture, is situated in the
middle of a block; but, in the telling, it moves up to the corner of the
two streets and becomes the familiar "corner drugstore." A Red Cross
ambulance is said to carry medical supplies rather than explosives,
because it "ought" to be carrying medical supplies. The kilometers on
the signposts are changed into miles, since Americans are accustomed
to having distances indirated in miles.
The most spectacular of all our assimilative distortions is the find-
ing that, in more than half of our experiments, a razor moves (in the
telling) from a white man's hand to a Negro's hand (FIGURE 1). This
result is a clear instance of assimilation to stereotyped expectancy.
Black men are "supposed" to carry razors, white men not.
AsSIMILATION TO LINGUISTIC HABITS. Expectancy is often merely
a matter of fitting perceived and remembered material to pre-existing
verbal cliches. An odd example is found in the case of a clock tower
on a chapel. In the telling, the chapel becomes a "chaplain" and the
clock, having no place to go, lands on a fictitious mantelpiece.
Sixth Re'/Yf'oduction: This is a picture of a battlefield. There
is a chapel with a clock which says ten minutes to two. A sign
down below gives the direction to Paris and Paris is 50 miles, and
Cherbourg 21 miles away. People are being killed on the battle-
field.
Seventh Reproduction: This is a picture of a battlefield.
There is a chaplain, and a clock on the mantelpiece says ten min-
utes to two. There is a sign, so many miles to Cherbourg.
The powerful effect that words have in arousing images in the
listener and fixing for him the categories in which he must think of the
event is, of course, a major step in the conventionalization of rumor. A
"zoot-suit sharpie" arouses a much more compelling image (capable of
assimilating all details to itself) than more objective words, such as
"a colored man with pegged trousers, wide brimmed hat, etc." (FIGURE
1) . Rumors are commonly told in terms of verbal stereotypes. Over
and over again, they include prejudicial judgment, such as "draft
dodger," "Japanese spy," "brass-hat," "dumb Swede," "long-haired
professor," and the like.
MORE HIGHLY MOTIVATED AssIMILATION
Although the conditions of our experiment do not give full play

to emotional tendencies underlying gossip, rumor, and scandal, such
tendencies are so insistent that they express themselves even under
laboratory conditions.
AsSIMILATION TO INTEl1EST. It sometimes happens that a. picture
containing women's dresses, as a tri:fl.ing detail in the original scene,
becomes, in the telling, a story exclusively about dresses. This sha.rp-
ening occurs when the rumor is told by groups of women, but never
when told by men.
78 TRANSACTIONS
A picture involving police was employed with a group of police

officers as subjects. In the resulting protocol, which follows, the entire
reproduction centers around the police officer (with whom the subjects
undoubtedly felt keen sympathy or "identification"). Furthermore,
the nightstick, a symbol of his power, is greatly sharpened and becomes
the main object of the controversy. The tale as a whole is protective
of, and partial to the policeman.
Protocol B
Description from the screen: This is an excerpt from & motion picture that ap-
peared in a nabonal magazine. The scene is DetrOlt during the colored-whlte
riot. There is a crowd around a police officel" with a riot &tick in his right hand
and & Negro sitting on the ~ound, holding to his leg. On lhe right a boy is run-
ning away. On the left, faCIng the officer is a man who looks hostile but is afraid
to go nearel" because of the riot stick. The ('rowd comprises approximately 100
people.
First Reproduction: The picture on the screen is an excprpt from a motion picturp
taken at the bme of the Detroit riot. In the picture, & police officer with a stick
in his right hand is standing over a man on the ground. On the right, is a small
boy; on the left, is a man who wants to interfere but is afraid of the policeman's
stick.
Second Reproduction: This is an excerpt from It movie taken at the time of the
Detroit riot. There is an officer with a. stick in his hand and a man on the
ground. There is a small hoy and a man who wants to interfere but is afraid.
Third, Reproduction: Picture was taken during the Detroit riot. There is a man
in the pictUre, also a police officer. The man has a stick in his hand and wants
to intenere, but does not for some reason. There is also n. child.
Fourth. Reprodu.ction: This is a. picture of the Detroit riot showing a policeman
and a. civilian. The policeman has a billy in his hand and the man wants to take
it away from him.
Fifth Reproduction: A picture of the Detroit riot. There is a police officer with
a club. Somebody wa.nts to take it away from him.
Protocols based on the same picture, taken from a group of sub-
jects who were not policemen, show how, in a different group, the focus
of interest and direction of sympathy may be quite different. Only
the police tell rumors that favor the police.
AssIMILATION TO PREJUDICE. Hard as it is in an experimental
situation to obtain distortions that arise from hatred, yet we have
in our material a. certain opportunity to trace the hostile complex of
racial attitudes.
We have spoken of the picture which contained a white man hold-
ing a razor while arguing with a Negro. In over half of the experi-
ments with this picture, the final report indicated that the Negro (in-
stead of the white man) held the razor in his hand, and several times
he was reported as "brandishing it wildly" or as "threatening" the
white man with it (FIGURE 1).
Whether this ominous distortion reflects hatred and fear of Negroes
we cannot definitely say. In some cases, these deeper emotions may
be the assimilative factor at work. And yet the distortion may occur
even in subjects who have no anti-Negro bias. It is an unthinking
cultura.l stereotype that the Negro is hot-tempered and addicted to the
use of razors as weapons. The rumor, though mischievous, may re-
flect chiefly an assimilation of the story to verbal-cliches and conven-
tional expectation. Distortion in this case may not mea.n assimilation
to hostility. Much so-called prejudice is, of course, a mere matter of
conforming to current folkways by accepting prevalent beliefs about
an out-group.
Whether or not this razor-shift re:fl.ects deep hatred and fear on
the part of white subjects, it is certain that the reports of our Negro
subjects betray a motivated type of distortion. Because it was to their
interest as members of the race to de-emphasize the racial caricature,
Negro subjects almost invariably avoided mention of color. One of
them hearing a rumor containing the phrase, "s. Negro zoot-suiter," re-
ported "There is a man wearing a zoot suit, possibly a Negro."
For one picture, a Negro reporter said that the colored man in the
center of the picture "is being maltreated." Though this interpreta-
tion may be correct, it is likewise possible that he is a rioter about to be
arrested by the police officer. White and Negro subjects are very likely
to perceive, remember, and interpret this particular situation in quite
opposite ways.
Thus, even under laboratory conditions, we find assimilation in
terms of deep-lying emotional predispositions. Our rumors, like those
of everyday life, tend to fit into, and support, the occupational interests,
class or racial memberships, or personal prejudices of the reporter.
CHILDREN
Our findings showed a striking lack of interest among children in

the racial identity of characters in the picture. A "Negro" was often
reported simply as a "man." In the case of pictures disclosing facial
identity, 85 per cent of our adult protocols mentioned this identity,
while only 43 per cent of protocols taken from children did 80.
Though we do not have extensive data from dilferent age levels, it
80 TRANSACTIONS
appears certain that the 'Younger the child, the less he is likely to re-
port ethnic character. One is reminded of the case of Tommy, aged
six, who asked his mother if he might bring his schoolmate Sam home
to lunch next day. Knowing that Tommy was in a "mixed" school,
his mother asked if Sam was a Negro. Tommy replied, "I didn't notice,
but I'll look and tell you tomorrow."
Our experiment offers an opportunity to study the growing impor-
tance of ethnic identity in word of mouth stories told by children of
successive ages.
CONCLUSION: THE EMBEDDING PROCESS
Leveling, sharpening, and assimilation, are not independent mech-

anisms. They function simultaneously, and reflect a singular sub-
jectifying process that results in the autism and falsification which are
80 characteristic of rumor. If we were to attempt to summarize what
happens in a few words we might say:
Whenever a stimuLus field is of potential importance to an individ-
ual, but at the same time unclear, or susceptible of divergent interpreta-
tions, a subjective structuring proceS8 is 8tarted. Although the proceS8
is comple:c (involving, a8 it does, leveling, sharpening, and assimiZation) ,
its e88ential nature can be characterized as an effort to reduce the
stimulus to a simple and meaningful 8tructure that has adaptive sig-
nificance for the individual in terms of his own intere8ts and experience.
The prOCe8S begins at the moment the ambiguous situation is perceived,
but the effect8 are greatest if memory intervenes. The longer the time
that elap8es after the stimulus i8 perceived the greater the threefold
change is likely to be. Also, the more people involved in a 8erial report,
the greater the change is likely to be, unf:tl the rumor has reached an
aphoristic brevity, and is repeated by rote.
Now, this three-pronged process turns out to be characteristic not
only of rumor but of the individual memory function as well. It has
been uncovered and described in the experiments on individual reten-
tion conducted by Wulf, Gibson, Allport,S and, in Bartlett's memory
experiments carried out both on individuals and on groups.?
Up to now, however, there has been no agreement on precisely the
terminology to use, nor upon the adequacy of the three func.tions we
....__• Convenlentl7 summarized In E. Zoina Principles of Gestalt Psychology.
_".-court Brace & Co. New York. 1935.
':I'.O. :autlett Remembering. Cambridge University Press. 1932.
here describe. We believe that our conceptualization of the three-fold
course of change and decay is sufficient to account, not only for our own
experimental findings and for the experiments of others in this area,
but also for the distortions that everyday rumors undergo.
For lack of a better designation, we speak of the three-fold change
as the embedding process. What seems to occur in all our experiments
and in all related studies is that each subject finds the outer stimulus-
world far too hard to grasp and retain in its objective chara.cter. For
his own personal uses, it must be recast to fit not only his span of com-
prehension and his span of retention, but, likewise, his own personal
needs a.nd interests. What was outer becomes inner; what was objec-
tive becomes subjective. In telling a rumor, the kernel of objective
information that he received has become so embedded into his own
dynamic mental life that the product is chiefly one of projection. Into
the rumor, he projects the deficiencies of his retentive processes, as well
as his own effort to engender meaning upon an ambiguous field, and
the product reveals much of his own emotional needs, including his
anxieties, hates, and wishes. When several rumor-agents he. ve been
involved in this embedding process, the net result of the serial repro-
duction reflects the lowest common denominator of cultural interest,
of memory span, and of group sentiment and prejudice.
One may ask whether a rumor must always be false. We answer
that, in virtually every case, the embedding pro('ess is so extensive that
no credibility whatever should be ascribed to the product. If a report
does turn out to be trustworthy, we usually find that secure standards
of evidence have somehow been present to which successive agents
could refer for purposes of validation. Perhaps the morning news-
paper or the radio have held the rumor under control, but when such
secure standards of verification are available, it is questionable whether
we should speak of rumor at alL
There are, of course, border-line cases where we may not be able
to say whether a given tidbit should or should not be called a ~or.
But if we define rumor (and we herewith propose that we should),
as a proposition for belief of topical reference, without secure standard8
of evidence being present-then it follows from the facts we have pre-
sented that rumor will suffer such serious distortion through the em-
bedding process, that it i8 never 'Under any circumstances a valid guide
for belief or cond'UCt.
82 TRANSACTIONS
NOVEMBER 26, 1945
DocTOR FRANCIS L. K. Hsu, Formerly Professor of Social Anthropology,

National Yunnan University, Kumning, China; Lecturer of An-
thropology, Columbia University, New York: The Problem of
Education in Contemporary China.
EDUCATION, A PROBLEM OF CULTURAL TRANSITION
In any society, the problem of education is one of transmitting a

large or small part of its culture from one generation to another. The
amount. and variety transmitted are usually regarded as necessary
for the younger generation to exist and function as fully as possible
in the society.
There are two broad classes of problems involved. Where the
society is not in a state of rapid change, the process of transmission is
made comparatively easy. In such a configuration, family, school
and the wider society more or less work together. The individual is
likely to be able to pass from one stage to another without significant
trouble; and the society is likely to be able to absorb products of the
schools.
Where the society is in a state of rapid change, the process of
transmission is much more complicated. Here, the problem involves
not only cultural transition from the older to the younger generation;
but also a change from old to new standards for all, as well as the
ability of the society to assimilate the products under new standards.
Here, the problem of education concerns not only rules of social be-
havior and methods of using tools, but also mores connected with the
use of such tools.
Education in contemporary China is a problem which belongs
to the latter category. It is a situation in which family, school and the
society fail, at least temporarily, to conform to each other's standards.
standards.
EDUCATION IN TBADmONAL CHINA
In order to understand education in contemporary China, it is

necessary to grasp its basic features in traditional China. By tradi-
tional China is meant here China before 1842, when Chinese society
was free from significant western influences and was more or less a self-
contained whole. In that China, informal education had three objects.
The first object was education for livelihood. This kind of education
was mainly divided according to sex, one of the cardinal principles of
the kinship structure. In this case, the male was taught to carry on
one type of activities and the female, a different kind. Sons followed
their fathers, while daughters took after their mothers. Sometimes,
there was overlapping. Nevertheless, the two centers of activity were
unmistakable.
The second object was education for social adequacy. This was
again based upon two main principles of paramount importance in the
kinship structure. The first principle was the supremacy of the au-
thority of the parents, especially that of the father. The second was
the suppression of the expression of sex. The latter called not only
for the suppression of the expression of sex in the narrower sense, such
as that which is related to lovemaking or se..'<1lal intercourse, but also
for the suppression of any expression of affection between man and
wife.
Under this education, the socially adequate person was he who
was exceedingly filial to his parents, who maintained harmonious re-
lations with his brothers and relatives, and who minimize, to the best
of his ability, his feelings for members of his individual family circle,
that is, his wife and unmarried children. He never tried to improve
things in any channels, except those paternally sanctioned. The
younger generation was taught after the pattern of the older.
The third object in the older education was ritual adequacy. Rit-
ual adequacy was really supplementary to social adequacy. The world
of spirits was a close copy of the world of humans. In that world,
there were at least two main groups of spirits and a vast number of
higher gods. In one group, were the dead members of the family, the
dead relatives and dead friends. In a second group were the spirits of
those who were not related friends. Spirits of family members, rela-
tives and friends were always friends toward the particular family to
which they belonged, as well as to thelr living friends and relatives.
But the spirits who did not belong to this category were of uncertain
disposition. They might be friendly if they were pleased, or they
84 TRANSACTIONS
might be harmful when they were antagonized, or they might be indif-

ferent. The individual must either please them positively, or, by re-
maining negative, at least, not offend them. The higher gods upheld
all the qualities encouraged in social adequacy and would punish sig-
nificant culprits who sinned against the same qualities.
In traditional China, formal education was a part of informal
education. By formal education, is meant institutionalized education,
such as that given in schools and universities.
In such an education, a livelihood was to be made by studying the
classics and working to pass a number of successive examinations.
Successful candidates would enjoy opportunities of becoming members
of the official hierarchy. In traditional China, there was no significant
industry other than agriculture. Officialdom, which absorbed the more
energetio elements of the society, was practically an industry under
the oiroumstances.
In relation to social adequacy, formal education merely empha-
sized the rules upheld by informal education, but it went further.
The qualities encouraged in both types of education were similar,
but a leamed person was expected to show greater adherence to classi-
cal rules in matters of filial piety, sex behavior, etc.
Theoretically, Chinese scholars were not supposed to take too
much notice of the spiritual world. Confucius was known for his
attitude of indifference toward the world of spirits. Nevertheless,
as most ritual matters were communal matters, and all scholars were
taught to be harmonious with the communities in which they lived and
participated, as members, this theoretical indifference was of no mate-
rial consequence.
In traditional China, formal education was under the close super-
vision of the family. When a person had reached the top, through
formal education, he would come back to the family, through the belief
that an individual owed all to his ancestors.
TaANSITIONAL CHINA
By transitional China, is meant China since 1842, and especially

after 1911, when she became a republic, and when all traditional in-
stitutions of education and examination were formally abolished. It
was in the latter period, that adherence to Western influences became,
no longer, a crime to be punished. As a matter of fact, Western in-
fluences had definitely become more fashionable.
Informal education remained, however, the same as before, for
the vast majority of the Chinese. As a result, formal education, as
given in schools, and informal education, as given in homes and neigh-
borhoods, were often conflicting propositions. For school education
was greatly changed in scope, method, and results. The first thing
to be mentioned was the abolition of the old iruperial examination
system. The second was the fact that the new schools taught new
subjects and were no longer under the control of the family. More
schools were established through government, missionary and commer-
cial efforts. Also, schools became more expensive. The third impor-
tant point was the fact that the literati as a group lost some of their
old prestige. Formerly, a scholar who had passed the elementary
examination was entitled to certain privileges in any community.
Now, a primary school graduate, or even a middle school graduate, not
in command of any post, does not enjoy nearly the same prestige, as
formerly, in the eyes of the illiterate public. The fourth factor is the
series of social conflicts that resulted. These conflicts are many and
varied but they may be reduced to four general categories.
One category of social conflict appears in connection with sanita-
tion and health. School children are taught not to spit on the :fioor,
to take baths regularly, to have injections when there is a cholera
epidemic, etc. When they go home, however, they find the barrier
of age-old habits, deeply entrenched in the minds of their parents and
senior relatives, practically insurmountable.
The second category of social conflict concerns sex. This conflict
expresses itself in two ways. It involves the question of sex mores.
Some traditional ideas stipulated that women were unclean, especially
those in their monthly periods or after childbirth. Other traditional
ideas prescribed that men and women should not meet freely and be-
come friends. Some missionary schools have tried their best to meet
the second of these traditional requirements by censoring letters of their
students and expelling boys and girls who were found guilty of having
communicated privately with each other. But, on the whole, the norm.
of behavior taught in the new schools departs further and further from
that which has been upheld for centuries. The second difficulty con-
cerns the choice of a life partner. There have been many tragedies in
86 TRANSACTIONS
which a man's educational level and that of his wife were vastly dif-
ferent. They were married by parental authority when they were
young. Later on, the man went to school and college while his wife
stayed behind. There are many instances in which the man, in such
a situation, worked very hard and succeeded in raising the educational
level of his ignorant wife, but there are other instances in which no
happy solution could be found.
A third category of social conflict concerns family bonds. Parental
authority is being broken more and more by a greater expression of
exclusive intimacy between man and wife. Needless to say, many
parents find this experience very bitter. Another point in this cate-
gory is that, according to the traditional code, a man who is in a posi-
tion of influence should help all his relatives by giving them jobs and
other assistance, without seriously considering their suitability for the
iobs, or the assistance which they require. Nowadays, many younger
and idealistic people have a hard time in struggling against this age-old
harness.
The fourth category of social conflict may be called unemployment
among the educated. Unemployment among the l~terati has always
been a fact in traditional China. Everybody knows about Peking and
its hundreds of thousands of scholars waiting for official posts, long
before 1842. But since the revolution of 1911, this unemployment has
changed its character considerably, in the following ways:
Formerly, the aim of any and every scholar was clear. He had to
study the classics, pass the examinations and then look for a post in
the official hierarchy. There was also a general attitude of reverence
among the public toward any and every scholar. There was no other
place for members of the literati than in the official hierarchy. Those
who were unsuccessful in attaining official posts could always have
something to fall back on at home in their own community, where they
would be supported in one way or another.
Now, the aim among the educated has become less clear. There
are, no longer, imperial examinations. There is also the general, but
vague idea. that scholars should not look toward official hierarchy as
their only salvation. There are all kinds of ideas concerning social
and economic improvement of the country as a whole. As the result of
contact with the West, a wide variety of acute needs has arisen. Some of
these have existed before but never have been so clearly felt and defined,
until now. But the new members of the literati are often not equal to
most of the tasks. Some of the difficulties involved are the following:
(1) The new techniques of social and economic improvement, which are
taught in the school, cannot be applied very eMily to a vast country
with a long and ancient tradition. Among Chinese literati, there has
never been any tradition or experience in organization for active pur-
poses. Non-official organizations, even on a vast scale, have always
existed in the country, but they were organized along established lines
for purposes of maintaining the status quo. Few of them were organ-
ized for purposes of actively promoting ends whirh were not defined by
tradition and which, in many ways, would have to contend with the
huge, opposing forces of custom and inertia. Yet, the application of
most of the newly acquired techniques in such fields as agriculture, co-
operatives, and industries requires no less than modern types of or-
ganization.
The second difficulty is the matter of class distinction. From a
vertical point of view, neither traditional China nor contemporary
China has any class structure. That is to say, an individual who is
able to rise above his station of birth by ability or other means is not
handicapped because of his lower origin. On the other hand, at any
given point of time, there was and is a clear class structure. In this,
the most fundamental division has always been between manual work-
ers, on the one hand, and literary workers, on the other. Many edu-
cated persons in the new situation are, therefore, finding themselves
unable to take advantage of some of the newer opportunities, because
they involve a certain loss of the literati status.
The third difficulty involved is the vast difference in standards of
living between the educated class, on the one hand, and the majority of
the popUlation, on the other. Before the present Sino-Japanese war,
the average salary of a university graduate, if he secured a job, would
be about eight to ten times the salary of a waiter in a restaurant or of
a shop assistant. The implication of this is perfectly clear. The vast
majority of the industrial and commercial establishments had needs
but were unable to offer rewards whieh would be equal to the standard
of living of the educated.
The fourth difficulty is closely related to the third and is, of course,
a most fundamental one. That is the lack of industrial development in
China, as a whole. We may say that China is overpopulated, or we
88 TRANSACTIONS
may say that she is suffering from under-production. These are two
ways of saying the same thing. Without fairly extensive industrial
development, it was impossible to absorb the considerable number of
men and women turned out by the new institutions of education. That
was why needs in the vast majority of the traditional workshops and
salesrooms and unemployment among the educated existed at the same
time.
Without considering these fundamental points, some enthusiastic
reformers have started the so-called college-student-go-back-to-village
movement. These people and others exhorted products of modern edu-
cation to go back to their rural districts with the intention of improv-
ing the life and conditions of millions of farmers while, at the same
time, they would have to live, more or less, under the same conditions
that they were trying to improve. This movement has two drawbacks:
The first is that, without some sort of religious or other type of fanati-
cism, it has never been possible, throughout the known years of history
of mankind, to get people, who are used to a higher level of comfort
and have been taught the necessity of such comfort, voluntarily to give
these up in favor of a life which is literally a fraction of their
customary standard. The second drawback is more fundamental.
These reformers have failed to recognize that reformation of rural con-
ditions must be sustained by improvement of urban production, for the
disastrous conditions of many Chinese villages are the result of forces
beyond the control of the local communities and their inhabitants.
PROSPECT
There is no single answer to the problem of education in contempo-

rary China. It is dependent upon a number of factors. There are two
ultimate goals. First, universal literacy, or at least, literacy for the
majority. Literacy, as such, is no guarantee for the attainment of de-
mocracy. But without a high degree of literacy, democracy on a large
scale is impossible. With a higher degree of literacy will come a higher
degree of separation of social considerations from technical matters.
The sharp distinction, in terms of prestige and salaries, between manual
and brain workers will be reduced. Technical requirements among
the educated will be diversified. Literacy, as such, would no longer be a
distinction by itself, because everybody will be literate or nearly so.
Secondly, a high degree of cooperation and coordination between
the three angles of the problem: home, school and society. A number
of writers on modern Chinese education have emphasized the necessity
of developing flo kind of education which will be in keeping with the so-
cial conditions. The complaint is against many things which have been
pointed out in the body of this paper, such as, for example, the fact that
many graduates of schools and colleges who could not find employment
or otherwise be absorbed by the society. There is nothing wrong with
such complaints. What many writers have failed to realize is the fact
that during the period of active social transformation, a good deal of
dislocation in the home, school and the wider society is natural. In
this configuration, the home usually represents the most conservative
force. The school represents the more radical force, which has as its
aim systematic introduction of new thoughts, behavior and technique
into the society. Whereas, the wider society usually presents an un-
even picture with some sections of it more conservative than others.
It is essential to realize that unless we want the entire society to go
back completely to its traditional form, we must emphasize the im-
portance of the schools as the most important agency in this social
transformation, and that it is the goal not to bend the institutionalized
education to suit the conservative and backward conditions of the so-
ciety, but to improve the latter and raise it gradually to the standard of
the former.
Therefore, it will be well for thinkers on Chinese education to re-
member that the problem of education is first and foremost bound up
with her economic developments. Industrialization, on a wide sca.le,
is a legitimate aim, as ultimately essential to the solution of the prob-
lem of education in contemporary China. Industrialization will pro-
vide the resources for universal education. It will provide the con-
tacts and opportunities among the popUlation which will foster a desire
for higher standards of living and this is an incentive to acquire more
and better education. Until the people actively wish education on
their own initiative, education on a large scale will never be realized.
On the other hand, unless, through industrialization, the economic and
other advantages are brought home to the parents and relatives, the
people are not likely to want this education on their own. In other
words, the home culture and the informal education it provides for the
individual must be sufficiently in line with the aims and methods of
90 TRANSACTIONS
the school or formal education. And the success of both are again
('108ely bound up with the wider economic development.
In this paper, I have merely analyzed and outlined some of the
complex factors involved in the problem of education in contemporary
China. The one significant factor I have not touched upon is the po-
litical framework which obviously will condition the whole configura-
tion. The end result of a political framework which is molded upon
giving the people greater freedom, equality of opportunities, and an in-
creasing share in their own government will be di3metrically opposed
to that of a political framework which is determined to deprive the
people of their freedom and equality of opportunities and any share in
their own government.
NEW MEMBERS
ELECTED NOVEMBER 29, 1945
SUSTAINING MEMBERSHIP
Atkin, Lawrence, Ph.D., Biochemistry, Nutrition. Head Nutntioll Research,
Fleischmann Laboratory, New York, N. Y. .
ACTIVE MEMBERSHIP
Abt, Lawrence Edwin, Ph.D., Psychology and Anthropology. Senior Psychologlst
U. S. Naval Hospital, St. Albans, N. Y. '
Bernstein, Seymour, Ph.D.!,... .Organic Chemistry. Research Chemist, Lederle
LaboratOrIes, Inc., Pearl.ttiver, N. Y.
Bevelander, Gerrit, PhD., Biology. Associate Professor of Anatomy, New York
University, New York, N. Y.
Boccalatte, Beatrice, Bacteriologist and Student, College of New Rochelle, New
Rochelle, N. Y.
Brodie, Bernard B., Ph.D., Biochemistry, Pharmacology. ASSIstant Professor of
Pharmacology, New York University Medical College, New York, N. Y.
Connor, Thomas W., B.s., Biology and Public Hea.lth. Technical Writer and
Editor, New York, N. Y.
Ferry, Clayton W., Ph.D., Organic Chemistry. Chi':!f, Chemical Development
Laboratory, Burroughs-Wellcome Company, Inc., Tuckahoe, N. Y.
Friedman, Harris Leonard, Ph.D., Organic Chemistry. Director, Division of Pure
Research, Pyridium Corporation, Yonkers, N. Y.
Gilder, Helena, MD., Biochemistry. Visiting Investigator, Rockefeller Institut~
for Medica.l Research, New York, N. Y.
Hough, Jack L., PhD., Research Geologist, Standard Oil Development Company,
New York, N. Y.
Kapit, Milton E., Ph.D., Psychologist (Priva.te Practice), Associated with Chil-
dren's Aid Society, New York, N. Y.
King, Charles Glen, Ph.D., Chemistry, Nutrition. Scientific Director, Nutrition
Foundation, Inc., New York, N. Y.
Kopac, M. J., Ph.D., Chemotherapy and Cellular Mechanisms. Assistant Pr0-
fessor of Biology, New York University, New York, N. Y.
Lampen, J. Oliver, PhD., Bacterial Metabolism and Chemotherapy. Biochemist,
Chemotherapy Division, American Cyanamid Company, Stamford, Conn.
Maravento, LoUis W., M.D., Experimental Medicine and Surgery. Attending
Surgeon, St. Joseph's Hospital, Yonkers, N. Y.; Pathologist, City of Yonkers.
Millman. Nathan, M.8c., Biochemistry. Division of Biochemistry, Ortho Re-
search Foundation, Linden, N. J.
Miner, Robert Bodley, B.A., Cellulose Fibers, Paper Manufacture. Vice-Presi-
dent, Canfield PapE'r Company, New York, N. Y.
Muntwyler, Edward, Ph.D., Electrolyte and Wa.ter Equilibria, Protein Metab-
olism. Professor of Biochemistry, Long Island College of Medicine, Brook-
lyn,N. Y.
Nichols, Marie Ange, Ed.D., PsYchologist. Vocational and Placement Bureau,
Salvation Army, New York, N. Y.
Rampel, Guy, Chemist and Student, New York University, New York, N. Y.
Rinaldi, Laura T., Biological SciencE'. Student, College of New Rochelle, New
Rochelle, N. Y.
Sahyun, Melville, Ph.D:.t Biochemical Research. Vice-President, Director of
Research, Frederick l:lteams and Company, Division of Sterling Drug, Inc..
Detroit, Michigan.
92 TRANSACTIONS
Seifter, Sam, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Biochemistry, Long Island College

of MedIclD.e, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Sjolander, Newell 0., Ph.D., Research MicrobIologist, Heyden Chemica.l Cor.
poration, Princeton, N. J.
Stobbe, Helen, M.A., Student, Department of Geology, Columbia University,
New York, N. Y.
Twomey, Mary-Emeline F., BIology. Student, College of New RochE'lle, New
Rochelle. N. Y.
ASSOCIATE MEMBERSHIP
Bosshardt, David Kim, Ph D., Biochemistry and Nutrition. Research Biochemist.
Merucal Research DIVI810n, Sharp and Dohme, bu., Glenolden, Pa.
TRANSACTIONS
of
SElt. II, VOL. 8 JANUABY, 1946* No.3

DECEMBER 3, 1945
DOCTOR RALPH W. IMLAY, United States Geological Survey, Washing-
ton, D. C.: Jurassic and Lower Cretaceoua History of the Gulf
Region. (This lecture was illustrated by lantern slides.)
Lower and Middle Jurassic rocks in the Gulf region are known
only in southern Mexico and northern Central America. If present in
the southern United States, they have not yet been penetrated by drill-
ing. If present in the Antilles, they must be included in the metamor-
phosed beds forming the basement rocks and have not been identified by
fossils. Orogenic movements, near the end of the Triassic, produced
geosynclinical conditions in sout.hem Mexico and northern Central
America, north of a rising land mass occupying the site of Honduras
and southernmo~ Guatemala, Chiapas, and Oaxaca. Marine waters
entered the region of Veracruz, early in Lower Jurassic time, and
spread west and southwest as a rather narrow embayment that reached
the region of northeastern Guerrero, by late Lower Jurassic time.
Marine invasion became more widespread during the Middle Jurassic,
as the sediments of that age in Oaxaca and Guerrero change from domi-
nantly carbonaceous or coarse littoral, in their lower part, to sublit-
toral and normal marine, in their upper part. During the Lower and
Middle Jurassic, the southern part of the geosyncline received from
2,000 to 3,000 feet of continental deposits, consisting mainly of vari-
* FOB BepolC't of .Almual •••~ I11III ,J.GII 104.
TRANSACTIONS of Tht New York Aoad~ of Sci_, Seriee II, Volume 8, No.8,
.Ja~, 1948.
Tbia pubUcatioa is diain"buW to Members aDd Is published monthly from November to .TUlle,
lDclusive, at 109 West Chestnut Street, Lmeaster, PL, by The New York Academy of ~,
Seventy.ninth Street ad Central Park West, New York City.
AasistaDt Editors: Michael Demarest, Zula Melap.
Executive Secretary: Euaice Thomas MiDer.
l!lntlred as _d-eIaA matter December 2, 11138, at the post o1IIee at z--tIr. l'a., mul.
the act of Aupst H. llU.
94 TRANSACTIONS
colored shale, sandstone, conglomerate and coal. Much of the shale is

carbonaceous and contains numerous plant remains. Some marl and
limestone are interbedded with this continental facies, particularly in
its upper part. Farther north, in the Huesteca region of Vera Cruz,
eastern Hidalgo and northern Puebla, the Lower Jurassic is repre-
sented by more than 1,300 feet of dark, marine shale containing nu-
merous ammonites. Well-preserved plants, occurring at the top of
the shale and also associated with ammonites in the lower part of the
shale, furnish a correlation with the lower part of the continental
facies. The littoral and sublittoral character of most of the Lower
and Middle Jurassic sediments and the excellent preservation of some
of the plant fossils indicate that marine waters did not occupy much
area, but probably occurred as bays and lagoons. The climate must
have been hot and humid, at least seasonally, as indicated by the
richness of the flora, the presence of considerable coal, and the dark
color of much of the shale. The red, brown and yellow colors of some
of the sandstone and conglomerate do not constitute evidence of arid-
ity, as these sediments are interbedded with dark, carbonaceous and
coaly sediments.
During Upper Jurassic time, marine waters spread widely over
both southern and northern Mexico, the southem United States, and
Cuba. Thicknesses of sediments deposited are in thousands of feet,
ranging from 3,000 to 7,000 feet, in the southern United States; from
2,600 to 4,800 feet, in northern Mexico; at least 5,000 feet, in southern
Mexico, and at least 6,000 feet, in Cuba. The remarkable uniformity
in composition of the Upper Jurassic throughout most of the Gulf re-
gion is ascribed to the peneplained condition and the high aridity of
the continent, near the beginning of Upper Jurassic time.
During the Callovian stage at the beginning of the Upper Jurassic,
the marine waters, according to present knowledge, were restricted to
southern Mexico, but were much more widespread than previously in
the Jurassic. The deposits consist of shale. marl, limestone, and some
sandstone that are mainly dark-colored and bituminous and are locally
over 2,000 feet thick. These beds grade downward into the Middle
Jurassic marine and continental beds, but their relationship to the
overlying Jurassic limestone is not known. They have furnished many
ammonites, which show that both the lower and upper Callovian are
represented. Their dark color and the considerable quantity of shale
suggest that the surrounding land masses had a fairly humid climate.
K. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 95
The Divesian stage is probably represented in northern Central

America, southern Mexico and the southern United States by a salt
facies that grades shoreward into a red bed facies. A thick red bed
facies, at least partly continental in origin, was formed throughout
northern Mexico. The distribution of salt in southern Mexico is shown
mainly by salt domes and salt springs. Its distribution in the United
States is shown by bedded salt deposito around the margins of the
basins and by penetration salt domes in the centers of the basins.
According to R. H. Palmer, several domelike structures in northern
Cuba appear to be salt domes. The salt and red beds are represented
in the southern United States by the Eagle Mills formation, that ranges
in thickness from 960 to over 1,780 feet and rests unconformably on
late Paleozoic rocks. Its Divesian age is shown by gradation of the
salt facies into the overlying Smackover limestone and by the presence
of upper Argovian ammonites, only 300 feet above the salt. Correla-
tion with the salt and red beds of southern Mexico is indicated by
their similar stratigraphic position and by the considerations that both
areas of salt deposition were of immense size, were undoubtedly con-
nected with the Gulf of Mexico and were influenced by similar cli-
mates. The possibility that the salt in southern Mexico is older than
Divesian is very improbable, considering that the older Jurassic beds
are well represented by marine fauna that could not have lived in a
highly saline environment and by rich flora that, according to Wieland,
indicate a tropical climate of the Monsoon forest type. That the cli-
mate of Divesian time was particularly favorable for deposition of
rock salt is shown by the presence of salt in northern Utah and south-
eastern Idaho in the medial part of the San Rafael group, below a
marine unit of Argovian age and above a marine unit of Callovian
age. It seems improbable that the salt massee of Mexico and the
southern United States were deposited in separate relic seas, because
that would mean that there were two barriers, each about 800 miles
long, existing simultaneously and huving suitable conditions through-
out which might permit replenishment of the waters of the salt basin,
until about 1,000 feet of salt were deposited. Rather, the thickness
and extent of the salt masses of the Gulf region suggest that the entire
Gulf of Mexico was a salt depositing basin, completely enclosed, ex-
cept for a relatively narrow, shallow strait connecting with the Atlan-
tic Ocean, perhaps in the region between Hispaniola and the Bahamas.
96 TRANSACTIONS
The climate must have been extremely arid for several million years,
probably during most of the Divesian stage.
The Argovian stage is represented, in many parts of Mexico and
the southern United States, by dark-colored limestone, called the Zu-
loaga limestone in Mexico and the limestone facies of the Smackover
formation in the United States. The SmackovEr limestone differs
from the Zuloaga limestone by containing many oolites in its upper
part. Locally, the limestone is interbedded with much sandstone, con-
glomerate, and some shale which reflects local uplifts. One such area
is in southern Coahuila and eastern Durango, where the sediments are
known as La Gloria formation. Similar coarse sediments occur in
northern Louisiana and are considered a facies of the smackover for-
mation. Thicknesses of rocks of Argovian age range from a few hun-
dred to more than 2,000 feet. Sites of salt deposition during Divesian
time gradually became sites of lime deposition during Argovian time,
but elsewhere, as in northern Mexico, the Argovian sea transgressed
across red beds and older rocks. The Argovian stage in Cuba is rep-
resented, according to R. H. Palmer, by about 400 feet of shaly lime-
stone called the Jagua formation. The remarkably uniform appear-
ance of the Argovian sediments throughout most of the Mexican and
Gulf Coast geosynclines indicates a uniform, arid climate, few rivers
emptying into the sea, and few highland areas. Aridity, plus the pene-
plained condition of the interior of the:' continent, account for the scarc-
ity of rivers and for the deposition of calcareous sediments near shore.
Correlation of the Smackover form3tion with the Zuloaga limestone of
Mexico and the Jagua formation of Cuba is based on the presence of
the ammonites, Dichotomosphinctes and Discosphinctes, on the ranges
of some gastropod genera, and on the occurrence, in the overlying beds,
of lower and middle Kimmeridgian ammonites.
Early in the lower Kimmeridgian, marine waters retreated basin-
ward from 50 to 100 miles, giving rise to extensive lagoons, in which
accumulated thick ma.sses of anhydrite and red beds. These are
known as the Buckner formation, in the southern States, as the Olvido
formation, in the Sierra Madre Oriental; and are included in the basal
part of the Malone formation in western Texas. The deposits range in
thickness from 50 to 1,000 feet and are succeeded basinward by normal
marine, dark-colored sediments, which, in Louisiana, have furnished
lower Kimmeridgian ammonites of the genera Ataxioceras and Ido-
ceraa.
At the end of the deposition of the anhydrites and red beds of the
early Kimmeridgian, occurred the most intense orogeny in North AIDer·
ica since the Paleozoic. Orogeny was expressed by block faulting
(Palisade disturbance), in the Atlantic Coast region; by the Nevadian
orogeny of the Pacific Coast region; by the development of highlands,
in the areas of the Ouachita Mountains, the Central Mineral region,
the Diablo Plateau, the Coahuila Platform, the eastern margin of the
Sierra Madre Oriental and, probably, in many other places. A gentle
elevation of the interior of the continent drained the Sundance sea
from the area of the United States and caused a temporary retreat of
the Gulf waters. All available evidence indicates that the orogeny
began early in the Kimmeridgian and was complete by the upper Port·
landian. Evidence for the orogeny in the eastern United States is fur·
nished mainly by the thick mass of coarse conglomerates at the base of
the Cotton Valley formation. In southwestern Alabama, conglomer-
ates range throughout the lower 1,660 feet of the formation a.nd, ac-
cording to core and drilling records, contain some boulders more than
So foot in diameter.
Late in the lower Kimmeridgian, marine waters transgressed wide-
ly in the northern parts of the Gulf of Mexico and the Mexican sea,
but Cuba apparently remained a land area until the upper Portlandian.
The late Upper Jurassic deposits of the Gulf region range in thickness
from a few hundred to a few thousand feet. The offshore deposits
consist mainly of bituminous shale and limestone, which, in the south-
ern United States, are known as the normal marine facies of the Cot-
ton Valley group; in Mexico, as La Caja formation, and, in Cuba, as
the Quemado formation, and the Viiiales limestone. Nearshore de-
posits contain much conglomerate and sandstone, in addition to shale.
They are known, in northern Mexieo, as La Casita formation, in west-
ern Texas, as the Malone formation, and, in the southern States, are
included in the Schuler formation of the Cotton Valley group. The
northern part of the Mexican sea was bordered by lagoons, in which
some gypsiferous and coaly deposits accumulated. The late Upper
Jurassic age of the Cotton Valley formation is shown by the presence
in its lower part of many Kimmeridgian fossils including I doceraB
group of I. durangeme (Burckhardt) and Glochiceras fialar. The cli-
mate of the late Upper Jurassic was moister than during the early
Upper Jurassic, as shown by the presence of coal beds and carbonace-
98 TRANSACTIONS
ous to bituminous shales. Marine waters retreated slightly from the

northern part of the Gulf region at the end of the Jurassic, but uplift
was much less than during the early Kimmeridgian, as shown by the
thickness and extent of the gravels at the base of the Lower Cretaceous.
Erosion of the highlands, formed during the mid-Upper Jurassic orog-
eny, eventually produced the Fall zone peneplain.
The Lower Cretaceous of the Greater Antilles is little known.
Late Lower Cretaceous rocks, similar to the Glen Rose limestone of
Texas, have been found in Cuba. Some geologists consider that the
Viiiales limestone (Aptychus limestone) may be partly of early Lower
Cretaceous age, although the only ammonites that it has furnished are
of late Jurassic age. It would not be surprising to find a considerable
sequence of Lower Cretaceous rocks in Cuba or in the other large
islands of the Greater Antilles.
The Lower Cretaceous of Central America and Mexico is fairly
well known in broad outlines. During the Neocomian, the Mexican
sea was confined to the central part of the Mexican geosyncline, was
indented by peninsulas in Coahuila and Oaxaca, overlapped islands in
eastern Mexico and probably extended westward through Colima and
Jalisco and southeastward into northern Central America. Its western
margin in the area of Chihuahua, Durango and Zacatecas is still not
known. Coarse clastic sediments were formed nearshore mainly dur-
ing the Berriasian, lower Valanginian and upper Hauterivian. They
show considerable variation in character and thickness, from place to
place, probably depending on the positions of rivers or of local uplifts.
Thin-bedded lim('stone and marl are interbedded with these coarse sedi-
ments and are the characteristic offshore rocks from Berriasian to Hau-
terivian. The Barremian is represented offshore mainly by thick- to
medium-bedded limestone, but nearshore contains some intercalations
of shale and sandstone and, locally, gypsum and rock salt.
During the lower Aptian, the Mexican sea was apparently nearly
as restricted as during the Neocomian, but. during the upper Aptian and
Albian, it spread widely and possibly connected with the Pacific Ocean
in both northern and southern Mexi('o. Throughout central and north-
ern Mexico, a major change in sedimentation occurred in the lower
Cenomanian, apparently coinciding with the unconformity between the
Comanche and Gulf series in the southern United States.
The lower Aptian of the Mexican geosyncline consists mainly of
thick- to medium-bedded limestone, but nearshore contains some shaly
beds, arkosic sandstones and, locally, gypsum and salt. The upper
Aptian and basal Albian are represented widely by shale and thin-
bedded limestone, but in southeastern Puebla and in Sonora contain
much coarse material. The middle Albian and the upper part of the
lower Albian are represented by a number of facies. Thin-bedded
limestone, interbedded with black chart, was deposited throughout the
central part of the Mexican geosyncline. This facies grades margin-
ally and rather abruptly into rudistid- or Orbitolina-bearing lime-
stone which is generally much thicker and was deposited over areas
that were landmasses in Jurassic or Neocomian times. This facies, in
turn, changes abruptly into a dense, thick-bedded, nonrudistid-bearing
limestone which occurs in the Sierra Madre Oriental and the coastal
plain north of southern Tamaulipas. In western Coahuila, gypsiferous
beds were formed over the site of the Coahuila Peninsula. In east-
central Sonora, thousands of feet of limestone, shale, agglomerate and
lava were deposited. The upper Albian is represented mainly by wavy-
bedded, thin-bedded limestone and many lenses of black chert.
The Lower Cretaceous, penetrated by drilling in southern Florida,
consists of a considerable thickness of limestone and anhydrite, of
Albian age. In contrast, the lower Cretaceous in southwestern Ala-
bama consists of nearly 4,900 feet of sandstone, reddish shale and some
gravel, but contains minor amounts of pink and gray, nodular lime-
stone, toward the top. Similar sections of sandstone and red shale
have been found in southern Georgia, northern Florida and in Missis-
sippi. In the western and southern parts of Mississippi, the upper
part of the Lower Cretaceous includes some limestone and anhydrite,
resembling the Lower Cretaceous fal ther west.
In the Arkansas-Louisiana-East Texas area, the advancing sea of
early Cretaceous time encountered large amounts of gravel derived
from the Ouachita Mountain area and spread it widely in southern
Arkansas and eastern Texas. The gravel was succeeded upward by
large amounts of red to white sand and generally reddish silts and clays
which are locally over 2,000 feet thick. These sediments have been
named the Hosston formation and are considered to be mainly of
Neocomian age. They were succeE'ded transitionally and transgres-
sively, during Aptian and lower Albian times, by about 350 to 1,200
feet of normal marine sediments, comprising the subsurface Sligo for-
mation, Pine Island shale, James limestone, and Rodessa formation
100 TRANSA.CTIONS
and consisting of interlensing oolites, coquinas, marls, silt, clay and

sand. Toward the end of Rodessa time, several widespread anhydrite
layers were formed. The succeeding Ferry Lake anhydrite is unusu-
ally interesting. It ranges from 10 to 500 feet in thickness, extends
about 800 miles from western Mississippi to eastern Texas, occupies a
bed about 150 miles wide, and grades southward into normal marine
shale and limestone. It was overlain conformably by as much as 700
feet of clay, silt, lime mud and sand, called the Mooringsport forma-
tion. Then followed deposition of the Paluxy sands and variegated
clays along the northern margin of the Gulf region, from East Texas
eastward. The overlying, relatively thin Fredericksburg limestones
and shales of late middle Albian age have been identified as far east as
western Mississippi. The Washita limestone of upper Albian age has
been definitely identified only as far east as extreme southwestern Arkan-
sas, but the occurrence of Alectryonia cf. A. quadripZicata (Shumard)
in well cores from Tensas Parish, nOl-ilieastern Louisiana, suggests that
the upper Albian limestones may once have extended that far east.
Their apparent absence, east of the Mississippi River, may be due to
non-deposition, or to change of facies, or to erosion.
Lower Cretaceous sedimentation in South Texas was influenced by
the presence of the Central Mineral region which furnished much less
sand and clay to the bordering sea than did the highlands in the Ou-
achita Mountain areas. In comparison with the Arkansas-Louisiana-
East Texas area, the Hosston formation is finer and more calcareous; the
Sligo formation is thicker, more calcareous, and contains dolomite beds;
the upper Aptian beds are similar in the two areas; the thick Glen Rose
limestone lacks a persistent unit of anhydrite; the middle Albian sedi-
ments are considerably thicker, and the upper Albian sediments are in
general thinner, except in the central part of the Rio Grande embay-
ment. At the end of Comanche time, probably during the lower
Cenomanian, the Arkansas-Louisiana-East Texas area was subjected
to regional uplift, accompanied by extensive normal faulting which dis-
placed the older rocks from 400 to 1,200 feet. Subsequently, the area
underwent extensive erosion before deposition of the Gulf series. This
uplift apparently had little effect in South Texas, and its influence east
of the Mississippi River is unknown.
THE NEW YOlUt ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 101
SECTION OF BIOLOGY
DECEMBER 10, 1945
DOCTOR JAMES B. HAMILTON, Department of Anatomy, Long Island
College of Medicine, Brooklyn, New York: The Relatiomhip Be-
tween Common Baldness and Male Sex Hormones.
Common baldness (alopecia) is a sequela of sexual maturation
and is, in most instances, induced by stimulation from male hormone
substances. In keeping with this physiological relationship, the inci-
dence of the disease is much higher in males than in females, and ex-
tensive forms of the disease are restricted almost entirely to males.
Most women with pronounced forms of the disease are those with viril-
ism.
Apparently, age is a factor in the rapidity with which areas of de-
nudation extend. In eunuchs, susceptibility to such loss of hair can
increase with age, but baldness does not occur because of inadequacy of
testicular secretions. This increased susceptibility accumulates, un-
spent, like money in the bank, and later treatment of the eunuchs with
male hormones (androgens) results in a rapid loss of hair. Available
evidence does not bear crucially on the question of whether or not
there is, with increasing age, a lowering of the amount of androgenic
stimulation required to produce baldness.
The third factor known to be involved is inheritance. No amount
of androgenic stimulation produces baldness in perSOIl8 who lack an in-
herited tendency to this disease. The realization of this tendency de-
pends, however, upon androgenic stimulation, since, whatever the in-
heritance, baldness does not ensue without androgenic stimulation.
Local areas of the skin play a dominant role in the atrophic
changes that result in baldness. Application of androgens directly to
a local area results in piliary changes limited to that region. At the
present stage of our information, it must be assumed that androgens are
only one of what might be a family of agents (although they are the
usual one) which may be capable of inducing atrophic changes in spe-
cific areas. The degree of atrophy is controlled by the local areas of
skin and does not result from external changes in vascularity or com-
102 TRANSACTIONS
pression of the area by tight bands. Rather, baldness will occur even
in skin transplanted from its usual site.
Baldness is one of the so-called degenerative diseases which re-
main as extremely important medical problems and have not benefited
from the achievements of chemotherapeutic control of infectious dis-
eases. It is a condition, the progress of which can be studied. The
nature and therapeutic control of the disease can be investigated care-
fully. Findings from studies of this disease may be presumed to be
applicable to a number of the so-called degenerative diseases, like
prostatic cancer, which are also prone to occur in the male sex.
SECTIONS OF BIOLOGY AND PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY

DECEMBER 7 AND 8,1945
Conference on "Proteim and Protein Hydrolysates in Nutrition."
The Sections of Biology, and Physics and Chemistry held a Con~

ference on "'Proteins and Protein Hydrolysates in Nutrition." Doc~
tor James B. Allison, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey,
was the Conference Chairman, in charge of the meeting.
Introductory Remarks, by James B. Allison.
"Amino Acid Deficiencies in Man," L. Emmett Holt, Jr., New
York University, New York, N. Y.
lIThe Determination of the Nitrogen Balance Index in Normal
and Hypoproteinemic Dogs," James B. Allison, John A. Anderson and
Robert D. Seeley, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey.
liThe Evaluation of Protein Quality in the Normal Animal," Rich~
ard H. Barnes and David K. Bosshardt, Department of Biochemical
Research, Sharp & Dohme, Inc., Glenolden, Pennsylvania.
"Electrophoretic Studies on Plasma Protein Depletion and Re~
generation," Bacon F. Chow, Division of Protein Chemistry, The
Squibb Institute for Medical Research, New Brunswick, New Jersey.
"Blood Protein Regeneration and Interrelation," G. H. Whipple,
F. S. Robsheit~Robbins and L. L. Miller, The University of Rochester,
School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York.
"Nitrogen Metabolism in Acute and Chronic Disease," John P.
Peters, Yale University, School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut.
"Clinical Observations Following the Intravenous Injection of a
Protein Hydrolysate in Surgical Patients," Robert Elman, Washing-
ton University, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri.
"Clinical Experience with Oral Use of Protein Hydrolysates," F.
Co Tui, New York University, College of Medicine, New York, N. Y.
104 TRANSACTIONS
REPORT OF THE ANNUAL MEETING

DECEMBER 19, 1945
The 128th Annual Meeting of the Academy, for the election of
Officers, Fellows and Honorary Members, the presentation of reports
and the transaction of other business was held at the Hotel Astor on
the evening of Wednesday, December 19.
The Corresponding Secretary reported that there are now 42 Hon-
orary Members upon the rolls of the Academy. The deaths of 6 Hon-
orary Life Members were reported during the past year.
The Recording Secretary reported that, during the last year, the
Academy held 27 Regular Sectional Meetings, in addition to its An-
nual Meeting, at which 27 stated papers of high scientific caliber were
presented.
Ten informal receptions were held under the auspices of the vari-
ous Sections of the Academy.
Seven two-day conferences on special subjects of research were
held during the year. These meetings were attended by outstanding in-
vestigators in the fields represented. The titles of the conferences are
as follows: Joint ¥eetings, Section of Biology and Section of Physics
and Chemistry, "Blood Grouping," "Proteins and Protein Hydrolysates
in Nutrition"j Section of Biology, "Experimental Hypertension,"
"Lymph"; Section of Physics and Chemistry, "Surface Active Agents,"
"Amino Acid Analysis of Proteins"; Section of Psychology, "Non-Pro-
jective Personality Tests."
Three Honorary Life Members, 2 Life Members, 7 Sustaining Mem-
bers, 219 Active Members, 62 Associate Members and 14 Student
Members were added to the rolls, of which 296 are now in good stand-
ing and 11 await qualification through payment of dues. Thus, a total
of 307 new members was added during the year. Four Sustaining
Members were transferred to Life Membership, having paid dues for
twenty-five years. Twenty transfers and 7 reinstatements to member-
ship were also effected between the "arious classes of membership, with
the approval of the Council.
The Academy has lost by death 6 Honorary Life Members, 4 Life
Members, 5 Sustaining Members, 11 Active Members and 2 Associate
Members. Thirty-one resignations were accepted, 31 more were

dropped for non-payment of dues and 2 for not having qualified for
membership.
The record now stands with a net gain of 221 members. There
are at present on the rolls of the Academy 2,298 members, of whom
339 are Fellows. These include 1 Patron, 94 Life Members, 119 Sus-
taining Members, 1,353 Active Members, 651 Associate Members, 38
Student Members and 42 Honorary Life Members.
The Editor reported that, during the fiscal year of 1945, the Acad-
emy published a total of 584 pages. Of this amount, 346 pages were
published in the Annals and 238 pages in the Transactions. This was
less than the record of the previous year, due to the delays in printing
occasioned by war priorities. In addition to the Articles published
during the year, Articles 6, 7 and 8 of Volume 46, and Article 1 of
Volume 47 are in press and will be issued shortly. Volume 46, Article
9 and Volume 47, Article 2 are in the Editor's hands and are being pre-
pared for the printer.
The detailed list of the publications which have appeared this
year is as follows:
ANNALS
Volume 46, Article I, "Animal Colony Maintenance," (8 papers), by Edmond J.
Farris, F. G. Camochan, C. N. W. Cumming, Sidney Farber, Carl G. Hart-
man, Frederick B. Butt, J. K. Loosli, Clarence A. Mills, Herbert L. Ratcliffe.
Pages 1-126. Published June 15, 1945.
Volume 46, Article 2, CIA Hitherto Undemonstrated Zoogleal Form of M,Icobac-
terium twsrculom," by Eleanor Alexander-Jackson. Pa~ 127-152. Pub-
lished June 29, 1945. Awarded an A. Cressy Morrison Pnze, 1944.
Volume 46, Article 3, "The Effect of Activity on the Latent Period of Muscular
Contraction," by Alexander Sandow. Pages 153-184. Published June 30,
1945. Awarded an A. Cressy Morrison Prize, 1944.
Volume 46, Article 4, "Respiration and Germination Studies of Seeds in Moist
Storage," by Lela. V. Barton. Pages 185-208. Published August 18, 1945.
Awarded Bonorable Mention, A. Cressy Morrison Prize Competition, 1944.
Volume 46, Article 5, "The Diffusion of Electrolytes and Macromolecules in Solu-
tion" (6 papers), by L. G. Longsworth, Charles O. Beckmann, Margaret M.
Bender, Edward M. Bevila.cqua., Ellen B. Bevilacqua, Douglas M. French, A.
R. Gordon, Herbert S. Ha.rned, Lars Onsager, Jerome L. Rosenberg, and J.
W. Williams. Pages 209-346. Published November 30, 1945.
TRANSACTIONS
Series n, Volume 7, Nos. 1-8, consisting of 238 pages, was completed, printed
and distributed each month from November, 1944 to June, 1945, inclusive.
The Librarian reported that, during the year 1945, the Academy
106 TRANSACTIONS
distributed 26,893 separate publications and 3,624 complete volumes

of the various published series. as follows:
Separate Numbers-Annals, 18,548: Scientific Survey of Porto
Rico and the Virgin IsLands, 997; Transactions, Series II, 7,343;
Memoirs, 5.
Volumes-Annals of the Lyceum, 184; Special Publications, Vol-
umes I and II, 257; Transactions, Series I, 19, and Series II, 3,164.
The Library of the Academy has received, from exchange institu-
tions, 1,535 separate publications. With the cessation of hostilities
and restoration of communications, shipment of the Annals and Trans-
actions has been made to our exchange institutions, thus bringing many
of them up to date, for the first time since September, 1939.
The Treasurer reported that the Academy, while pursuing its es-
ta.blished program of progressive activity in the field of science, has
also exhibited a corresponding financial development, continuing the
progress of recent years.
During the past fiscal year, the total income received from all
sources amounted to $39,380.83. This is an increase of $12,754.30
above that of 1944.
Through the hearty cooperation of its membership, the Academy
added 307 new names and 7 reinstatements to its rolls, which repre-
sents a gain of $724.20 in our revenue from membership dues, making
a total of $9,469.50 from this source.
Receipts from sales of publications and library exchanges amounted
to $7,215.33.
The income from investments, amounting to $4,333.57, represents
a yield of 4.79 per cent, a gain of $637.44 above that of last year.
Through the generosity of Mr. William Otis Sweet, a Sustaining
Member, the sum of $2,000 has been added to his previous contribu-
tion, which established the William Otis Sweet Fund, last year. The
principal of this fund now totals $3,500.*
A grant of $1,000 has been received from the Viking Fund to aid
in defraying the cost of the paper by Doctor Earl W. Count, entitled
"Brain and Body Weight in Man," which will appear shortly in the
Annals.
Additional contributions, totaling $4,500, have been received from
• Announcement also was made at the Annual Meeting that Mr. Sweet had
contrIbuted the sum of $7.500 in addition to the above. thus bringing the total
amount of the fund to $11,000.
the University of Puerto Rico and the Department of Agriculture and
Commerce of Puerto Rico, toward the expense of publishing the Scien-
tific Survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands.
The increased income of the A('ademy, during the past year, has
written off the debit balance of $1,905.30, shown in the Treasurer's re-
port for the year ending November 30, 1944, and has produced a sur-
plus amounting to $2,084.63, as of November 30, 1945.
Through the far-seeing advice of the Finance Committee, the
capital funds of the Academy have shown a gain of $6,386.97. This
is the margin above the liability to the endowment funds of the Acad-
emy.
The book value of the Academy's investments and cash on hand,
as of November 30,1945, now amounts to $96,958.62, as shown on the
balance sheet.
The books of the Treasurer were duly checked and balanced at
the end of the fiscal year, November 30, 1945, and have been audited
by the Finance Committee, as provided by the Constitution and By-
Laws.
The property of the Academy was verified and the Treasurer's
report examined and attested by the Finance Committee, as of Decem-
ber 15, 1945.
The A. Cressy Morrison Prizes of $200 each for the two most ac-
ceptable papers in any field of natural science, within the scope of the
Academy and its Affiliated Societies, were awarded to the following
paperst entitled:
"Polyelectrons," by John Archibald Wheeler, Princeton Univer-
sity, Princeton, New Jersey.
"Limitations of Optical Image Formation," by Max J. Herzberger,
Eastman Kodak Research Laboratories, Rochester, New York.
The Committee of Judges awarded Honorable Mention to the fol-
lowing paper, because of its general excellence:
"The Golgi Apparatus," by Leonard G. Worley, Department of
Biology, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, New York.
The Prize Committee extends its congratulations to the authors of
these papers, on behalf of the Academy.
By authority of the Council of the Academy, the Committee takes
pleasure in announcing that Mr. Morrison has renewed his offer of
t Abstracts of these papers are included in this issue of the 'l'ransactions.
108 TRANSA.CTIONS
two prizes of $200 each to be competed for during the year, 1946, for
the two most acceptable papers in a field of science covered by the
Academy or an Affiliated Society. These prizes are to be awarded in
December, 1946. The terms of the competition will be published in
the next issue of the Transactions.
The Committee also announces, on behalf of Mr. Morrison, that
he has offered an Astronomical Prize of $500, in renewal of those
awarded in recent years, for the paper, adjudged by the Council
of the Academy to be the most meritorious contribution on the subject
of solar and stellar energy. In connection with this offer, the follow-
ing statement has been prepared:
Understanding of the source of solar and stellar energy begins
with Helmholtz's contraction theory (1854). As the primordial star
contracts, the kinetic energy of the mass particles closing in under the
force of gravity is transformed into heat energy. Whereas this is still
believed to be cosmologically the ihst cause of stellar radiation, it has
been realized since the end of the previous century that the process of
contraction would run to its end in a time that is short as compared to
the age of the earth; and, ever since this was realized, astronomers have
been compelled to postulate that the Helmholtz contraction must be
retarded and, for the major part of the star, probably balanced by an
internal pressure caused by energy that does not derive from kinetic
energy. The way out of this difficulty was cleared theoretically (1905)
by Einstein's law of the equivalence of mass and energy, although the
exact mechanism whereby, under stellar conditions, matter would
change into radiation, remained still a secret. The first laboratory
transmutation of nitrogen into an isotope of oxygen by Rutherford
(1917) opened the field of nuclear reactions which led to the experi-
mental results; namely, that the mass lost in a nllclear reaction and the
energy set free are in accordance with Einstein's law. By examining
all possibilities of reactions that could take place under conditions pre-
vailing in the BUn, Bethe (1913) succeeded in singling out the one
reaction that should, both as to the requirement of temperature and as
to the availability of the elements involved, take place at the proper
rate. This is the so-called carbon cycle whereby the energy liberated
is equivalent to the mass defect of the helium atom as compared to
four hydrogen atoms.
Prodigious progress has been made since the first A. Cressy Mor-
rison Prize on the above subject was offered in 1926. It is, however,
felt that the complete answer has not yet been given and many ques-
tions remain open. In the first plact', no final model for the SUD, prop-
erly satisfying the observed luminosity and hydrodynamical consid-
erations, has been published. Secondly, at best a start has been made
on the problem of the so-called "red giants," "sub dwarfs," and "white
dwarfs." Through the continued interest of Mr. Morrison and his de-
sire to stimulate further research in the subject, the above prize will be
renewed for award in 1946.
The following members were elected to Fellowship:
Reginald M. Archibald, Ph.D. Harold J. Harris, MD.
Ralph S. Banay, M.D. George Herlog, Ph.D.
John B. Bateman, Ph.D. Horace S. Isbell, PhD.
Erwin Brand, Ph.D. J. Brookes Knight, Ph.D.
Frank Brescia, PhD. Otto Loewi, M.D.
Dean Burk, Ph.D. Sandor Lorand, MD.
Wallace M. Cady, PhD. William A. Lynch, Ph.D.
Harry A. Charipper, Ph.D. Wilbur G. Malcolm, Ph.D.
Albert Claude, M.D. DOl1glall A. Marsland: PhD.
Christopher Coates A. H. Maslow, PhD.
William P. Comstock, A.B. Bela Mittelman, MD.
Karl K. Darrow, Ph.D. Hans Molitor, M.D.
Thomas B. Drew, M.s. Ruth L. Munroe, Ph.D.
Walter Dyk, PhD. David Nachmanson, M.D.
Gordon F. Ekholm, Ph.D. Bernard L. Oser, PhD.
William H. Eyster, Ph.D. Benton B. Owen, Ph.D.
Karl A. Folkers, Ph.D. Edward A. Saibel, PhD.
Raymond F. Fuoss, Ph.D. Alexander Sandow, Ph.D.
William U. Gardner, Ph.D. Bobb Schaeffer, Ph.D.
Walther F. Goebel Martin Scheerer, Ph.D.
Eli D. Goldsmith, Ph.D. Charles R. Schroeder, PhD.
Manuel H. Gorin. Ph.D. Joseph E. Smadel, MD.
David E. Green, Ph.D. William H. Stein, Ph.D.
Jesse M. Greenman, Ph.D. Robert G. Stone, A.M.
Paul B. Hamilton, Ph.D. Henry D. Thompson, PhD.
Herbert S. Harned, Ph.D. Oeltar Paul Wintersteiner, PhD.
Honorary Life Membership was conferred upon the following emi-
nent scientists:
Bronstedt, Johannes Nicolas, R, Ph.D., Physical Chemistry. Thermodynamics
and Solutions, Acid Base Concept. Director, Institute of Physical Chem.i5-
try, Bledgansvej, Copenhagen, Denmark. R = Knight of Flag of Denmark
(Highest honor awarded in Denmark). Visiting Professor, Yale University,
1926; Special Guest, Chicago World's Fair, 1933.
Dnunmond, Sir Jack Cecil, Biochemistry, Nutrition and Vitamins, particularly A
and E. Professor of Biochemistry, University College, London, England,
1919-1939; D.sc., University of London; Fellow of the Royal Society, 1944;
F. R. I. C.; Lane Lecturer at Stanford University, 1933; Harvey Lecturer.
New York City, 1933; Falarian Leeturer, Royal Institute, 1944. Appointed
110 TRANSACTIONS
to Ministry of Food, Chief Scientific Advisor, 1939, concerned during war

period with planning of British Food Program also with plans for Relief of
Western Europe on liberation. Knighted in recognition of this service. At-
tached to SHAEF and 21st Army Group for study of nutritional problems as
France, Belgium and Holland liberated; Advisor to British Control Com-
missioner for Germany and Austria, 1944-1945; British Delegate to Hot
Springs Conference, 1943; British Advisor at Food and Agriculture Organi-
zation Conference at Quebec.
Kapitza, Peter, Physics. Low Temperatures. Director, Order of Red Banner of
Labor Institute of Physical Problems; Member, Academy of Sciences of U. S.
S. R., Moscow, U. S. S. R.; Honorary Member, University of Algiers; Mem-
ber, American Philosophical Society; Honorary Member, Franklin Institute:
Honorary Member, Institute of Metals: Member, British Institute of PhYB-
ics; Member, British Royal Society; Mf'mber, Cambridge Philosophical So-
ciety; Member, Societe de Physique de France; Honorary Member, Moscow
ilociety of Naturalists; Fellow, Trinity College, Cambridge, England.
Awarded Franklin Medal CU. S. A.); Faraday Medal (England); Twice,
Laureate of the Stalin Prise.
Oliphant, Marcus Lawrence Elwin, Physics. Poynting Professor of Physics, Uni-
versity of Birmingham, England: Messel Research Fellow, Royal Society,
1931, Fellow and Lecturer, St. John's College, 1934; Assistant Director, Caven-
dish Laboratory, Cambridge, 1935; Fellow of 1he Royal Society, 1937.
Szent-Gyorgi, Albert, Medical and Organic Chemistry. Professor of Medical and
Organic Chemistry; Director, Universit:)1' Institute for Medical Chemistry,
University of Szeged, Hungary; M.D., Ph.D., University of Hungary; Vis-
iting Professor, Harvard UDiversity, 1938; Awarded Nobel Prize for Medicine,
1937.
Swellengrebel, Nicholas Hendrick, Parasitology. Chief, Zoological Laboratory,
Amsterdam Tropical Hygiene Institute, 1913; Professor of Parasitology, Am-
sterdam University, 1921: Member, League of Nations: Malaria Commis-
sion, 1924: Public Health Council, 1927. DarliIur Gold Medalist, League of
Nations Organization for Hygiene and Public Ifealth; President, Third In-
ternational Congress on Malaria, Amsterdam, 1938.
Umbgrove, Johannes Herman Frederick, Geology. Professor of Geology, Tech-
Dische Hoogeschool, Delft, Holland; PhD., University of Leyden, 1925; Geol-
ogist in East Indies, 1926-1929; Assistant Professor of Geology, University
of Leyden, 1929.
Wenyon, Charles Morley, Protozoology. Director). ~elcome Research Institu-
tion, 1944; Formerly, ProtozoologISt, London :::;enacl of Tropical Medicine:
President, Royal Society of Tropical Medicine, 1945. Awarded, Cross St.
Micha.el and St. George, 1918; Companion British Empire, 1919; Fellow
of·the Royal Society.
The following officers were elected for the year 1946:
For Pres'idem
WALTER H. BUCHEB
For Vice-President,
Cl:tABLEs H. BmBE, J:a. Ross F. NIGRELLI
EMILY T. Bun JOSEPH S. hUTON
GmBGE Hmazoo
For Recording Secretary

CHARLES M. BREOER, JR.
For Corresponding Secretary

H.lIERBERT JOHNSON
For Treasurer
H.uu>EN F. TAYLOR
For Librarian. For Editor

EmCH M. SOHLAIKJEB Roy W.MINEB
For Councilors (1946-1948)

HANS T. CLARKE
CHARLES GLEN KING HANS MOLITOR
For Finance Committee

W. REID BLAIR, Chairman
MARVIN D. THORN ADDISON WEBB
After the Business Meeting, the following papers were read on

the subject of:
"FOOD, NUTRITION AND WORLD POPULATIONS'"
NtrTBITION AS A WORLD PRoBLEM

BY
DB. FRANE. GEORGIIl BOUDREAU
Director, The Milbank Memorial Fund
NtrTBITION AS AN ExAcr ScmNC£

BY
DB. O'rl'O ARTHUR BESBBY
Public Health Re.earch Institute of the City of New York
TRB: FuTumil OF NUTRITIONAL SCII!lNC£

BY
DB. CHABLES GLEN KING
Scientific Director, The Nutrition FO'Undation, Inc .
• The papers presented by Doctor Boudreau and Doetor King are published.
In this number of the Transactions.
112 TRANSACTIONS
NUTRITION AS A WORLD PROBLEM

By
FRANK G. BOUDREAU
Ezecutive Director, Milbank Memorial Fund, New York, N. Y.

Food and nutrition have played major parts in determining the
size and many of the characteristics of the world's population. They
will continue to play major roles in the future. How the world's people
are fed will affect the size of the population, its geographical and age
distribution, its political complexion, its standard of living and even,
to some degree, the issues of war and peace. Badly fed peoples do not
necessarily decrease in numbers in this age of preventive medicine, but
they do keep burning the fires of illiteracy, epidemics, social unrest and
premature death. Food is so basic a need that even speculation about
it may have serious consequences. Our farmers, farm leaders and agri-
cultural economists anticipate the development of large surpluses in
most of the major food commodities, as soon as the period of relief
feeding is over. Action taken to prevent such anticipated surpluses
(limiting production, for example) might well run counter to the re-
quirements of a sound nutrition policy. For it is an ironic commen-
tary on man's intelligence that the people have, as a rule, been least
well fed when the largest food surpluses existed. The problem of feed-
ing the unprecedentedly large world population that we expect in the
future will not necessarily be solved by producing adequate amounts
and kinds of food. We must also succeed in getting the food to the
people. So far, however, we have been more successful in producing
food than in properly distributing it.
The modern study of popUlation problems may be said to have
started with Thomas Robert Malthus, an English economist, who, in
1798, published his famous essay, "The Principle of Population as It
Affects the Future Improvement of Society.II Malthus assumed that
man's sex passions were not likely to change and that food is necessary
to man's existence. Population had always tended to increase rapidly
and it would always increase rapidly, providing food or subsistence
were available. According to MaIthus, popUlation would tend to in-
crease to sixty-four times its original size, in 150 years (geometrical
ratio), while its subsistence would increase only seven times (arith-
metical ratio}. Accordingly, hunger, disease, vice and war were bound
to be, in the future as in the past, the chief forces which would keep
human popUlation within reasonable bounds.
Benjamin Franklin had some influence on Malthus, for he is
quoted in the first edition of the essay. Franklin's "Observations Con-
cerning the Increase of Mankind and the Peopling of Countries," ap-
peared in 1751. In this, he stated that the popUlation of colonies
would double every quarter of a century. In a curiously modern note,
he also drew attention to the low fertility of the higher income groups:
"The greater the common fashionable expense of any rank of people,
the more cautious are they of marriage." Accordingly, Franklin ad-
vocated increase, Malthus, decrease in population. Franklin saw the
great need for more people to develop the sparsely settled colonies,
while Malthus was influenced by the squalor and misery of masses of
people whose numbers had increased so greatly with the advent of the
industrial revolution.
Let me survey briefly what we have learned about population
growth, as a result of the stimulus furnished by Malthus and others
of his kind.
Kingsley Davis1 likens the growth of world population to a long
thin powder fuse that burns slowly and hesitatingly, until it reaches
the charge and e)l.-plodes. For thousands of years, while man depended
on hunting and fishing for his sustenance, the world's population re-
mained exceedingly sparse. The first real burst of population growth
came with the industrial revolution, which not only gave an unprece-
dented impetus to population growth in Europe, but extended its in-
fiuence throughout the world.
"For the first time the world's entire population could be regarded
as a single entity responding in various degrees to one dynamic process.
For the first time the movement of human masses across oceans became
feasible. For the first time a new type of balance between births and
deaths-a balance less wasteful than the old-began to manifest itself."1
Even today, we do not know the exact size of the world's popula-
tion, but students have been able to make reasonable estimates of
numbers and rates of increase since the middle of the seventeenth cen-
tury. Thus, in 1650, the world's population is estimated to have been
• :Davts Ebl&'lIlq. The world demographlo tra.nsltlon. Ann. Am. Acad. PoL
Soo. SoL 1945.
slbi4.
114 TRANSACTIONS
545 millions. It grew to 728 million, in 1750; to 906 million, in 1800;

to 1,171 millions, in 1850; to 1,608 million, in 1900, and to 2,171 mil-
lion, in 1940. Rates of increase also continued to accelerate. The
rate of growth for 1650-1750,0.29 per cent annually, was the lowest
for any like period in recorded history, and, in the following period
(1750-1800), it nearly doubled. The rates for subsequent periods
were,O.44 (1750-1800) j 0.51 (1800-1850); 0.63 (1850-1900); and 0.75
(1900-1940). These rates may not appear high, but, if the present
rate were to continue, the population of the world in the year 2240,
less than 300 years from now, would be 21 billion inhabitants.'
Just what caused these great increases in the world's population?
Population growth is determined by fertility and mortality, through
whioh all other factors must act. There is no reason to believe that
there has been any significant inorease in fertility in any considerable
area of the world since 1650; there is evidence to show that fertility
has actuaUy declined. Hence, the cause of the growth of population
must have been the decline of mortality. According to Kingsley Da-
vis, "the reduction in mortality began primarily with a more abundant,
regular and varied food supply. The indications are that the average
expectation of life at birth has practically doubled since the late sev-
enteenth centu.ry."
In the latter part of the nineteenth century, fertility, which had
at first remained high, began to decline in the northwest of Europe.·
This trend soon moved east and south, across the continent, meanwhile
beooming well established in North America, Australia and New Zea-
land. "These are the only populations that have controlled their fer-
tility sufficiently to bring birth rates into balance with the low death
rates that modern conditions permit. They are the only popUlations
that have thus far shown a way by which growth can be checked other
than through death j the only ones that have attained high efficiency in
the maintenance of the stream of life."
By 1940 or earlier, fertility in these countries had fallen below the
level required for the permanent maintenance of a stationary popula-
tion at existing levels of mortality. Their popUlation growth continues
only because of the present favorable age distribution, whioh time
will soon alter.
'Ibid.
'.otestem. l'J:ank W. Populatlon-ihe long view in Food For The World.
Ha.rr1s Founda.tlon Lectures. Univel'sity of Chica&'o Press. Chicago. 184.4..
THE NEW YOU ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 115
These countries are, therefore, classified by Notestein as those of

incipient population decZine. They are expected to reach their maxi.
mum between 1950 and 1970.
Populations in certain other regions are in an earlier stage of
demographic evolution, but the decline in their birth rates is already
well established. The populations of Eastern Europe, the Soviet
Union and Japan, certain Latin American countries, Turkey, Palestine
and parts of North Africa belong in this category, which is known as
the stage of transitionaZ growth. Japan is the most interesting ex-
ample of this class, "for it is the only Eastern country that has gone
through a substantial period of modernization and urbanization, hence
the only one in which the demographic responses to these changes can
be compared with those of the West. "0 N otestein points to the marked
similarity between the trend of birth and death rates for Japan from
1921 to 1941, with those for England and Wales from 1881 to 1901.
Populations in the stage of transitional growth increase enormously
after fertility begins to fall, for it always lags behind the decline in
mortality. Between 1821 and 1921, the population of England and
Wales increased threefold, in spite of substantial emigration. If the
population of Japan should follow the same course as in England after
1821, its popUlation would probably approximate 95 million inhabi-
tants, by 1970.
More than half of the world's population has not yet entered the
period of transitional growth. Populations having high growth poten-
tials, the third great division, are found in Egypt, central Africa, the
Near East, Asia outside of Japan and the Soviet Union, the Islands of
the Pacific and Caribbean, and much of Central and South America.
The case of India throws light on the significance of high growth po-
tential. From 1872 to 1921, periods of slow growth alternated with
periods of rapid increase. There followed, for the first time in re-
corded history, two successive decades of rapid growth, and in those
twenty years India's population increased by 83 million. It is now
over four hundred million, about equal to the population of all Europe,
west of the Soviet Union. These countries of high growth potential,
typified by India, constitute one of civilization's most difficult prob-
lems.s If nothing is done for them or by them, they will, so far as we
Ilbid.
• Ma.ny countries in this stage present no immedia.te problems. since theY' are
sparsely settled and of slow popula.tion growth. The diftlculty will oome when
the present 'Very high mortality Is brought under some control.
116 TRANSACTIONS
know, remain in the stage of high growth potential, periods of extreme-

ly rapid growth alternating with periods of slow growth or of decline,
when famine and disease sweep through the population. In our mod-
ern world, however, we cannot do nothing, for our own safety demands
action. We cannot allow disease to flourish unchecked in these lands,
since the world is now so small that epidemics in any part of the globe
threaten our own existence. We have learned that the only successful
way to prevent epidemics is to deal with their sources, before the sparks
have burst into flame. This means sanitation, a sound system of
health administration, health education of the people, medical care
and improved nutrition. Hence, if we attempt, as we must, to abate
the sweep of epidemics, mortality will decline in populations of high
growth potential and numbers will greatly increase. To do nothing
and be forever faced with the problems of high growth potential, epi-
demics, misery and, probably, revolution; to do a little to check epi-
demics and be confronted by enormous increases of miserable peoples
whose numbers more than keep pace with their increased food produc-
tion; these are two of the choices with which modern society is con-
fronted. Fortunately, there is a third choice: to assist these countries
to advance socially, politically and economically, so that they may pass
rapidly through the stages of population growth and attain, as some
Western countries have done, a more reasonable balance between births
and deaths. This, as I see it, is our only hope. "For it is only when
rising levels of living, improved health, increasing education and rising
hope for the future bring new value and dignity to the individual's life
that old customs break and fertility comes under control. Without
such control the world's population is limited only by its carrying ca-
pacity. In the long run it remains true that the control of mortality
without the control of fertility is impossible. 1I7
On the assumption of general order and the spread of modern
techniques, Notestein believes that a world total of three and a third
billion inhabitants, in the year 2000, is a conservative estimate. If,
in the East, there should be a rapid increase in production within a
slowly changing social framework, by the year 2000 an Asiatic popu-
lation of well over two billion.s-a.bout equal to the world's present
population-would probably result. And a world population of three
f lbid.
billions, within two generations, is not by any means a remote possi-

bility.
This is a world problem, it cannot be dealt with unilaterally.
Countries with populations in thE' stage of incipient decline are setting
up commissions to study their problem. If experience is any guide,
these committees will recommend measures designed to increase the
number of their inhabitants. In the meantime, half of the world's
population is in the stage of high growth potential, with all that this
stage implies: periodic famine, such as we have witnessed recently in
Bengal and China, high illiteracy, malnutrition and disease. All four
are a menace to society throughout the world. In that half of the
world's population which is in the stage of high growth potential, the
expectation of life is about the same as that which probably prevailed
in the advanced countries, prior to the industrial revolution. There is
a shocking contrast between, for example, New Zealand and The Neth-
erlands, where expectation of life at one year is over 65 years, and
Egypt and India, with rates of 36 and 26 years, respectively. In 1938,
some 12 per cent of the world's people lived in countries where the
average expectation of life was 64. years or over, while 70 per cent
lived in countries where the average span of life was under 50 and,
frequently, well under 40 years.s
Turning now to another aspect of our subject, we may ask, Is it
possible to produce enough of the right kinds of food adequately to
feed the world's present and future population? Looking ahead only
a few years, the problem is an entirely different one. It is whether we
can maintain food consumption at a high enough level to prevent food
producers from being impoverished by the very abundance of their
production. Hunger and starvation are the lot of millions in the world
today, yet the economist, looking into the future, sees food surpluses
developing like those which ruined many of our farmers and our mar-
kets, in the 1930's. Wheatll is almost certain to be in a surplus situa-
tion, as soon as the relief feeding period is over, and this situation is
likely to be chronic. Existing markets will find difficulty in absorb-
ing the supply of fats and oils, when Pacifie supplies become available
• Memorandum by :1'. r.. :lllrCDo~ The Quantity and Physica.l Quality ot
Life in Relation to Poverty and Malnutrition. Prepared for the> United Nations
Interim Commission on Food and Agriculture. Washington. 1944•
• The following predictions are taken from an article by WaItei' W. WUc_.
Food suppUes In prospect after the war, in Food For The World. Harris Foun-
dation Lectures. Univers1ty of Chicago Press. Chicago. 1944.
118 TRANSACTIONS
again. There will be So surplus in sugar, as soon as the present demand

for industrial alcohol declines. With the expected increased supplies
of animal protein, the demand for puZ8es is expected to decrease, and
these will be in surplus unless production is adjusted. Rice is likely to
be in a postwar situation similar to wheat. Fruit surpluses are likely
to develop, in this country, and animal protein supplies will be in sur-
plus, unless there is full employment. "When military requirements
cease, market surpluses will develop in vegetables. More food will be
produced after this war than ever before in history, and market sur-
pluses in a number of food commodities will appear at an early date.
In the face of these beliefs, which are shared by most food econo-
mists, we need not give much thought to the danger of future food
shortages. For the Western world, at least, the gloomy predictions of
Malthus have not been fulfilled. 1o World population has increased,
but world food output has increased faster. 'l.'he opening up of new
lands and the application of scientific discoveries to farming have
brought about a prodigious increase in agricultural output. For over
two hundred years, man has produced more and more food with each
succeeding decade. Mechanization and increased and better use of
fertilizers and other technological advances have been put to work
over a comparatively small fraction of the world. They are bound to
be extended, in the future. The present increase in production is due
to these and many other developments. The boundary of Cl'opping
has been pushed farther north in Canada and the Soviet Union, by the
introduction of new cereal varieties and new vegetables. In India and
elsewhere, hundreds of thousands of new acres have been opened up
by irrigation. There has been a general increase in yields per acre,
due to such advances as hybrid corn, disease-resistant varieties of
cereal, new grasses and improved vegetables. New developments in
the production and use of fungicides have reduced losses, especially in
fruit and vegetable growing. There have been great increases in the
numbers and productivity of livestock, through better breeding, in-
creased understanding of animal nutrition and more effective preVffi-
tion of animal diseases. And there have been great advances in farm
and marketing equipment of all kinds, such as farm machinery, storage
facilities, refrigeration, and transport.
10 RePOrt of the Technical Committee on Agricultural Production, in P'tve Tech-
nical Reports on Food and .Agrl:culture, submitted to the United NatioDs Interim
Commission on Food and .Agriculture. Washington. 1945
There are still other opportunities to increase the world's food sup·
plies. We know far too little about our resources in fish. Some 98 per
cent of the world's catch is drawn from the Northern Pacific and North.
ern Atlantic Oceans.l l Opportunities exist for expanding the fishing
industry, in South America, Asia and Africa; the resultant production
would improve diets and yield additional dividends in the form of vita.
min oils. The food supply may also be augmented by cultivating fish
in fresh water ponds. This would contribute needed protein to the
diet of people in many parts of the world.
War experience has clearly revealed that better use can be made
of the food produced in almost any country. During the war, we pro·
duced, in this country, enough food to feed a population one and a
third times as great as our own. A Committee of the Food and Nutri-
tion Board showed that, with slight changes in production and con-
sumption, we could have fed a population twice as large as our own
and actually improved the diets of our own people. All that was
needed was more emphasis on the production of nutritionally desirable
foods that are economical in land, manpower and transport, and the
shifting of increased proportions of skim milk, wheat and barley, soy
bean and peanut products, from the feeding of livestock into direct
human use as food. Hence, by intelligent food management, the avail-
able world supplies of food can be m3de to go further and to promote
better nutrition.
In the face of world food supplies, which appear to be more than
adequate, what is the state of the people's nutrition throughout the
world? We lack the data upon which to base any precise answer to
this question, but we do possess sufficient information to draw some
reasonably sound conclusions. Such conclusions were reached by a
Committee of Agricultural, Economic, Nutrition and Health Experts,
set up by the League of Nations, in 1935, to study both the health
and economie aspects of the nutrition problem. Their report, issued in
1937, has probably done more to stimulate public interest in food and
nutrition and to point the way for national and international action
than any other contribution to the subject.
In the United States and Canada, said the Committee, much mal-
nutrition existed among the lower income groups. Available data sug-
:II Report CIt the Technical Committee on Fisheries. submitted to the United
MatiOD. Interim Comm1salon on Food and ABrlculture. Washl.ngton. 1945.
120 TRANSACTIONS
gested a figure of between 20 per cent and 30 per cent of the entire popu-
lation. Information on nutrition in Great Britaill was available in a
remarkable report by Sir John Boyd Orr, Food, Health and In-
come, which appeared in 1936. Applying the results of an extensive
survey to the entire population, the report concluded that, in England,
the average diet of the poorest group, comprising 4% million people,
is, by the standard adopted, deficient in every constituent examined.
The second group, comprising 9 million people, is adequate in protein,
but deficient in all the vitamins and minerals considered. The third
group, comprising another 9 million, is deficient in vitamins and min-
erals. Complete adequacy is almost reached in group four (9 mil-
lions), while, in groups five and six (the wealthiest groups comprising
13.5 million people), the diet has a surplus of all constituents consid-
ered. The Committee pointed out that, in the British Dominions,
although food consumption was relatively high, malnutrition was not
uncommon, especially among children. In Central and Eastern Eu-
rope, malnutrition prevailed extensively and there was often a lack of
staple foods as well.
The Committee agreed that the diets of the great mass of the pop-
ulation in the East were grossly deficient in terms of any standards of
adequacy put forward by nutrition workers, and that nutrition was of
far greater lmportance to the people of the East and to Eastern health
workers than is the case in the West. In Asia and the tropics, about
75 per cent of the 1,150 million inhabitants consumed diets far below
the standard for health.
This outline of the nutritional status of the world's people has
been greatly supplemented, since 1937, for the League's work stirred the
Governments to new activity. All of the new evidence, from whatever
source, has served to emphasize and accentuate the picture drawn by
the Committee. Famine in China, The Netherlands East Indies and
India, and the serious aggravation of malnutrition in Europe, due to
the war, make it plain that we have a long way to go before we can be
satisfied that the larger part of the world's population enjoys a diet
which contains even a bare minimum of the nutrients essential to
health.
I have already suggested that the worst diseases have their chief
source and habitat among populations having the highest fertility rates.
It is not surprising to find that, as a nIle, the worst and most extensive
THE NEW YOU ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 121
malnutrition is also found in popUlation groups with the highest

birth rates. These people inhabit the less advanced countries; their
expectation of life is low, because of the mortality which takes a high
toll in every age group, but particularly at the younger ages. In In-
dia, nearly half of the total mortality occurs in children under ten
years of age, a percentage about five times greater than that of West-
ern countries.
Perhaps I have not made it plain that there is no geographical
division of the world into two parts; one part enjoying relatively low
death rates, low fertility and, at least, moderately good nutrition; and
the other having high death rates, high fertility and great malnutrition.
The world's population may be divided roughly into these two parts,
but even the richest countries, among their poorer classes, have large
groups with relatively high fertility, death and malnutrition rates.
Taking the standardized death rate for the United States, as whole, at
100, the figure in 1940 for North Dakota was 60.2, for Iowa 79.6, for
Massachusetts 96.3, for Mississippi 114 and for South Carolina 125.
The picture I have drawn for you is a dark one, but there are many
gleams of sunshine on the horizon. The war has taught us that the
right kinds of food can be produced and transported to supply the
needs of the nation or a group of nations, even when war interposes
seemingly insuperable obstacles. During the war, far more food was
produced than we would have thought possible in prewar years. Our
food supplies were managed in such a way as to conserve land, man-
power, transport and critical materials. They were distributed more
efficiently than ever before in history, with emphasis, especially in the
United Kingdom, on the physiological needs of the people. Among
the Allies, the food situation was most acute in the United Kingdom,
and it was there that the greatest efforts were made to feed the people
adequately. What the results have been is told by Sir Wilson Jame-
son, Chief Medical Officer of the Ministry of Health, in a broadcast
message to his people in October, 1944:
After five years of wa.r we still ha.ve a good story to tell. The most sensitive
index of a nation's general health is probably the proportion of infants dying in
the first year of life. In the last; war it rose steadily. During the last three years
it has declined steadily and, last year, was the lowest ever recorded. The most
risky time for a baby is its first month of life. Well, we've got a new low record
there; and as for the tragedy of babies born dead (stillborn as we say) I can ten
you tha.t the chance of this ha.ppening is only three-fourths of what it was five
years ago. The death rates for children up to ten years of age were last year the
122 TRANSACTIONS
lowest on record, as was also the proportion of mothers dying as a result of their
confinements. As the war has gone on, the vital statistics for mothers and chil-
dren have continued to improve and in the fifth year they're the best we ever had.
This can't be just an acCIdent. All that's been done to safeguard mothers and
children must have had some effect-sucb things as the national milk scheme,
vIta.mm supplements for mothers and children, the great extension of schemes for
school meals and milk in schools. There are doubtless other factors-full em-
ployment and higher purchasing power in many families, especially in the old de-
pressed areas; as well as the careful planning from a nutritlonal point of view of
the restricted amount of food available for the nation.
Advances in science have provided us with materials with which to
build a new world. An essential condition of success is that the peoples
of the world must work together in building it. Otherwise, it will be
a house of cards. After the fir<Jt world war, the different countries
attempted to retire behind their national frontiers, building up social,
political and economic walls to keep out foreign ideas, foreign goodi
and foreign influences. The worldwide economic depression, followed
by the war, revealed the folly of attempting to break up the world into
tight compartments. There was no chance of winning the war, until
full cooperation developed among the Allies. It is pertinent to our
subject to recall that food, as a weapon of war, was planned, produced,
processed, transported, allocated and distributed according to plans
worked out by joint committees of experts from the allied government•.
We are attempting to continue joint food planning, by means of
two United Nations agencies: UNRRA and FAO. UNRRA is for the
short term. I am convinced that UNRRA will go down in history as
a magnificent conception of farsighted men who understood that, in
the modern world, it is the part of enlightened self interest to restore
neighboring nations to decent conditions of living and work. FAO,
which was established a few weeks ago at Quebec, is for the long term.
By setting it up, the Governments have agreed not to go back to the
methods and ways of the interwar period, but to continue, in peace-
time, the cooperation in food and nutrition which helped to bring vic-
tory in the war.
The first conference at Quebec selected Sir John Boyd Orr of Aber-
deen as their Director General, and he thus became the first full time
official of the United Nations. Sir John, as many of you know, won
his spurs in animal nutrition. He proceeded to build up a reputation
in human nutrition, and he is known, throughout the world, for his in-
terest and concern for the hungry and malnourished among the world's
people. The selection of Sir John Orr was proof that the Governments
were sincere in their resolve to work together to raise the standards of

living of their people and to banish hunger and want from the world.
The conference at Quebec was a sober gathering of technical experts
and responsible statesmen, fully aware of the difficulties and complexi-
ties of their task, appreciating that the many-sided problems of poverty
and malnutrition required many different forms of attack, by many
United Nations agencies, in trade, finance, industrial development, edu-
cation, transport and politics, and resolved to do their part so well that
they would set an example to all the others.
Looking back on the history of our own country, I do not find that
our difficulties and troubles were ever solved, more than temporarily,
merely by the strengthening of police powers. On the contrary, prog-
ress has been due to our success in developing our natural and human
resources, by such things as wages and hours and other social legisla-
tion; by the development of our system of education; and by the build-
ing up of institutions and policies which permitted the human spirit to
grow and flower. The world today-physically, socially, economically,
and politically-is smaller than the world Washington and Jefferson
knew, when they labored to lay the foundations of this republic. If
the advance in science is to prove a blessing and not a curse to man-
kind, we must think in world terms and build up for our world the
social, economic and political institutions which will set mankind on
the road to freedom from the misery, want, disease and premature
death which have been man's companions for so many centuries. As
the member from New Zealand said at Quebec, when the Food and
Agriculture Organization was established: 12
At this vital time the opportunity is given to few organizations to contribute
more directly to human welfare, and, in so doing, to make more permanently
secure the foundation upon which world peace must ultimately rest; for neither
political alliances nor military commitments, nor atomic bombs, nor regional ar-
rangements can guarantee security for long in a world that is a.ffiicted with pov-
erty, pestilence and famine .
.. Journa.l of the First Session of the Conference of the Food and Agriculture
Orga.nization of the United Na.tions 1 (4): 40. Quebec City. Canada. 1945.
124 TRANSACTIONS
NUTRITION AS AN EXACT SCIENCE

By
OTTO A. BESSEY
Director, Public Health Res('arch lmtitute, New York, N. Y.
(nIustrated)
Dr. Bessey and his associates have developed remarkable tech-
niques of direct quantitative measurement of the nutritional state of
individuals by micro-chemical analysis of a few drops of blood. These
results he presented, together with the clinical signs of malnutrition
and their statistical application to echool-children and other groups,
as examples of exact science in the advancement of nutrition.
THE FUTURE OF NUTRITIONAL SCIENCE

By
CHARLES G. KING
Scientific Di.rector, The Nutrition Foundation, Net» York, N. Y.
The two previous speakers have made it clear that the future of
nutritional science is not only going to be woven into the complex
fabric of other sciences, but it is destined also to play an important
role in social and economic progress.
The primary objectives that nutritional scientists see ahead are
not difficult to state, but they are undoubtedly going to be difficult to
achieve: We want to find what quantity of each of the forty or more
essential nutrients is required for good nutrition, how each nutrient
functions inside the body, how each can be used to protect human and
animal health, and how each can be measured accurately, either as it
functions in the body or as it comes into being on a farm and later
takes its course through the channels of commerce.
This goal may not sound formidable, but I think it is safe to sug-
gest that if everyone in the audience had a Ph.D. or M.D. degree and
could have as many research assistants as desired, plus an opportunity
to work for a hundred years without interruption, there would still re-
main large segments of the goal to be achieved. In other words, Dr.
Vannevar Bush rendered a valuable public service when he entitled
his recent book "Research. The Endless Frontier."
Few people realize how limited our present knowledge is, in re-
gard to human nutrition. For example, we still do not know what
chemical elements and compounds must be supplied to the human
body to meet its basic requirements for growth and health.
Most authorities would agree that at least 19 elements are needed
by some forms of life, but the evidence scarcely goes beyond 10, in re-
lation to human feeding.
Of the 23 common amino acids that constitute our protein foods,
it appears that only 8 are required by the adult human. However, we
know almost nothing of special requirements for other conditions, ex-
cept that of maintaining a nitrogen balance in a normal healthy adult.
Animal tests give only a very rough indication, because each animal
tested, thus far, shows distinct variations from the others.
126 TRANSACTIONS
Of the 15 or more vitamins that have been discovered by animal

experiments, the tests in human feeding cover only 9, clearly, and
three others, in part. It is worth noting, however, that, up to the
present time, the human has not been found capable of synthesizing So
vitamin required by any test animal.
With regard to fats, although a few animals appear to need one
of the 43 or more fatty acids, practically nothing is known of the
human need for fats, other than for three of the fat-soluble vitamins.
Neither is there any clear picture of the human need for carbo-
hydrates, although they normally supply about one-half or more of all
human and animal energy.
At first thought, one might be critical of the current expenditure
of funds to find how the individual nutrients function in living cells,
but we are confident that this field lies at the very heart of under-
standing other aspects of the science. If scientists can find out what
the nutrients do inside living cells, including the human body, then
agriculturists, food technologists. physicians, dietitians and public
health workers will be in a position to produce, distribute and use
foodstuffs on a far more rational basis. Without such information,
men are forced to make important decisions on the basis of rule-of-
thumb or guesswork, and that is not good. It is, certainly, the ex-
treme opposite of what this Academy stands for in community life.
There is always a temptation to indulge in a bit of crystal-gazing,
when one is looking into the future, but I think we get our best clues
when we join with our fellow scientists in thinking out loud. We
start, then, from the current zone of experimental evidence and visual-
ize our next moves within that discipline.
The normal, adult, human requirement for each of the amino
acids supplied in such protein-rich foods as milk, eggs and meat will
soon be known. There will still remain such questions as:
(a) What are the special requirements during growth?
(b) What are the special requirements during pregnancy and lacta-
tion?
(c) What are the special requirements during convalescence from
injury and infection?
(d) What are the special requirements to build up maximal re-
sistance against infection?
(e) What are the special requirements to permit optimal adjust-
mont to extremes of environment such as cold, heat, high

altitude and restricted water intake?
(f) What are the upper limits to a satisfactory protein intake?
Nutritionists want to know the approximate optimal range
for each nutrient, as well fib the critical levels.
(g) And to what degree do each of the above six items vary with
differing types of proteins?
As these functional needs become known, in terms of the consumer,
the medical profession and the respective areas of agriculture, educa-
tion and the food industry will be in a position to adequately advise
and supply the public. The essential or desired amino acids, for ex-
ample, can then be obtained, at the discretion and pleasure of the con-
sumer, as caviar, or filet mignon, or just plain bread and milk. I see
no serious threat that the public will prefer two pounds of pills and a
bottle of distilled water to ordinary food. The synthetic amino acids
and protein hydrolysates will, of course, come into their proper areas
of use, in time. So far as the distilled water is concerned, I have not
been able to observe, especially since coming to New York, that the
consumption of distilled material is based on water content at all.
Despite the very great importance of fats in animal physiology
and in industry, very little is known regarding even such simple
things as their comparative nutritive qua.lity, or the chemical changes
by which they are formed, or the chemical steps by which they are
used in living cells. Until very recently, one might say with complete
fairness, the literature on fats afforded a critical scientist very "lean
pickings." It is interesting, also, to note that a considerable portion
of the more promising recent work on fats, such as that of Dr. Stettin
and his associates at Columbia University, stems chiefly from the
study of carbohydrates.
The chemistry and physiology of sugar utilization has been mov-
ing ahead rapidly in recent years. The group associated with Dr.
Clarke and the late Professor Schoenheimer at Columbia University
has been very productive, as many of you know. At Washington Uni-
versity, Dr. Carl Cori has recently published a short paper that augurs
many important findings. Having previously isolated several of the
enzymes that control by catalysis the use of blood sugar, Dr. Cori's
group then showed, for the first time in history, how two of the hor-
mones function in terms of their molecular reactions.
128 TRANSACTIONS
This remarkable work of Dr. Cori's group, taken in conjunction

with progress in other laboratories where the chemical aspects of dia-
betes are under investigation, gives one great encouragement. Medical
authorities believe that one person in every one-to-two hundred has a
metabolic disturbance of diabetic type. It seems very reasonable to
hope that, with further research, the cause or causes of diabetes will
soon be identified. Then, having identified and understood the cause,
those who work toward better public health should be able to develop
techniques and educational measures to meet the challenge of pre-
venting the onset of the disease. Insulin has been a great boon to
humanity; but to prevent diabetes would be a far greater one.
Of the many reports relating food intake to health, few have re-
ceived so much attention as the recent papers from Harvard Univer-
sity. Dr. Harold Stuart, Mrs. Burke and their associates reported
summary findings, after 12 years of careful study. The diets of
mothers living in wage earners' homes in the Boston area were classi-
fied 8S to nutritive quality and these records were later correlated
with the health records of the mothers and their infants. If the cor-
relation between food intake and health over the rest of our country
should be shown to be even remotely like that reported by the Harvard
group, the appeal to do something about it would be irresistible. It
would mean an improved initial health rating for approximately 900,000
infants per year in the United States. To provide more information
in this field and to serve as a stimulus to education in nutrition, sev-
eral projects like the Harvard study should be under way in different
areas of this country and in others. Furthermore, such studies should
be extended, in time, to cover the whole life span, as Dr. Sherman has
done in his experiments with albino rats. The cumulative effects of
consistently good or bad diets have given such striking records with
albino rate, under controlled conditions, that there is no sound basis
for doubting their analogy, in a broad sense, to human feeding. Never-
theless, we critically need the scientific evidence, obtained and inter-
preted by persons with the highest professional standing, and as ap-
plied specifically to the genus homo. With apologies to our latin
scholars, one might say, regarding the human situation, that, instead
of having good data from which to draw conclusions "ex-post facto,"
we are still forced to reason too largely "ex-post albino."
A promising project in the public health field has been initiated at
the Mayo Clinic, in cooperation with the local health department, but
it has very different features than the work outlined by Dr. Stuart's
group in Boston. One aspect of the Rochester plan is especially com-
mendable, in that it anticipates a long period of observation.
Additional plans for maternal and infant nutrition research offer
special promise. These projects illustrate the constant need to keep
human nutrition research following as closely as possible along the
lines indicated by findings with experimental animals. For example,
Dr. Warkany's work with albino rats shows beyond dispute that de-
ficiencies of vitamins A and B 2, during early pregnancy lead to frequent
physical deformities in the offspring. The deformities often affect the
eyes, the feet, the vertebrae, the jaws (so that they are too small for
good tooth development); and occasionally Dr. Warkany finds condi-
tions resembling uclubbed feet" and "cleft palate." A closer check of
such possible relationships can be secured by studying monkeys or
other prim~tes, because their anatomical changes and nutritional re-
quirements are so nearly human. Physicians will then be in a better
position to look backward into the history of an individual patient
who is the victim of a deformity, and, very possibly, identify the cause.
Then, by education alone, there would be an opportunity to ward off
many bitter human experiences. Dr. Warkany has estimated that
human physical deformities at birth result in more deaths per year in
the United States than are caused by diphtheria, whooping cough, scar-
let fever and measles combined.
The subject of denta.! caries, or tooth decay, reaches into the per-
sona.! experience of nearly everyone. Furthermore, there is reasonably
good evidence that the incidence of dental caries has been rising, dur-
ing the past two decades. It is now stated to be the most prevalent
disease in America. Until they lowered the standards for Selective
Service acceptance in World War II, it was the most frequent single
cause for rejection on physical grounds-actually reaching over 20%,
among the first two million called. Since it reaches so far down in
the younger age groups, perhaps it should not be classed as a degen-
erative disease, but it does represent, in most cases, a premature decay
of a mature tissue. There is no need to quibble over the question of
whether oral environment, such as the presence of bacteria, sugars,
and acids, may affect the degree of tooth decay, but I think there is a
high probability that, in time, it will be found that good or bad food
130 TRANSACTIONS
practices are responsible in major degree for the health and stability of
a mature tooth.
Other diseases that we may expect to give way, chiefly in the
sense of postponement or decreased rate, when good nutrition is main-
tained, are certain types of heart failure, high blood pressure, aging of
the skin, intestinal disorders, anemias, some types of liver and kidney
diseases and of visual impairment. You will note that most of these
diseases are chronic in type, and that, in so far as they are related to
nutrition, one must study them in a perspective of many years.
There is little doubt, in the minds of those who are close to the
current research frontier, that nutrition is destined to play an increas-
ing role in regard to public health, preventive medicine, agriculture,
food processing and distribution, lay education and the food habits
of the general public.
In the pure research field, then, one can look forward to seeing an
endless frontier of exploration into the mysteries of what happens in-
side a living cell. From the single cell, a gradual extension can be
made to the human body. It is quite as clear, also, that research and
guiding principles in the science of nutrition will include increasing
emphasis upon the concept of a full life span and secondary effects
upon succeeding generations.
JOHN ARCHIBALD WHEELER, Princeton University: Polyelectrom. (A.

Cressy Morrison Prize Winner, 1945.) (Abstract.)
This paper is an extension of our knowledge about the interaction
of positive and negative electrons. Already available experimental
and theoretical evidence has shown that pairs of these particles may
be produced from a vacuum by the action of electromagnetic radiation,
and, conversely, that a pair consisting of an electron and a positron
may undergo annihilation with the release of two quanta of electro-
magnetic energy.
The present paper shows that, preliminary to such an annihilation
process, the electron and positron may circulate about each other in
orbits closely resembling those of the hydrogen atom. The entity so
constructed is given the name of bi-electron and is calculated to have
a lifetime of 10-6 second or 10-10 second, according as the spins of the
positive and negative electrons about their own axis are directed in the
same direction or in opposite directions. It is shown that similar sys-
tems may exist with more than two electrons. Also, figures are given
for the probability of creation of such polyelectron systems from a
vacuum by the action of electromagnetic radiation.
The properties of these polyelectrons are compared with those of
the cosmic ray mesons. The two types of system resemble each other
in having lifetimes against radio active disintegration or annihilation
of the order of magnitude of a microsecond and in having masses which
are multiples of the electronic mass, but are distinctly different with
respect to calculated penetrating power and geometric extension or
size. An experiment is outlined by which it should be possible to
check the th.eoretical prediction that the two quanta of electromagnetic
radiation, given off in the process of annihilation of an electron and a
positron, are vibrating in planes perpendicular to each other.
It is concluded that the study of polyelectrons is a logical step in
the further development of the theory of electrons and positrons, and
in the application of this theory to ilie study of cosmic ray problems.
132 TRANSACTIONS
MAX J. HERzBERGER, E. Kodak Research Laboratories, Eastman Kodak:

The Limitations of Optical Image Formation. (A. Cressy Mor-
rison Prize Winner, 1945.) (Abstract.)
The aim of this paper is to familiarize the optical designer with a
new and powerful tool for the investigation of the image-forming quali-
ties of an optical system.
The rank. of the matrix, containing the second-order derivatives of
a function, called the diacharacteristic, discloses the quality of the
image obtained, whether sharp, unsharp symmetric, or unsymmetric.
Thus, the lense-designer can compute the characteristic function of ray-
tracing; by examining diagrams, he can determine whether the points
in which he is interested have any of these qualities.
This method, which is of even greater value in the theoretical field,
is here utilized in investigating the limitations of optical image forma-
tion. Answers are supplied, in particular, to such questions as: Do
there exist systems which image the whole space sharply, or at least
symmetrically? How many surfaces can anyone image sharply?
Many classical examples demonstrate that the diacharacteristic
permits straightforward solution of optical problems by the manner in
which a system images any point. However, the way to a fundamen-
tally different treatment-as, for example, in the analytical expression
of errors of distortion-is pointed out by this technique.
The geometry of diapoints is discussed, as well as their coordi-
na.tes expressed as various functions. The laws of image formation are
examined, both for a finite and for an infinite object point. Finally,
the characteristic functions for several interesting, special kinds of
image formation are found, and the usefulness of the characteristic
function to the investigator is plainly demonstrated.
LEONARD G. WORLEY, Department of Biology, Brooklyn College: The

Golgi Apparatus-an Interpretation of its Structure and Signifi-
cance. (Honorable Mention, A. Cressy Morrison Prize Competi-
tion, 1945.) (Abstract.)
The configuration in fixed animal tissue, to which the term tlGolgi
apparatus" has been applied by cytologists, is the manifestation of a
series of more or less spherical Goigi bodies of the living cell. These
bodies are believed to be the visible expression of the more or less tem-
porary aggregation of ultramicroscopic colloidal particles, probably in-
cluding phospholipids, ribo-nucleic acid or ribo-nucleoprotein and, fre-
quently, ascorbic acid.
To this basic chemical structure are added, when available, through
absorption from the cytoplasm, various raw protein and fatty mate-
rials. Since the proportion and character of these raw materials shows
considerable variation in different cells and probably even within the
same cell at different times, the Golgi elements show a correspondingly
great variability in their total chemical composition. This is rell.ected
in differences in structure, staining reaction, degree of osmiophily, vis-
cosity, specific gravity, solubility and the nature of the Golgi body
product in various situations.
The basic Golgi substance converts these raw materials into vari-
ous products of a protein and fatty nature. It is believed to be direct-
ly responsible for the formation of all secretory granules, whether these
are to remain within the cell or are destined to be discharged, as in the
case of glands. Aggregation of the colloidal particles precedes prod-
uct formation and the release of the product is usually accomplished
through the partial or sometimes complE'te dispersal of these particles.
New Golgi elements may arise from pre-existing Golgi bodies, but
new particles are believed to be cast into the cytoplasm, from time to
time, by the nucleolus, especially during oogenesis. The phospholipid
fraction may become incorporated after the particles of nucleic acid
reach the cytoplasm. Mitochondria are believed to have a somewhat
similar origin, but are thought to be relatively more stable, once formed,
and probably also more constant in ('hemical composition.
Studies of the Oolgi apparatus should always involve a comparison
between fixed and living tissue. No structure in the cytoplasm of
134 TRANSACTIONS
either the vitally stained or the fixed cell should be accepted unless
there is fairly perfect correspondence between the two types of mate-
rial. In general, structures that blacken with prolonged osmication
and stain vItally with methylene blue may be considered a part of the
total Golgi complement of the cell. But, in the final analysis, judg-
ment should be based, wherever possible, on a study of these inclusions
through the entire cycle of activity.
TRANSACTIONS
of
Sm. II, VOL. 8 FEBRUARY, 1946 No.4
SECTION OF BIOLOGY*
JANUARY 14, 1946
DOOTOR ROSCOE R SPENCER, Chief, National Cancer Institute, Wash-
Ington, D. C.: Carctnogene8t8 and CeU Adaptat~ons. (This lecture
was illustrated by lantern slides)
During the past five years, studies have been made of the action of
carcinogenic agents upon free-living single-cell species, based upon the
theory that the process we call carcinogenesis and the process by which
such organisms become adapted to unfavorable environments may have
certain features in common.
Essentially three concepts are involved in this theory:
1. That the cancer process is, in part, at least a speciaL type of
cellular adaptation to various unusual environments. Not all cell
adaptations end in cancer. Reptiles and amphibians rarely respond to
carcinogenic agents. Wooley, Fekete, and Little1 have shown that
cancer of the adrenal cortex may be induced by removal of the ovaries
and testicles of new born mice of the Ce strain, but not in other inbred
strains.
*No meetmg wa~ held m January by the SectlOD of Geology and Mmeralogy.
1Sclence 97: 291 1943
TRANSACTIONS of The New York Academy of Scnenees, Sen.. II, Volume 8, No 4,

February, 1946
ThIS publ1ca.tlon IS dlstnbuted to Members and IS pubbshed monthly from November to
JUlIe, mclUSlVe, at 109 West Chestnut Street, Lancaster, Pa, by The New York Academy of
Scl8l1_, Seventy-nmth Strest and Central Park West, New York o.ty
Echtor' Roy Waldo Mmer
Asmstant Echtor MIchael Dem_t
Executlve Secretary ElIIIlC8 Tbomas Mmer
Entered as second-class matter December 2, 1938, at the post ofll~e at Lancaster, Pa, UIlder the
act of August 24, 1912.
11'0'1'1: This number contaim the A.. Cress), Morrison 1946 Prile Contest
ADnouncement. (See Page 168.)
135
136 TRANSACTIONS
2. That the transformation of a normal cell to a cancer cell in-

volves a step-like process. There is no clinical or experimental evidence
to support the assumption that the genesis of a cancer cell involves a
sudden change in a normal cell. On the other hand, the clinically ob-
served association of cancer with chronic irritation; the various pre-
cancerous lesions and stages; the prolonged incubation period in all ex-
perimentally induced cancers; and such fundamental observations as
Earl's2 in vitro transformation of a single clump of normal cells to can-
cers of six or seven different types of behavior, all seem to fit in with
the concept of gradualism in the genesis of cancer.
3. That the cancer process is basically a survival mechanism. It
has been pointed out that the universal goal of living things is survival,
but the survival of the cancer cell is a thing apart from the survival of
the organism as a whole.
The successful immunization of individual animals to multiple
lethal doses of various toxins is well known, and can be achieved best
by means of interval injections of increasing doses over a considerable
period. Naturally, one suspects that the permanent and successful
adaptation of a race or species, in contrast to the adjustment of the in-
dividual cell or organism, would require a much longer time. How-
ever, it is believed that the underlying biochemical mechanism of species
adaptation must, of necessity, be basically similar to the mechanism of
adjustment of an individual organism.
A cancer cell is conceived of as a descendent of a normal cell that
has gradually adjusted successfully over many cell division cycles or
generations to an unfavorable environment. The adjustment is suc-
cessful from the frame of reference of the cell. It is unsuccessful from
the frame of reference of the organism as a whole, since the cancer cell
becomes parasitic upon its host.
Our studies have yielded results which have suggested that there
are several important principles involved in the mechanism by which
cells become adapted to unfavorable environment.
Experimental data were presented by means of lantern slides
which support the following tentative principles:
1. The continuous exposure of actively mUltiplying, free-living,
bacterial species to an unfavorable environment may not be fa.tal to
• J. Nat. Cancer lDst. ..: 181 lit 16q. October, 1948.
individual organisms or cultures for a number of generations or cell-
division cycles, but in due time, the species will die.
2. By discontinuous or alternating exposure, an actively multi-
plying species can adapt and continue to survive in an environment
that is fatal when the exposure is continuous.
3. The ability of an organism to resist an unfavorable environ-
ment is a function of its age or maturity.
4. Organisms can resist higher intensities of an unfavorable en-
vironment during the resting stage than during the actively multiply-
ing stage.
The belief is expressed that a continuation of these studies will
lead to a better understanding of the underlying principles and mecha-
nism concerned in species adaptation.
138 TRANSACTIONS
JANUARY 21, 1946
DOCTOR T. C. SCHNEIRLA, Associate Professor of Psychology, Washing-
ton Square College of Arts and Science, New York University;
Associate Curator, Dept. of Animal Behavior, American Museum
of Natural History, New York, N. Y.: Ants and Men: Problem8
in the Bio-Psychology of SociaL Organization. (This lecture was
illustrated by lantern slides.)
(An abstract of this paper will be published in a later issue of the
TRANSACTIONS. )
JANUARY 28, 1946
DOCTOR EARL W. CoUNT, New York, N. Y.: The Evolution of the Race
Idea in Modern Western Culture during the Period of the Pre-
Darwinian Nineteenth Oentury.
I.
For several centuries, we of European stock have been adjusting our-
selves to the fact that the world is round and that there are humans on
the other side of it. This does not mean that, until Columbus discovered
America, we had no notion of other racial types. We have long been
used to the idea that there were two kinds of people,-Christians and
heathen, with the Jews constituting some kind of tertium quid. Ethi-
opians, black Pygmies, dark Easterners, sallow horsemen out of the
steppes, were regarded sometimes as curiosities, sometimes as highly
undesirable intruders. The less they resembled ourselves or acted like
us, the longer it took us to recognize them as belonging to the human
species.
However, when we began to explore the whole world and seize
possession of it, a readjustment was necessary. In the beginning, cir-
cumstances required that the rest of mankind adjust itself to USj but,
as a great secular wave of history recedes today, it is we who are com-
pelled to adjust ourselves to the rest of mankjnd.
The history of the concept of race belongs to the intellectual side
of that adjustment. The concept belongs to science. Now, science
is a phenomenon peculiar to European culture in recent centuries.
While the sciences may be pursued by their specialists severally, any
study of the entity of 8cience reveals it as an organ within the body of
our culture, having its own physiology and participating in that of the
whole body-both affecting that body and being affected by it.
However, before we probe further, let us take note of two things.
One is the phenomenon of culture lag within science. Stated in epi-
gram-Newton has been more important to biology than Darwin has
been to physics. Since the Renaissance, we have inverted our strategy
of exploring the universe; so that, instead of starting with man and
140 TRA.NSA.CTIONS
fitting the universe to him, we have been trying to do the opposite.

Hence, what the physicist finds at the close of the seventeenth century
may take another century and a half to permeate biological thinking.1
I must hasten to add that this is meant as a description of a historical
happening, and not as a statement of law. If it actually represents a
law, then that is something still to be verified.
The other preliminary observation applies to a certain difference
which apparently inheres between the physical sciences, on the one
hand, and the biological on the other, and, still more obviously, between
the biological and the social sciences. Physical science is what I shall
ca11-I hope I am not thereby misunderstood-a "leader" science,
while biological and social sciences are "follower" sciences. That is,
physical science can possess a certain detachment which the others can-
not. It explores an infinite universe and its findings, which do not de-
pend upon human events, modify human activity. Thus, the discov-
ery of a physical law can, for instance, eventually alter the material
basis of living and also affect the attitude of the average man towards
the universe. Biological science, on the other hand, deals with only a
small part of the universe. Furthermore, it is to a considerable degree
based on physics and chemistry. The converse of this, however, is
not true. We narrow our field even further when at last we reach the
soaial sciences; for, in spite of ants, wasps, termites, and Rhe8'U8 troops,
the social sciences obtain their material essentially from the events of
man only.
It is necessary to consider these things, because they have greatly
influenced the evolution of race concept. Let us return to the position
that raciology is the result of our Occidental culture endeavoring to
adjust itself, one way or another, to the fact of the human species. It
was the events of human history that compelled some sort of adjust-
ment. We must expect, therefore, that raciology, as we conceive it,
was engendered by the heat of natural aspirations in a way unknown to
the physical sciences. It is possible, for instance, to consider almost
the entire nineteenth century as one era of classical physics, starting
with Count Rumford's heat experiments (1798) and ending in 1896,
when Roentgen discovered X-rays and Becquerel, radioactivity. How-
'III the mid-eighteenth century, ~e _ted the calculus of variations. At the pre&ellt
time, this powerful tool, which would be mvaluable to the metrics of Dl8ll, is still praet.ieally
_pplled in physical anthropology.
ever, this 2 we cannot do with raciology. It moves with history. The
Napoleonic epoch brings to a close the era of the philosophers in science.
Europe then enters upon a reactionary period and a rapid evolution of
nationalism which profoundly influence the science of race. The first
half of the nineteenth century is one of gestation in biological thought.
Then, in mid-century, comes the explosion of Darwinism,S simultane-
ously with a climax in political life. At this time, anthropology is born.
Its gestation has been conducted jointly by the life of general biology
and of social history. Soon we shall find that even 80cial history has
affected the concept of biological race.
Apropos of social history as a factor-we quite understand that it
has been responsible for racism. Racism is a product of nineteenth-
century nationalism, although its antecedents are older. But raciology,
too, the actual bona fide science, has been promoted and enriched by
the developing self-consciousness among those culture-units of Europe,
called nations. Let us distinguish carefully. Raciology is part of the
honest attempt of scientific anthropology to understand man. Racism
is a prostitution of race facts, plus a marshalling of pseudo-facts, fan-
cies, and prejudices, to promote nationalism along pathological chan-
nels. Therefore, I shall do no more than mention, at this time, the
cults of Indo-Germanism, Aryanism, and the "Pan-" movements, such
as Pan-Germanism, Pan-Slavism, Pan-Turanianism, Pan-Hellenism,
etc. In a comprehensive history of race thought, they have their
place; for the pathologies of science are real and part of its case-history.
This brings us to the second great adjustment European man has
been making to man; but this is an adjustment to himself primarily,
not to world-wide man. Eventually, to be BUre, the two adjustments
must be enmeshed; but we need not complicate the story with this
phase. After the fall of Napoleon, the European nations enter upon
an unprecedented self-appraisal. They reach down into the bases of
their composition. So they discover, among a number of other things,
that they are a mixture of "races." Hereby, the 'Word u race" is seen
• This again was a. hIStorical observation, and not a. generalization, in the nature of a. law.
The great 8OC181 events of the nineteenth century-for in'!tanct'. the AmeriCllll Civil War-do not
force 'physics into some hyper. activity, sa the Second World War could do. The inveo.tiODS of
the IliDeteenth century, 80 neeessa.ry to the elBoreseence of technology, did not wait upon the
physicist as they !lOW have to do. Nor was technololP" then, the cultunl giant that it is today.
In other words, technololY had not p~ 88 far m cspturina: physics sa it hss toda;y. SinCe,
therefore, technology is both a. creator of cultural events and is much stimulated by cultural
_fa, such sa war. ~hysics ma;y yet end up by ridiDa the wa\'es and troughs quite as inescapably
88 snthro~logy. But. if and when this happens. it will not mean at all the same thinK about
the "soul' of physics that It will about that of anthropology.
I Darwin's hypothesis was forced out of him reluctantly, by the pressure of s. cultural move·
_to
142 TRANSACTIONS
to take on a second meaning, one which leads eventually to much con-

fusion. Obviously, I cannot be using the word on the same scale, when
I speak of "Alpines" and "Mediterraneans," as when I speak of "Ne-
groes" and "Mongoloids."
Let us divide the history of raciology into the following eras:
1. The eighteenth century, ending with the Napoleonic interlude;
2. The pre-Darwinian period, from the fall of Napoleon to about
1860;
3. The post-Darwinian period, from 1860 to the First World
War;
4. The twentieth century, since the First World War.
For brevity's sake, we shall not go back to the eighteenth century,

except incidentally; and, of the four periods, only the second-the
"gestation" period-will be developed. The last two will only be men-
tioned. As a further limitation, we shall concern ourselves mainly
with France, England, and Germany. For, with due acknowledgment
of the greatness of other nations, these three lead Europe, at least in
the bulk of nineteenth-century thought. If France, in our discussion,
seems to receive more attention than the other two leaders, it is be-
cause, in the particular subject and period that we are dealing with,
she is receiving her due.
II.
In preparation for the period we are to examine more closely, the
least that we can say of the eighteenth century is this: It was what
Merz has called the century of philosophy, as the sixteenth was that
of the Reformation, the fifteenth that of the Renaissance, and the
nineteenth that of science! I think you will agree that it was the
great breeder of ideas. It was molded, either posthumously or con-
temporaneously, by Newton, Leibniz, Spinosa, Johann Sebastian Bach,
Handel, Haydn, Montesquieu, Diderot, the Encyclopedists, Voltaire.
Its highest achievement in thought is probably Kant's "Critique of
Pure Reason." The century was Deistic. It sought a rational uni-
verse into which rational man could fit. Linneus's orderly arrange-
ment of animals, plants, and minerals must be understood from this
• A HiatOf'll of BuropBtm Thought ill the !>lille1eenth CfIIIt.,f'1I. Vol. I.
standpoint. It is the naturalist's version of the philosopher Leibniz's
gradation of all animate entities which he led from the lowest life,
through man, to God. It is entirely fitting, in fact, that the greatest
thinker of the century, Immanuel Kant, should at once have been the
author of the "Critique;" have anticipated, by about forty years,
Laplace's nebular hypothesis of the origin of the solar system; and
have propounded the most advanced theory of his century and of
many years thereafter concerning the origin and diversification of
human races. The eighteenth century produced the ingredients which
the nineteenth developed and worked over in its efforts to account
for the races of man: the significance of heredity, of environment, of
geography; the biological foundations of human culture; the anatomy
and physiology of man, and their position with respect to homologous
phenomena in animal life in general; diversification of races; hybridiza-
tion; statistics, and population pressure. We can say that it sowed the
seeds of evolutionary doctrine, in the sense that some of its thinkers
broke away from the conceit of immutable creations and came to sur-
mise transformation of bodily forms. It is relevant to our story to cite
further that Sanskrit was discovered and the basis of linguistics laid;
that a scientific Biblical criticism began, which was destined to share
in destroying the authority of Genesis in matters now acknowledged to
belong to the domain of science.
The two men who respectively personify the two traditions from
which systematic raciology has started are, Blumenbach and Kant.
The former approaches the problem of race from the point of view of
biological empiricism; the latter, as I have remarked, is the greatest
race-theorist of his time. Blumenbach's approach to raciology was to
become the pattern for many decades that followed; Kant's attempts
were to be almost forgotten.
IMMANulU.. KANT
It is curious to discover that certain leading anthropologists in

this country have not been aware that Immanuel Kant was a "found-
ing father" of raciology, although his influence is hard to appraise.
He lectured regularly on geography and raciology at the University of
Koenigsberg. His works on race are few and not bull.-y. They begin
in 1775 and are scattered over the rest of his life.&
• See especially hls "On tM various rares 01_" (12'75) and "De/initWn of the eonrept of G
h _ rau" (1785).
144 TRANSACTIONS
To Kant, race is a hereditary matter, while heredity is inherent It.

the organism itself and not dependent upon environment. However,
a proper environmental stimulation may bring out certain inherent,
though not previously expressed, characteristics. The original "undif-
ferentiated" human stock, according to Kant, is the brunette-white.
The individuals of the stock contain latent "germs" (Keime) and when
some of the stock moves into a particular climate, the "germs" that
best fit it for that environment are called into expression, resulting in
morphological and physiological modifications. But this process is
irreversible; for the evocation of one germ brings about the permanent
suppression of a homologue that would have responded to a different
environment. Therefore, even if a tribe belonging to a certain race
migrates, as some have done, it cannot reshape its typology. More-
over, some people show that they have gone farther toward complete
race expression, while others art' less "differentiated."
Four typical races are so derived:
1. The very blond race of the North European damp-cold climate.
2. The copper-red race of the American dry-cold climate.
3. The black race of the Senegambian damp-heat.
4. The olive-yellow race of India's dry-heat.
These elemental races have produced all other races by the process
of hybridization. This somewhat simplifies Kant's race theory, but it
does it no essential injustice.
This is the first serious race theory on record. The diagrammatic
arrangement of climates is perhaps its most obvious defect. How or
why Kant arrived at such a system would lead us too far afield. Suffice
it to say that it attempts to account for the mutual relationships be·
tween heredity and environment consistently with the rest of his hy-
pothecation.
Frequently, the failures of the eighteenth-century mind to go just
one step further strike the twentieth-century mind as odd, even baffling.
It is, of course, a matter of the superiority of retrospect. Kant's dia·
gram of climates did not prevent him from recognizing that climates
can change. He adduces into the midst of his race studies very sharp
physiographic reasons for believing that once Central Asia was a
great inland sea.
We cannot help recognizing that here are seminal ideas: the evolu-
tion of races conceived as radial adaptations; their irreversible and
hereditary nature; their inherent independence of environment; the
non-hereditary and purely adaptive nature of such characters as the
deepened tan caused in white men by a tropical sun, in spite of the
failure of negroes to blanch in Europe.
Kant is already identified, then, as one of the school which claims
the original unity of the human genus. The significance of this grows
when we examine the conflict between those who adhere to this view
and those who believe in a multiple origin for man.
An interesting and curious feature is that Kant accepted genus
and race, but not species. We cannot go into the reasons for this, but
it does point out the fact that the species-concept was ill-defined in
Kant's day. Neither Linneus nor Buffon had settled the matter. We
should note, also, that Kant universalizes his biological laws to cover
other animals. Certainly, this will be recognized as being consistently
Kantian.
JOHANN FRIEDBlCH BL'OMENBACH
Blumenbach's claims to the niche in which a grateful posterity of

anthropologists has placed him rests upon the comprehensive scale on
which he conceived physical anthropology. Man's anatomy and physi-
ology; his resemblances to other animals and his distinctive character-
istics; his special psychology; the diversities in all these matters, among
men the world over; his races and their location; all these matters, he
treated with the care and caution of a thoroughbred scientist. His
materials were an imposing array of dissections, fetuses, crania, and
hair specimens. In fact, his private "museum" was one of the show-
places of Gottingen. His treatise, "On the Variety of Mankind" (1st
ed., 1776), was to set the pattern for decades after his time, and it is
still a joy to read. He is remembered today, particularly, for his in-
terest in the shape of the skull as a race diagnostic, and his system of
five human races, located in terms of five world-regions. Many a lay-
man, today, unconsciously memorializes Blumenbach by his impression
that all mankind is divided into five parts: Caucasian, Mongolian,
Negro, Malayan, American Indian.
Blumenbach assumes that species are constant. Also, we must
enter to his account the line that is drawn between race and species
in such a way that the origin of the former can be accounted for, zoolog-
ically, while the origin of species has to be hypothecated only. This is
146 TRANSACTIONS
a weakness that will pervade both camps in the coming argument be-
tween the monogenists and the polygenists. Says Blumenbach, "We
say that animals belong to one and the same species, if they agree so
well in form and constitution, that those things in which they differ
may have arisen from degeneration. We say that those, on the other
hand, are of different species, whose essential differences are such as
cannot be explained by the known sources of degeneration:"'" How-
ever, as for what constitutes a specific trait, he is avowedly uncertain.
Since Blumenbach ascribes to degeneration the differences in races,
we can profitably summarize its manner of occurrmg: "There is no
motion in the animal machine without a preliminary stimulus and a
consequent reaction .... The genital liquid is only the shapeless mate-
rial of organic bodles, composed of the innate matter of the inorganic
kingdom, but differing in the force it shows ... by which its first busi-
ness is under certain circumstances of maturation, mixture, place, etc.
to put on the form destined and determined by them.... Let me be
allowed to distinguish this energy, so as to prevent its being confused
with the other kinds of vital force, ... by the name of formative (nisus
jormativus) ; by which name I wish to designate not so much the cause
as some kind of perpetual and invariably consistent effect ... just in
the same way as we use the name of attraction or gravity to denote
certain forces, the causes of which however still remain hid .... As then
other vital forces, when they are excited by their appointed and proper
stimuli, become active and ready for action, so also the formative force
is excited by the stimuli which belong to it, that is, by the kindling of
heat in the egg during the process of incubation. But as the other vital
forces, as contractility, irritability, etc., put themselves out only by the
mode of motion, this, on the other hand, of which we are talking, mani-
fests itself by increase, and by giving a determinate form to matter....
Now the way in which the formative force may sometimes turn aside
from its determined direction and plan is principally in three forms.
First, by the production of monsters; then by hybrid generation through
the mixture of the genital liquid of different species; finally, by degen-
eration into varieties." Blumenbach then assigns to the various agen-
cies in the environment the warping of the nisus jormatiVUB. Of course,
he has noticed that negroes remain black, even if they have lived in
Europe, so that he has to qualify his theory with supplementary
assumptions.
• De GetIena H.._ . Vllt'WtGte, ed. 1795, par. 23. BeDdyshe's traDslatlOn.
He is so impressed with the preeminent beauty of the "Caucasian"
race, particularly with a female skull from the actual Caucasus region,
that he has inflicted upon us poor whites a name that we cannot, appar-
ently, shake off. So the region just north of the Caucasus must be the
most probable home for the origin of the human genus, and all other
races have degenerated more or less from a pristine ideal.
I offer these sketches of Kant and Blumenbach as samples of
eighteenth century anthropological thought, trusting that we all realize
that it does not do justice to the richness as well as the limitations of
the period. For, the period that is to follow depends, of course, largely
on the richness and the limitations which are its legacy.
III
The fall of Napoleon was, in a way, a blow to science. For, hither-
to, France had been the leader, and now she had many wounds to lick,
some of them of many years' standing. There was no other country
ready to step into her shoes. Germany was preparing to do so, but she
still had a long way to go. The energies of England had long faced
the seven seas quite as much as the continent to her east. Her interests
were divided, and there is a limit to what a nation can do at any time.
There was another reason why at least some of the sciences lan-
guished. After the treaty of Vienna, political Europe went violently
reactionary. The status quo ante was to be restored as far as possible.
It was an age of disappointment and frustration to those who had ex-
pected a new world. Today, we know that the reactionaries were for-
bidding the tide. New forces were gathering and thrusting upward.
Industrialism was gaining momentum. Inventions were mounting.
Population was mUltiplying. Cities were swelling and spilling over.
Socialism was born. Like the sun that shineth upon the just and the
unjust alike, the British constitution was sheltering Karl Marx, Jeremy
Bentham, John Stuart Mill, Thomas Carlyle. The frustrations and
the Sturm und Drang, and also the Aufschwung ("upswing," "soaring")
of the young men produced the romantic movements, with their nostal-
gia for an idealization: Scott, Byron, De Musset, Heine, the Schlegels,
Pushkin, Lermonto1i, Chopin, Schubert, Schumann, the HegeIians.
They also produced the revolts of 1830 and 1848. Through it all, na-
tionalism grew into something unprecedented in the world's history.
European man became gradually aware of movement-movement
148 TRANSACTIONS
throughout the entire universe. The idea of organic evolution could

not have come at an earlier period than it did.
The period saw the estrangement between philosophy and science
-a development that has been expensive to both. But that tale be-
longs to the general history of nineteenth-century thought. It cannot
be rehearsed here. It is sufficient to mention that the romantic phil-
osophers, led by Hegel, did not speak the language of the now thor-
oughly empirical scientists. In away, we might say that the school
of "natural-philosophers" bridged the gap, for among these are some
truly great names, such as Alexander von Humboldt, Lorenz Oken,
Carl Agardh, Erasmus Darwin, Schelling, and Agassiz. Undoubtedly,
we should understand the impulses in raciology better if we were to
linger over them. It must suffice for our purposes that an Immanuel
Kant becomes an impossibility i and that, when philosophy and science
become estranged, the times are truly out of joint.
If we look for the Zeitgeist in science, I believe we can cover it
with the terms, movement and atomism. They are obverse and reverse.
They seem to be responsible for the mechanistic attitude in science,
the so-called scientific materialism. At once, we must distinguish it
from philosophic materialism. In science, it is merely the insistence
that any scientific account must deal only with processes that are
amenable to physical verification. This is why a scientist must be
suspicious of any so-called fact that cannot even be conceived as being
at least theoretically measurable. This attitude does not take full pos-
session of science until the nineteenth century.
This materialism could not start with the study of man. It had
to begin at the other end of the scientific spectrum and work over to
man. It illustrates what I have called a cultural lag in science. The
early nineteenth century discovers the true nature of heat, formulates
the laws of thermodynamics, conceptualizes the conservation of energy.
It is but a step to measurements of work and heat output in animals,
including man. This is, to be sure, only a short step from the eight-
eenth century. It would not, of itself, eliminate the vitalism of the
physiologist, Bichat (1802). Organic chemicals are still organic, until,
in 1828, Wohler synthesizes urea artificially, and the wall between or-
ganic and inorganic chemistry begins to break down. There follows
the elaboration of the carbon cycle in nature, the discovery of the
function of oxygen in the blood and the tissues.
This affects our particular province in two ways. Men become
habituated to explaining phenomena exclusively in natural terms.
Even phenomena that might be supposed extra-natural turn out to be
amenable to natural treatment; as, for instance, when Gall compre-
hends the significance of the gray matter in the brain. (As Gall also
believed in the importance of heredity, he was accused by the Church
of being a "materialist" and a danger to the doctrine of free will.)
Race psychology travels along with race morphology, through Blumen-
bach, Prichard, Broca, down to our own post-Darwinian days. Even
Linneus opened a sluice when he classified races as having consistently
their several particular temperaments.
However, let us not make the mistake of imagining that the eight-
eenth century could not think at all of a living thing-including man-
in mechanical terms. It amused itself by constructing marvelous
clockwork dolls. It was aware that the human body is full of levers
and pulleys. Nevertheless, this same century produced deism and
vitalism, and it was quite consistent in doing so. Interestingly enough,
comparisons between man and ape did not shock the eighteenth century
as they did the nineteenth. It is the measure between the presence
of materialism in the later science and its absence in the earlier. Nine-
teenth-century (post-Darwinian) ape-man comparisons stood for a
blood-relationship between the "soul-less" ape and man. Eighteenth-
century comparisons demonstrated certain consistencies of idea. in a
Deistic universe. The eighteenth century set things in orderly array,
thus demonstrating the rationalism of God. As mentioned before, we
should understand Linneus, the naturalist, and Leibniz, the philosopher,
in this way. It was possible even to construct pseudo-evolutionary
theories. For instance, the bird is the perfection out of an ancestral
flying-fish. Man, himself, can be conceived as having attained per-
fection out of less perfect ancestors. Kant suggests that the arrange-
ment of man's internal organs indicates that his ancestors once went
about on all fours; but, to the eighteenth century, none of this means an
organic, evolutionary blood-relationship between man and ape. The
ancestral tiger was less perfect than the contemporary tiger; but the
whole series of generations started from a separate creation. This is
De Maillet's view; it will serve as a sample. *
°Cf. Radl: Gachtchte d. B.ologUohm 'I'heorlen, Vol. II (1909).
150 TRANSACTIONS
This sort of thing was bound, eventually, to undermine the belief

in an originally perfect creation; but, in a century of Deism, it had no
trouble getting along.
The significance of movement to the developing racial thought will
come out of itself. But atomism requires special attention.
The nineteenth century developed the belief that, if it could
take all things apart and reach the ultimate unit, it would have ex-
plained the physical universe. It succeeded in discovering the atom
and the electron. By 1830, Schleiden and Schwann had put their fin-
gers on the real nature of the living cell (biological atomism). Ani-
mals, including man, are dissected, not merely anatomically, but in a
temporal sense. That is, they are analyzed back into the embryo,
and the embryo leads back to the cell; in fact, to a zygote. We should
note, in passing, that movement in developmental anatomy (in on-
togeny) is to become a powerful ally of movement in evolutionary
anatomy (phylogeny); and so, eventually, to revolutionize the concept
of race.
The eighteenth century had gone far in placing man within the
framework of natural law, along with all other living things, and the
momentum carries over into the nineteenth century. From this stand-
point, let us understand the contribution of the Belgian astronomer
Quetelet (1796-1874) to physical anthropology and raciology. In
1835, he publishes a study, "On Man and the Development of His Fac-
ultie8." It turns out that the same kind of frequency-curves that apply
to variations in other natural phenomena are valid for man, too. Now,
the measurement of man is known even earlier than the eighteenth cen-
tury; but Quetelet's work appears in the midst of the materialist trend
in science. Furthermore, he measures the anatomical and physiological
differences between races, e.g., between Whites and Indians; and still
further, se measures living people. He amasses a series of measure-
ments and calculates their average. Out of averages, he conceptualizes
the ideal man ('ideal' in a philosophical sense), the type that character-
izes the tendency of the group, though no single individual may fit it.
Both the manipulation of series and the treatment of measurements
mean that man is being introduced to quantitative analysis. The in-
dividual turns out to be a law-abiding variant of a law-abiding group,
just lib many other natural phenomena. In 1842, Anders Retzius, the
Swedish anatomist, carries Blumenbach's love of craniology to the
calipers. He measures the length and breadth of crania and takes
their ratio. Now, long-heads and short-heads had been noticed long
before, and even their occurrence in some systematic way as far back
as Vesalius. Certainly, their ethnic significance was stated by Edwards,
in 1829, as we shall note again later. But Retzius measures, and out
of his cranial index he determines that all mankind falls into categories
of dolichocephals or brachycephals (his own terms), and their incidence
is significant geographically. By adding prognathism and orthog-
nathism he achieves a four-way classification.
It is too bad that time will not allow us to follow out all the con-
sequences of this radical step in metric analysis of human races. We
must be content with a brief series of comments. First, head-shape
could not be referred to any system of environment. It fitted no con-
ceivable set of external circumstances, and apparently it was constant
from parent to offspring. This added to the evidential strength of
heredity in race. Second, the four-class scheme naturally predeter-
mined the number of human types found. This does not lead necessar-
ily to certain misapplications to race classification; but, as a matter of
fact, it has done so, during the twentieth century, when the world dis-
tribution of such gross skull-proportions have been misidentified with
actual race. Third, a dividing-line between dolichocephaly and
brachycephaly is bound to be arbitrary. In fact, this has eventually
been realized, and the mesocephals have been created as a buffer. Thie
is one of several refinements that have been introduced into the system.
Fourth, it reduces a solid to a plane. I cannot help wondering whether
this weaknel!!S may not have delayed recognizing the difference, for
instance, between Dinarics and Alpines. Fifth, Retzius then classifies
mankind in terms of tribes and linguistic stocks, according to their
placement in his four classes. About this confusing introduction of
tribes and linguistic stocks into a physical classification, there will
be more to say later. For the moment, it illustrates a very common
pitfall of the period. Nevertheless, it is the fundamental principle
of Retzius' method that, in later years, has been applied fruitfully to
unraveling the tangle.
After Retzius, especially after Darwin laid stress on many small
and "random" variations, craniometrists multiplied measurements and
indices, until, at the close of the century, von Torok was taking hundreds
of thousands on a single skull, in an effort to reach the ultimate in
152 TRANSACTIONS
differences, and craniometry threatened to collapse of overweight.

This was nothing else than the reductio ad absurdum of the atomistic
logic as applied to human quantitative analysis. In all fairness to von
Torok, he himself recognized this before the whole movement was in
ruins.
All these processes are shaping man to fit into a universe of natural,
immutable, but mobile law. The climax is to come when evolution is
introduced into the whole scheme. But much still remains to be accom-
plished and we must turn to some contributions from other sciences.
We have observed how Blumenbach illustrates the temper of the
eighteenth century in anchoring the several races to geographic locales.
In the nineteenth century, as historic depth becomes gradually applied
even to an emergent prehistory, the movements of races take on an
importance but poorly understood, in the eighteenth. Nevertheless,
geography is a factor in the race scheme. It needs merely to be eval-
uated properly. Kant had noticed that the current of human migration
set in the direction from Asia to America, that America was an ethnic
recipient and not a donor. But the protean situation in the matter
of human origins and race diversification that obtains in the period
we are considering is reflected in Louis Agassiz. In 1845, he is a
monogenist-a believer in a single origin for man. In 1850, he finds
eleven or twelve distinct human species. In 1853, he has reduced them
to eight, and fits them to eight faunal-floral provinces. Finally, he be-
lieves in a multiple origin for man. It is, of course, the inalienable
right of any thinking man to change his mind. However, states of
mind are not our principal concern. Agassiz was to become a con-
firmed opponent of Darwin j yet his contribution to raciology comes
from studies in the very field that made an evolutionist of Alfred Wal-
lace. Faunal provinces are a bona fide part of the equipment of mod-
ern zoology. What Agassiz did not realize was that, anti-evolutionist
that he was, he yet identified man with the provinces, as though he
were but another animal. He was impressed, apparently, with the
characteristic adaptations of several masses of humans to several dif-
ferent environments. He was writing in a day before Edward Tyler,
when Lyell was establishing historical geology along modern lines, but
had not come to be accepted universally j when the evolution of faunal-
floral provinces was no more than a germ in the minds of such as Wal-
lace; when great, secular movements of man, reaching back even into
sub-human ages, and occurring while climate, too, evolved, were still
a concept unseizable by the scientific imagination. However, we can-
not, at this time, go into the great subject of anthropogeography and
its significance to raciology. The subject was very much alive in the
late nineteenth and in the twentieth century.
We ha.ve now surveyed contributions from a number of sciences to
a gestating anthropology. It is high time that we take up aga.in that
strand which after all must ever remain central to scientific raciology:
the comparative anatomy and physiology of man-the tradition of
Blumenbach, of Cuvier, Geoffroy St. Hilaire, Darwin, Lawrence. The
early nineteenth century teems with names that deserve more than mere
mention. The leadership of France still shines forth in the preponder-
ance of Frenchmen. But we can catch the flavor of the age by limiting
ourselves to Georges Cuvier.
GEORGES CuVIER
Tradition credits Cuvier with the tripartite division of mankind

into blacks, whites, and yellows. Actually, tripartite division was also
known to the eighteenth century. Furthermore, Cuvier lists a residue
of Malays, Papuans, and American Indians that do not fit his tripartite
scheme and, therefore, are of uncertain position. It is very much like
accepting three of Blumenbach's categories and doubting the other two.
But even if Cuvier did not originate the classification, it is very cer-
tain that the enormously painstaking founder of comparative anatomy
and paleontology had far more factual evidence to ba.ck his taxonomy
than his predecessors had. Cuvier's prestige dominated the first third
of the century. The tripartite scheme passes down through Huxley
(but suitably modified) and is, I believe, the most widely-accepted race
scheme among contemporary anthropologists. What seems to me most
impressive, however, in this first half of the nineteenth century, is the
failure of zoological principles to progress in raciology. More em-
pirical, biological facts about man are gathered in, but new insight into
race does not Beem to come from them. That is, BIumenbach sounds
hardly less modern, a generation after his death, than he did when he
was alive. When we come to treat of the use of linguistics in the con-
temporaneous classifications of man, we shall realize that the con-
servative caution of empirical biology prevented it from meeting a
need which was felt by raciologists.
154 TRANSACTIONS
Let us return to Cuvier, who was far more significant than as the
propounder of a usablc tripartite taxonomic schemc.
He is remembered, of course, for his famous dcbate with Geoffroy,
in 1830, in which he ostensibly defeated the latter, who stood for some
kind of evolution in nature. Cuvier, th('refore, is remembered as an
opponent of evolution. To Cuvier, the fossils seemed to say that there
had been several epochs of past life on earth, each destroyed by some
great natural catastrophe; whereupon, the earth was repopulated from
living things that had escaped destruction in some asylum. Cuvier's
followers turned these repopulations into successive, independent crea-
tions, and the perversion has been unjustly ascribed to Cuvier, who
has explicitly denied this to be his view. As to where each new seed-
ing came from, he was agnostic. He did believe that each successive
inter-catastrophal epoch shows a higher system of fauna. Man did
not appear until the present epoch; where from, Cuvier did not say.
He declared categorically, "There are no human fossils." For his day,
he was right. Cuvier himself had examined alleged human fossils and
had found them erroneous-some of them ridiculously so. *
Cuvier, however, rendered a service that cannot be overestimated.
While his catastrophism was a mistaken interpretation, soon to be re-
futed by the classic geological explorations of Sir Charles Lyell, it was
Cuvier who gathered and arranged the empirical evidence that there
had been a progressive succession of faunas on earth. As a result, the
static picture, which was all that the eighteenth century could offer,
begins its slow movement. With Cuvier, biological nature begins to
tum kinetic. The evolution of human races is involved along with
all other evolution.
EDWABO LAWRENCE
This greatest physical anthropologist, between the time of Kant
and Darwin, cut an unhappy figure. At 34 (in 1817), the famous sur-
geon and professor made utterances not heard again for over two genera-
tions. He raised a tremendous hue and cry. His published lectures
• The Cannstadt calvarium was found in 1700. It was not pictured or described untU 18351
and. thenl.but jlOOrly. We do well to remember that a Gibraltar specimen, discovered in 1848, 8I1Q
the first rleanderthal specimen, found in 1858, were all the paleontoloKicai evidence of ancient man
in existence before the publication of Darwin's "Origin of Species." One has no right to expect
.. scientist to pin his convictions to as slender .. piece of incipient e.nd unprecedented evidence as
the Gibraltar spemmen. Schaafbausen described the N eand.erthal skuU. As he h&d alre&dy &D-
nounced his belief In evolutIon before Darwm published, he boldly welcomed this corroboratlOD.
Vll'Chow, the patholOgISt, declared the specunen to be mPrely pathological Homo 8IIpisns. In the
state of knowll'dge In that day, the Interpreta.tion was qUIte reasonable.
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1.i5
were refused copyright. He was forced by his superiors to repudiate'
them; and, although he is known to have had the natural COUl'ItW'. of
his convictions, for some reason never again did he busy llimHl..'lf With
anthropology. What his maturer mind might have produced .ill .nn
attractive speculation. He lived to advise Darwin against publu!lllllJ,!;
his ideas, lest he be pilloried; but the ideas of the young mIlD ill his
thirties continued their momentum undcrground, as repeated and wille'-
spread references to them during this period testify. Because he ('oulcl
not procure a copyright, he was forced to see publishers pirate edit.ioll
after edition of his lectures, to which he never contributed furthrr.
Lawrence dedicated his lectures to Blumenbach. From the latu'r,
obviously, he derived his comprehensive scope for surveying mankind.
Although he found Blumenbach's race classification wanting in !:ICVCI'IL(
respects, he did not undertake to improve upon it, but showcd hiullWlf
to be a keener biologist than Blumenbach. His lectures arc stilI un
inspiration to read. He says: *
"1. The differences of physical organization and of moml nnd
intellectual qualities, which characterize the several races of our HI)('(·ic'H,
are analogous in kind and degree to those which distinguish thl' hf('('dH
of the domestic animals; and must, therefore, be accounted for nn till'
same principles.
tl2dly, they are :first produced, in both instances, as native or I'C)J)-
genital varieties; and then transmitted to the offspring in herlldit.nry
succession.
tl3rdly, of the circumstances which favor this disposition to the l'rn-
duction of varieties in the animal kingdom, the most powerful ill tilt'
state of domestication.
tl4thly, external or adventitious causes, such as climate, situation,
food, way of life, have considerable effect in altering the conlltituLiull of
man and animals; but this effect, as well as that of a.rt or accid('nl" iH
confined to the individual, not being transmitted by g£'Ilerntion, mHI
therefore not affecting the race."
The following statement concerning what is hereditary and wlmt iK
not is even startlingly modern:
"When the fetus in utero has small-pox or syphilis, thoro ill MtMl
communication of disease by the :fI.uids of the mother. This ia a cww
156 TRANSACTIONS
altogether different from those under consideration. Neither does

hereditary predisposition to particular diseases prove that acquired
conditions are transmitted to the offspring. There are natural varieties
of organization, disposing different individuals to different diseases on
application of thc same external causes. The natural varieties, like
those of form, colour, and other obvious properties, are continued to
the children."
That the influence of Lawrence, like that of Kant, should have been
largely lost from raciology, is a great pity. That Lawrence can hardly
have been "8purlos versenkt," however, is suggested by the pirating of
his book. Topinard related that Broca made him read Lawrence's lec-
tures, and Cunningham, in 1908, who repeated this remark, said that
it was his practice, too, in connection with his own studenJts in an-
thropology.
We have been feeling the temper of scientific thought in this
earlier half of the nineteenth century, and will soon be turning to the
other great influence upon raciology. We cannot do better, in winding
up this part of our discussion, than treat of the prime controversy over
race and species that stormed down the decades and continues even in
our own day. It makes a better transition, because it was effected by
a vexed social and economic problem of the day, and it demonstrates
that even scientists are human.
I refer to the battle between the monogenists and polygenists, in
which the contestants still carry the aroma of Biblical tradition in their
vestments, and where the negro slave suffers the usual fate of the inno-
cent bystander.
Again, we must go back into the preceding century, and recall a
remark by our contemporary, Toynbee, that our earlier efforts towards
arriving at an explanation of man's races utilized the theological mate-
rials already at hand. Can Adam and Eve assume the responsibility
for kinds of men obviously unmentioned in the Bible? In 1655, 180
Peyrere did a courageous thing. He published his Pre-Adamites-and
became the progenitor of the polygenists, who have always believed that
humankind has a multiple origin.
Now, if you are a polygenist, you must explain the interfertility of
the numerous human "species" (races). If, on the other hand, you be-
lieve that all mankind descended from one species, in spite of every
objection, you must account for the diversity 9f races and evaluate
heredity and environment in producing so much diversity from a slender
original stock. It really is a difference in your psychology. As 80
polygenist, you are impressed with the diversities. As a monogenist, you
prefer similarities. Which are the more fundamental? On what prem-
ises do you answer that question? Your school, moreover, will affect
your receptivity towards the very meager evidence as to human hybrid
fertility and quality.
Today, we can see that the tide was setting against the polygenists,
long before it was realized by the warring parties themselves. While
the polygenists included some doughty champions, such as Agassiz,
Pouchet, Nott, and Glidden, the most memorable names in the history
of raciology are monogenists; e.g., Blumenbach, Cuvier, Lawrence,
Prichard. Blumenbach derived the colored races from the white by
degeneration. Cuvier seems to have been aided to his tripartite
scheme by Noah's three sons (as others have been). Prichard thought
original man was black and that the rest of us have undergone various
intensities of bleaching. In any case, it is no great mental gymnastics
to imagine that men have endlessly "degenerated" or diversified, how-
ever they have done it. You find mankind as full of races as you wish;
which, in fact, was what race-taxonomists were doing, under a variety
of assumptions. But, if you multiply original "species" under the
polygenist assumption, you call into being a new set of stem-parents
with every new identification, unless you account for some of them by
hybridization; in which case again, you are confronted with an endless
interspecific fertility, and to the polygenists this idea often was not
congenial.
An attempt to outline in a very few sentences as diversified a con-
troversy as this one, and also one in which the hypotheses have re-
ceived the stamp of time and have been relegated to the archives, is
always likely to be unjust to the caliber of the disputants. Perhaps
the thought-fashion of the days just before Darwin can best be hinted at
by a short quotation from the judicious Waitz, who writes on the eve
of the Origin oj Species:*
"In condensing the results of our investigation regarding the defi-
nition of species, we have found that it designates those types perma-
nent which are transmitted by propagation. We were induced to sepa-
rate the questions of unity of species and unity of descent on the ground
• Waitz AttthrO'pologll. I. CoIliDpood'. traDslation: ltl ff. 1868.
158 TRANSACTIONS
that the same assemblage of constant characters may belong originally

to distinct stocks j and we could not, therefore, consider unity of descent
as necessary to our definition of species. If, thus, separate descent
was no valid proof for difference of species, unlimited prolificacy proved
an important, but not a decisive mark of distinction between species
and race, and could only be considered as a probable sequence.
UFinally, reversion and its allied phenomena appeared insufficient
to furnish an undoubted criterion of species and race. And as it be-
came apparent that such a criterion could not be established, we hoped
that the defect would be supplied by the conclusions of analogy fur-
nished by the comparison of various species. This expectation was
also doomed to disappointment, as the limits of variation in different
types seem to be of a greatly diversified extent.... The general ques-
tion as regards a decided mark of distinction between race and species
can only be answered by the particular study of the extant variation
in individual types....
"The investigation of the unity of mankind as a species can only
be finally completed, when the results of long continued influences of
all possible external conditions in which man is able to live, are as
fully and clearly ascertained, as the results of all possible crossings of
various human types after a long series of generations. But as our ex-
perience in this respect is very far from being perfect, we are compelled
to stop at some more or less probable propositions, which must pro-
ceed from the solution of the question, whether a gradual alteration of
types belonging to the same stock can be proved, and whether it be
sufficiently extensive in order to show that the greatest differences pre-
vailing among mankind are merely variations. Next to that the ques-
tion will be, whether the cross-breeds of the various types, by limited
prolificacy, or by constant reversion to the parent type, resemble more
the hybrids or mongrels of different races."
It seems that the futile impasse to which argument between the
camps had come was due to their failure to absorb the mechanistic
temper of the age enough to think of species and race in the same way.
They seemed to place the two concepts in different compartments of
thinking, at least at the start of the controversy. About species, they
did not postulate the mode of origin. They accepted species as a starl-
ing-point, whatever a species may be, and then sought to derive races
by quite natural means. At least, that was the essential method of
the monogenists. But unless we appreciate the practice of assuming
the fact of species and then focusing upon race origins, we cannot sense
the explosive impact of such an eventful title as the Origin of Species.
Even the great geologist, Sir Charles Lyell, who founded historical
geology and overthrew Cuvier's system of successive catastrophes, was
long reluctant to accept Darwin's hypothesis, much to Darwin's cha-
grin and disappointment.
It is interesting that both monogenists and polygenists were con-
vinced of the superiority of the white race; although, to be fair, there
were some who suspended judgment about racial "inequality." The
humane Lawrence stated that if the negro is inferior, nevertheless, he is
human. This is an echo of Soemmerring (1785). "But if the white is
superior," says Lawrence, "then noblesse oblige." Lawrence spoke in
the days when England was getting rid of the slave trade. There were
pro-slavery people who accepted monogenism and cited Noah's curse
of Ham to justify themselves. On the other hand, polygenism seems
to have been a more congenial attitude, if you were a pro-slaver. It
was favored by many (see Nott and Glidden). That the whole ques-
tion of the position and status of the negro agitated the students of
man, is witnessed by a very long deliberation by the French society of
ethnology. The role of science is to ascertain the truth, and not to en-
gage in social propaganda. The deliberation was to ascertain the
truth. It demonstrated perfectly how society posed a problem which
the students of man were obliged to consider. At the same time, as
far as I know, none of the conclusions of the scientists had any effect
whatsoever in settling the issue of negro slavery.
Since our story is to go no farther than the eve of Darwinism, let
me clinch the difference of outlook in biology before and after this
event, for raciology eventually partakes of it.
"We have had occasion," says Radl,* to point out that the new
natural science, instead of seeking to com']YT'ehend nature, aspired to an
intellectual re']YT'oductioo of natural events; that instead of concepts of
nature it sought a photograph of nature. Everywhere we see how, in
keeping with this endeavor, the earlier concepts-in-common were ban-
ished from the biological sciences and were replaced with things-in-
common. Whereas the old natural-scientist spoke of the ideal verte-
brate type, the new one speaks of a real ancestor of the vertebrate,
.Op. cit. n: 3'1S1f.
160 TRANSACTIONS
which occurred somewhere and sometime; formerly, one reflected about

metamorphoses and unity of plan, now one discusses transformations
which occurred at a certain timc and proceeded from a common origin;
the former ideal similarity is now replaced by a material blood-rela-
tionship."
IV.
We have been tracing, thus far, the biological tradition from
which the idea of race in man has derived. We have remarked that
anthropology does not become a self-contained and unified discipline
until the mid-century. We have seen this evidenced by the fact that
the most important ideas that have gone into it were wrought out in
other disciplines and then applied to man; while that region which is
peculiar to raciology, namely, the classification of races, is the least
progressive part of the whole concept, because its biology, after all, is
not deep enough. We have noted the divorce between philosophy and
science. In this period, there comes to raciology a new mass of influ-
ence; and it is not from the laboratory or the explorer's journal, but
from the clash and clang of the life of nations. I have no better name
for it than the cultural or the social as contrasted with the biological
influence. It has to do with that other great adjustment which Euro-
pean man has been making: the adjustment within his own bounds,
the understanding of himself down to the very biological roots which
his fast-developing nationalism has demanded of him. It has to do
with that use of the word "race" on a smaller scale, to distinguish the
various strains of which he is composed. He will try to unravel these
strains and trace whence they come. History has already told him
that some of them, at least, are invaders within cultural memory. But
what of the others? Perhaps language can help identify them. In
the absence of written documents, the evidence of the new science of
prehistoric archeology must serve. In last analysis, to serve for iden-
tification, there can be no substitute for the actual corporal man. The
real significance of heredity compared with environment must be set-
tled, and so the road leads back to biology.
In the eighteenth century, Europe discovered Sanskrit; and, there-
after, that most of the languages lying in a swathe from Iceland to
India belong to a common family and indicate a common original. It
was one more earnest of universal evolution that European thought
was building up before Darwin. It came at a time when European
nationalism was beginning to soari at a time when the people of a na-
tion were taking the stage of attention more pervadingly and in a
more sophisticated manner than ever before. It is as though the na-
tions were following Napoleon's military levee en masse with a cul-
turallevee en masse . ...
In 1828, in the recently-defeated France, Amedee Thierry pub-
lished his History of the Gauls. The last word is significant. It be-
speaks a progression since the day when Gibbon wrote The Decline
and FaU of the Roman Empire. In 1829, W. F. Edwards published in
antiphony to Thierry The Phyaiological Characteristics of the Human
Races. Institutions and their history may pass away, but peoples
endure. Edwards concentrated on the people of France, but passed
far beyond her borders. There are two distinguishable types in France,
that occur also in neighboring countries. One is medium in stature,
rather dark, and round-headed including the "Gauls," whose speech
was once Celtic. The other is a tall and long-headed race, the "Kimri,"
alias the "Belgae." Both natural history and "civil" history, accord-
ing to Edwards, testify that they have maintained constancy since an-
tiquity; which means that, in this case, heredity is stable. Edwards
eited the experiments of Coladon on the crossings of black and grey
mice. The two strains appear separately in the offspring. He applied
this to man. "The human races that differ the most from each other,"
he says, "constantly produce hybrids. Thus a mulatto is always the
result of a mixture of white and black races. The other observation,
that the two original types are produced when the parents belong to two
elose varieties, is less notable, but it is none the less true. The fact is
common among the European nations. Crossing produces sometimes
fusion, sometimes separation of types."
The French had long been used to the knowledge that they were
of mixed origin. Edwards initiated the investigation that was later
carried to a brilliant point by Broca (1860), which demonstrated the
racial make-up of the nation and related it to the historical and lin-
guistic background. The significant point, here, is that Edwards started
a line of investigation that determined the relationships-and non-re-
lationships-between race, language, and nation, on a historical and
anthropological basis. The fact of race diversity in Europe transects
national boundaries at the very time when na.tionalism is becoming
more intensively significant, and the fact owes its elaboration, in part,
to the national self-consciousness with which it does not coincide.
162 TRANSACTIONS
The linguists, meanwhile, were busy with the question, "What was
the original Indo-European tongue?" To which, the students of race
respond, "Yes, but who were the Indo-Europeans?" It was natUral to
reason that so distinctive an entity as an Indo-European language must
once have been carried by a distinctive strain of people. By now,
no raciologist would argue that climate makes the difference between
a Swede and a Hindu. However, language eventually proved to be a
less reliable and fruitful guide to race identification than it had seemed
to promise. Nevertheless, who were the people who originated Indo-
European speech in Europe?
JAMES C. PmCHARD
In this period, the greatest figure is the English Quaker physician,
Prichard, whose monument is his Natural History oj Man (1843)
and his Researches into the Physical History oj Man (1826-1847,
and later). The first volume of the latter work starts with fauna and
fiora, describes man the animal, and then takes up the problem of race
in man. However, this encyclopedic and very painstaking research then
follows tribes back into their history, and describes what, today, would
be ethnology. Nevertheless, it does not define "race." Prichard's
linguistic division of Europe and Asia is into Indo-Europeans and "AI-
lophylans."
Now, Europe rushed to a climax.
In 1853, Gobineau published his Essay on the Inequality oj Races;
embarked on a series of wars: against Austria (with Sardinia), against
Russia (with England), against Mexico, and finally against Prussia
and her German coalition (1870-1).
In 1853, Gobineau published his Essay on the Inequality oj Races;
dedicated it to the English crown; was ignored by his own compatriots
and, eventually, was taken up by their rivals across the Rhine;
1856, Quatrefages became the first Professor of Anthropology;
1858, The English crown took over the government of India;
1858, Broca founded the first Anthropological Society;
1859, Darwin's Origin oj Species was published;
1860, Sardinia became the Kingdom of Italy;
1860, Broca's Researches into the Ethnology of France appeared;
1861, Nationhood in the United States was brought to its critical
test;
1863, The Anthropological Society of London was founded j
1866-1871, Prussia eliminated the challenges of Austria and France
for the hegemony in Europe, and founded the German Empire; and in
1871, Italy took Rome;
1865, Anthropological or Ethnological Societies were founded in
New York, St. Petersburg, Moscow, and from 1866 to 1874, in Man-
chester, Florence, Berlin, Vienna, Stockholm, and Tifiis.
I have presented the dichotomy of tradition behind the concept of
race in the pre-Darwinia.n nineteenth century: a biological tradition
and a social one. The former, we have watched take shape out of an
eighteenth-century matrix, in which the philosophical aspect, embodied
in its highest form by Kant, was sloughed off j while the aspect best
embodied by Blumenbach was continued. We have noted, also, that
general biology underwent a certain critical development, during the
period we have examined particularly, but that the application to man
remained such as to warrant our speaking of the period as one of ges-
tation only. On the other hand, the social tradition grew mightily,
particularly in France j so that raciology drew sustenance from a rap-
idly-developing ethnology. In fact, I think we should :find raciology
in danger of becoming but a part of ethnology. By mid-century, eth-
nology and anthropology were a pair of fidgeting nestlings not quite
sure of their respective rights in a common nest Also, do not imagine
that the birth of the anthropological societies was a simple triumph of
-circumstances. The midwives who attended had their problems.
Broca's anthropological society in Paris was tolerated on condition that
the police attend each meeting. In England, the Anthropological So-
ciety ran into a maze of suspicions and jealousies among the scientists
-the very people who should have cheered its founding. (Admittedly,
the founders must share the blame therefor.) The point is, that again
we have one of those many, many instances when the times are indeed
ripe for a new movement, but only a small portion of society is sensi-
tive enough to realize it.
While Napoleon III and Bismarck were duelling before the foot-
lights, an equally significant struggle was going on upstage. I have
spoken of Broca's founding the Anthropological Society of Paris and
his publishing in its first Memoire his classic Researche8 into the Eth-
164 TRANSACTIONS
noZogy of France; furthermore, that he so builds beyond Edwards.

France seeks the sources of her greatness in the excellence of her mon-
grelization on a soil she is peculiarly in love with i while an emergent
Germany welcomes Broca's compatriot because he points to a polariy
contrasting source: the romance of either a pure-bred strain or an in-
tegrated ethnos (or both) that must be preserved intact. The German.
story is told to better advantage in a treatment that runs away beyond
the limits we have set ourselves i and our time is running out.
Let us conclude by speaking of Gobineau.
He is celebrated for his tenet of an Aryan race, superior to all
others, which brings the blessings of culture wherever it goes. There
is no other race that does this. When it enters among a non-Aryan
people, it degenerates by interbreeding and so disappears. Its salva-
tion, then, rests in its native soil-remote from the Mediterranean.
Gobineau obviously has drawn nourishment from the developments in
ethnology and raciology in his homeland.
I would emphasize that Gobineau is not a unique phenomenon;
that he stands forth under the peculiar lighting-effects of latter years,
because of circumstances subsequent and entirely independent of his
writings. For the belief that a superior race is endangered biologic-
ally when it passes from its homeland to any or all quarters of the
globe, was very rife in the mid-nineteenth century. Back of it lay
the commercial and colonizing expansions of Europe. There were
Englishmen who worried about the Anglo-Saxon in the tropics, in Aus-
tralia, and even in the United States. The peculiar service of Gobi-
neau was the particular furtherance he gave to Aryanism, and this.
within the continent of Europe. Again, a very intricate and signifi-
cant subject must forego analysis. I shall merely hint at it by remark-
ing that Angles and Saxons were more substantial, historically, than
"Aryans," and, while British penetration into exotic lands has repeatedly
been dire, it can hardly parallel the situation of a racism that arises
within the ever-tightening confines of Central Europe, with its ex-
tremely high cultural metabolism and long-standing rivalry between
two nexuses that are cultural peers-Germany and France.
So let me speak briefly of Robert Knox, the British equivalent of
Gobineau, an intense believer in "race," and a "Saxon" patriot. His
Racea of Man: a Fragment first appeared in 185O-before Gobineau's
book. In some ways it outdoes Gobineau. Aside from that, he fears
for the degeneration of the emigrant Saxon. Nevertheless, he can de-
clare the vices and imperfections of the "Saxon race" as virulently and
as thumpingly as its virtues. He does not like to see the Saxon ex-
posing himself disastrously in situations that bring out his weaknesses,
and Saxon patriotism does not preclude an admiration of the "Celtic
race" in its place. The point is, that Knox makes all the currents of
history racial, at base, a tradition that has lasted to our own times.·
* Of , II fJ , R. B DIXOD'. f'1uI BaClIIl Risto", of Mrm.
166 TRANSACTIONS
SECTION OF BIOLOGY
JANUARY 17, 18 AND 19, 1946
Conference on "Ant?biotic8."
The Section of Biology held a Conference on It Antibiotics," as the
third in the series for the Academic year, 1945-1946.
Thursday, January 17. Chairman, Selman A. Waksman, New Jer-
sey Agricultural Experiment Station, Rutgers University, New Bruns-
wick, New Jersey.
"Antibiotic Substances, 3. Contribution of the Microbiologist," by
Selman A. Waksman.
"The Development of Improved Penicillin-Producing Molds," by
Kenneth B. Raper, Fermentation Division, Northern Regional Labora-
tories, Peoria, Illinois.
"Metabolism and Penicillin-Producing Molds," by W. H. Peter-
son, M. J. Johnson, and R. H. Burris, University of Wisconsin, Madi-
son, Wisconsin.
"Production of Antibiotic Substances by Basidiomycetes," by W.
J. Robbins, F. Kavanagh, and Mrs. A. Hervey, Department of Botany,
Columbia University and The New York Botanical Gardens, New
York, N. Y.
"Production of Antibiotic Substances of Actinomycetes," by Sel-
man A. Waksman, A. Schatz, and D. M. Reynolds, New Jersey Agri-
cultural Experiment Station, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New
Jersey.
"Production of Antibiotic Substances by Bacteria," by J. W. Fos-
ter and H. B. Woodruff, Merck and Company, Rahway, New Jersey.
Friday, January 18. Chairman, Hans T. Clarke, College of Phy-
sicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
"Isolation and Characterization of Penicillins," by Oskar Winter-
steiner, The Squibb Institute for Medical Research, New Brunswick,
New Jersey.
leThe Skeletal Structure of Penicillin," by Karl Folkers, Merck
and Company, Rahway, New Jersey.
"Constitutional Studies of Penicillin," by Vincent du Vigneaud,
Cornell University Medical College, New York, N. Y.
"Artificially Produced Penicillins," by Ervin C. Kleiderer, Eli
Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana.
Saturday, January 19. Chairman, Chester S. Keefer, Eval!ls
Memorial Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts.
"Pharmacology of Streptothricin and Streptomycin," by Hans
Molitor and H. Robinson, Merck Institute for Therapeutic Research,
Rahway, New Jersey.
"Pharmacology of Penicillin," by Geoffrey Rake and Arthur P.
Richardson, The Squibb Institute for Medical Research, New Bruns-
wick, New Jersey.
"Chemotherapy of Streptomycin," by H. C. Hinshaw and Wil-
liam H. Feldman, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota.
"Chemotherapy of Penicillin," by Chester S. Keefer.
"Some Considerations of the Clinical Application of Streptomycin,"
by Garfield G. Duncan, Major A. Kleinman, and Captain E. Pulaski,
Jefferson Medical College, Pennsylvania Hospital, Philadelphia, Penn-
sylvania, and Halloran General Hospital, Staten Island, New York,
N.Y.
"Use of Antibiotics in the Navy," by Commander Werner Duem-
ling, (MC), USNR, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, Washington,
D.C.
"Methods of Testing Antibiotic Substances and Limitations In-
volved," by Henry Welch, William A. Randall, and Lila A. Knudsen,
Food and Drug Administration, Washington, D. C.
168 TRANSACTIONS

announces
THE A. CRESSY MORRISON PRIZE CONTEST FOR 1946
The New York Academy of Sciences announces three prizes offered by Mr. A.
Cressy Morrison, to be known as the A. Cressy Morrison Prizes I, II and m, aU
of which will be awarded in December, 1946. Prize I, of $500, will be awarded for
the best paper on solar and stellar energy as defined below. Prizes II and m
will be awarded for the best papers on a scientific subject included within the
field of The New York Academy of Sciences and its affiliated Societies. The
terms governing these competitions are detailed herwith.
Prize I
A prize of $500 is offered for the ~aper adjudged by the Council of the Acad-
emy to be the most meritorious contrIbution on the subject of the source of solar
and stellar energy.
INTRODUCTORY STATI!IMENT
Understanding of the source of solar and stellar energy begins with Helm.-
holtz's contraction theory (1854). As the primordial star contracts, the kinetic
energy of the mass particles closing in under the force of gravity is transformed into
heat energy. Whereas this is still believed to be cosmologically the first cause of
stellar radiation, it has been realized since the end of the previous century that
the process of contraction would run to its end in a. time that is short as com-
pared to the age of the earth· and, ever since this was realized, astronomers have
been compelled to postula.te tha.t the Helmholtz contraction must be retarded and,
for the ma.jor pa.rt of the life of the star, probably balanced by an internal pres-
sure caused by energy that does not derive from kinetic energy. The wa.:r out of
this difficulty was cleared theoretically (1905) by Einstein's la.w of the eqwvalence
of mass and energy, although the exact mechanism whereby, under stellar condi-
tions, matter would ch~ into radiation, remained still a secret. The:first labora-
tory transmutation of mtrogen into an isotope of oxygen by Rutherford (1917)
opened the field of nuclear reactions which led to the experimental results; namely,
that the mass lost in a. nuclear reaction and the energy set free are in accordance
with Einstein's law. By examining all possibilities of reactions that could take
place under conditions prevailing in the sun, Bethe (1939) succeeded in singling out
the one rea.ction that should, both as to the requirement of temperature and as to
the availability of the elements involved, take place at the proper rate. This is the
so-called carbon cycle whereby the energy liberated is equivalent to the mass
defect of the helium atom as compared to four hydrogen atoms.
Prodigious progress has been made since the first A. Cressy Morrison Prize on
the above subject was offered in 1926.* It is, however, felt that the complete
answer has not yet been given and many questions remain open. In the first
• The 8Ubject for _petition origiDally lIUIIested by Mr. Mom.cm W88 88 followa:
"The ~e souree of energy of the 8IU1 ill intra-atomic 8Ile!l'lY exi.tiDg within the 1IOl'IIIIl
atom itIelf whIch is released from the atom UDder the COBditiona of temperllture aDd ~
'Which f!!Irlat in the 81JD,"
.An A. ~ MorriaoJl PriIIe on the above subject wu awarded in December. 1928, to DolIaId
H. Mense1 of Lick ObservatoryJ.. ll.nivenity of C&lifornia. The same author~ ~ collaboration with.
P. B. Gerasimovic of Harvard. uwege Observatory, also won the prize awaraea in December, 1928.
In 11180, the prise ..... awarded to PIof-.or a. VOIl z_ei:pe1 of the University of Upsala, Swec!eIl,
for hiB paper entitled, .. 'I'lu! lIt1DZutio1t and CtlftIItUt#ion o~ 8t",..,· and the lXlO8t recent prize was
awarded in 1938 to HaDe Bathe.
place, no final model for the sun, properly satisfying the observed luminosity and
the hydrodynamical considerations. has been published. Secondly, at best a start
has been made on the problem of the so-called "red giants," "sub dwarfs," and
~'white dwarfs." Through the continued interest of Mr. Morrison and his desire
to stimulate further research in the subject, the above prize will be renewed for
award in 1946.
Prizes II and III
Two prizes of $200 each, offered by Mr. A. Cressy Morrison, to be known as
the A. Cressy Morrison Prizes in Natural Science, will be awarded at the Annual
Meeting, December, 1946, for the two most acceptable papers in a field of science
oovered by the Academy or an Affihated Society.
Conditions
(1) Eligibility. The coml,l.etition for Prize I is open to all. Authors and co-
authors competing for prizes II and ill shall be members in good standing of The
New York Academy of Sciences and AfIilia.ted Societies, but non-members may
become eligible by joining one of these organizations before the closing date.
(2) Date. Papers are to be submitted on or prior to October 1, 1946, to the
Executive Secretary of The New York Academy of Sciences, at The American
Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th Street, New York:, N. Y.
(3) Papers. All papers submitted must embody the results of original re-
search not previously published. The manuscript shall be typewritten, in English,
.accompanied by all necessary photographs, drawings, diagrams and tables, and
shall be ready for pUblication. Papers must be accompanied by a summary of
the data presented and conclusions reached.
(4) Awards. The awards shall be made by the Council of The New York
Academy of Sciences. If, in the opinion of the judges, no paper worthy of a prize
is offered, the a.ward of a prize or prizes will be omitted for this contest.
(5) Publication. The Academy shall ha.ve first option on the publication of
all papers submitted, unless especially arranged for beforehand with the authors.
but such publication is not binding on the Academy.
(6) Wherever and whenever published, the papers awarded the prizes shall
be accompanied by the statement: "Awarded an A. Cressy Morrison Prize in
Natural Science in 1946 by The New York Academy of Scienoes."
Such statement in substance must also accompany any formal publicity ini-
tiated by the author regarding the prize paper. If published elsewhere, six copies
of each prize paper must be deposited shortly after publication with the office of
The New York Academy of Sciences.
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,
Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, N. Y.
EuNlcB TltOMAS MINBB,

EUC'UtW8 Secretary.
170 TRANS.A.CTIONS
NEW MEMBERS
ELECTED JANUARY 24, 1946
LIFE MEMBER
Tainter, Maurice L., MD., Pharmacology and Medical Research. Director of
Research, Winthrop Chemical Company, Inc., Rensselaer, N. Y.
SUSTAINING MEMBERSHIP
Naugle, John Jay, Physics and Chemistry. President, John Jay Naugle Labora-
tories, New York, N. Y.
Owen, Joseph Walker, MD., Medicine (Psychiatry). New York, N. Y.
Ruskin, Simon L., M.D., Biochemistry and Medicine. New York, N. Y.
Silber, Robert H., PhD. Department Head, Biochemistry, Merck Institute.
Rahway, N. J.
ACTIVE MEMBERSHIP
Abloncii, Frank B., B.A., Biochemistry, Physiology. Research Chemist, Lederle
Laboratories, Pearl River, N. Y.
Adams, Sidney F., M.A., Geology and Mineralogy. Assistant Manager, The New-
Jersey Zinc Company, New York, N. Y.
Ales, Victor, M.A., Psychology, Personality and Vocational Guidance. Instruc-
tor, Psychology, School of Commerce, New York University, New York, N. Y.
Alicino, Joseph F., M.A., Microanalytical Chemistry. Squibb Institute, New
Brunswick, N. J.
Altschul, Rolf, PhD., Organic Chemistry. Member of Faculty, Sarah Lawrence
College, Bronxville, N. Y.
Anderson, George W., PhD. Resea.rch Chemist, American CyanalIUd (Jompany,
Stamford, Conn.
Aronson, Lester R., Ph.D. Biology-Animal Behavior. Assistant Curator, De-
partment of Animal Behavior, American Museum of Natural History, New
York,N. Y.
Baer, Harold, Ph.D., Organic Chemistry. Research Associate, Bacteriol~. Col-
lege of Physicians and Burgeons, Columbia. University, New York, N. Y.
Bartle, Glenn G., Ph.D. Geologist, E. Holly Poe and Associates, New York, N. Y.
Berger, Julius, PhD., Biochemistry and Microbiology. Senior Chemist, Hoffman-
LaRoche, Inc., Nutley~!i. J.
Berman, Nathan, PhD., £oIutrition and Medicine. Member of Technical Sta.f£,
U. S. Vitamin Corp., New York, N. Y.
Berman, Sidney, MD., Muscle Physiol!lgy. Resident in Neurology and Neuro-
pathology, Mt. Sinai Hospital, New York, N. Y.
Bernbeimer, Alan W., PhD., Bacteriology and Immunology. Assistant Professor
of Bacteriol()gj", New York University College of Medicine, New York, N. Y.
Black, Maurice M., MD., Neoplastic metabolism. Physician, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Bourret, G. Weston, B.s. Mining Geologist, Union Mines Development Corp.,
New York, N. Y.
Breitbart, David Siege, Zool~gy. Pre-Medical Student, College of the City of
New York, New York, N. Y.
Brereton, John G., PhD., Food and Pharmaceutical Chemistry. Chemist in
charge of Product Development, Sheffield Farms Company, New York, N. Y.
Brown, Jack Harold, B.s., Physiology and Biochemistry. Research Associate,
Bureau of Biological Research, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N. J.
Cantoni, Giulio L., M.D., Biochemistry. Assistant Professor in Pharmacology,
Long Island University College of MediCine, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Capps, Elbert R., M.A. Instructor In Physiology, New York Medical College,
Flower and FIfth Avenue Hospitals, New York, N. Y.
Carson, Stanley F., Ph.D., PhYSIOlogy and Biochemistry. Head, Microbiology
Department, Wyeth Institute of Applied Biochemistry, Philadelphia, Pa.
Carter. Anne Cohen, M D., Endocrinology. Assistant in MedIcine, New York
Chase, Jeanne H., Ph.D., Bacteriology, Immunology. Department of Biology,
Schenng Corporation, Englewood, N. J.
Cieslak, Arthur K, M.D., Surgery and Surgical Pathology. Assistant in S1l!gery,
College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
Clark, Joe H., PhD., OrganIC Chemistry and Chemotherapy. Research Chemist,
American Cyanamid Company, Stamford, Conn.
Clausen, Donald F. Research Biochemist, Sharp and Dahme, Inc., Glenolden, Pa.
Craver, Bradford N., PhD., MD., Pharmacology. Ciba Pharmaceutical Products,
Inc., Summit, N. J.
CIittenden, Phoebe Jeannette, PhD., Physiology and Pharmacology. Research
Associate, Merck Institute, Rahway, N. J.
Cuttita, Joseph A., DD.s. Assistant Professor of Dentistry, Columbia University,
New York, N. Y.
Dahl, Roland J., B.s., Medical Science. Director, Product Development, E. R.
Squibb & Sons, New York, N. Y.
Davenport, Horace Willard, Ph.D. Professor and Head, Department of Physi-
ology, University of Utah, School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah.
Dimond, Albert Eugene, PhD., Plant Pathology and Physiology of Fungi. AlBa-
ciate in Plant Pathology, Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New
Haven, Conn.
Donovick, Richard, Ph.D., Bacteriology. Research Associate, Squibb Institute for
Medical Research, New Brunswick, N. J.
Dotti, Louis Basil, PhD., Biochemistry. Chemist, St. Luke's Hospital, New
York,N. Y.
Drago, Anna M., B.A., Biology. Graduate Student, College of New Rochelle,
N.Y.
Duca, Charles J., M.s., Medical Bacteriology. Assistant, Department of Bacteri-
ology, Columbia. University, New York, N. Y.
Dunn, Max Shaw, PhD. Professor of Biochemistry, University of California, Los
Angeles, Ca.lif.
Elias, Helen V., M.A. Research Geologist, Union Mines Development Corp.,
New York, N. Y.
Feinstone, W. Harry, Se.D., Chemotherapy, Bacteriology. Director of Biological
Research, Pyridium Corporation, Yonkers, N. Y.
Ferguson, Frederick Palmer, Ph.D., Physiology and Biochemistry. Research.As-
sociate, Bureau of Biological Research, Rutgers Uni"'ersity, New Brunswick,
N.J.
Fitce~ Howard M., PhD., Organic Chemistry. Research AlBociate, New York
university College of Medicine. New York. N. Y.
Forke, Kathleen Patricia, B.s., Biology. Graduate Student, College of New
Rochelle, N. Y.
Gaunt. Robert. Ph.D. Associate Professor, Department of Biology, New York
University, New York, N. Y.
Gordon, Samuel M., Ph.D., Chemistry. Director of Research (Vice-President),
Endo Products, Inc., Richmond Hills, N. Y.
Greenstein. L. M., Ph.D., Physical Chemistry. Chemist, Mear! Corporation, New
York, N.Y.
Gutman, Alexander B., Ph.D., M.D. Assistant Professor of Medicine, College of
Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
172 TRANSACTIONS
Halverstadt, Isaac Fredl:'rick, PhD., Chemistry and Medicine. Research Chemist,

Hand, David B., PhD., Biochemistry, Food Products, Pharmaceuticals. Tech-
nical Dlrector, Sheffield Farms Company, Inc., New York, N. Y.
Hams, Ad, Immunology, Bacteriology, ChE'mistry relatcd to Serology. Serologist
V. D. Research Laboratory, U. S. Marine Hospital, Staten Island, N. Y. '
HamB, Ira Henry, PhD., BiochC'mibtry, Bacteriology, Nutrition. Director, Metch-
mkoff Laboratories, New York, N. Y.
Harrower, Molly, Ph.D., Psychology (Clinical Application). New York, N. Y.
Hays, Edwin E., PhD., Biochemistry (Anemia), Assistant Professor of Biochem-
istry, University of Vermont, College of Medicine, Burhngton, Vt.
Hehre, Edward James, MD., Bacteriology, Immunology, Medicine. Assistant
Professor of Bacteriology and Immunology, Cornell University Medical
School, New York, N. Y.
Hewitt, Eric John, PhD. Coru.ulting Chemist, Ralph L. Evans Associates, New
York,N. Y.
Hiller, Alma, PhD., Biological Chemistry. Associate in Chemistry, Hospital of
the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, New York, N. Y.
Hyman, Albert Salisbury, M.D., Med SeD., Zgn.Med. (Vienna), Cardiovascular
Disease. Cardiologist, New York City Hospital, Beth David Hospital, Jewish
Memorial Hospital; Consulting Cardiologist, Richmond Memonal Hospital,
Yonkers Hospital; Director, Witkin Foundation for the Study and Preven-
tion of Heart Disease, New York, N. Y.; Captam, Medical Corps, U. S. Naval
Reserve.
Johnston, Elizabeth (degrees not received). Bacteriologist, Long Island College
of Medicine, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Karrh, John H., B.s., Biology and Chemistry. Plant Manager, Butadiene Divi-
sion, Publicker Industries, Inc., Philadelphia, Pa.
Kennard, Margaret A., MD. Assistant Professor in Physiology, New York Uni-
versity School of Medicine, New York, N. Y.
Kirby, George W., RCh E., Food Chemistry. Tech. Director, The Fleischmann
Laboratories, Standard Brands, Inc., New York, N. Y.
Kupferberg, Alfred Ballen, M.S. Research Associate in Microphysiology, Ortho
Research Foundation, Linden, N. J.
Labarre, Jules, L.8c., D.8c. (Paris, France), Biochemistry-Proteins and Amino
Acids. Professor of Biochemistry and Pharmacodynamics, University of Mon-
treal; Technical Director, Desbergers-Bismol Laboratories, Montreal, Canada.
Laning, Stephen H., B.S., Physical Chemistry, Biochemistry. Instructor, Chem-
istry, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N. J.
Litchfield, John T., Jr., M.D. Pharmacologist, Stamford Laboratories, American
Cyanamid Company, Stamford, Conn.
McLeod, Charlotte Pope, D.8c. Associate Bacteriologist, U.8.P.H.s., U. S. Marine
Hospital, Statc.>n Island, N. Y.
Middlebrook, Gardner, MD., Medicine, Bacteriology, Tuberculosis. Assistant,
Rockefeller Institute, New York, N. Y.
Miller, Wilbur H., PhD. Research Chemist, American Cyanamid Company,
Stamford, Conn.
Murray, T. J., M.8c. Chairman Department of Bacteriology, Rutgers University,
New Brunswick, N. J.
Mushett, Charles W., PhD. Acting Head of Pathology Department, Merck
Institute for Therapeutic Research, Rahway, N. J.
Neenan, Honor, B.A. Chemistry, Science Literature. Chemistry Research Science
Literature, Philips Laboratories, Irvington, N. Y.
Neuwirth, Isaac, PhD., Chemistry, Biology. Associate Professor Pharmacology
and Therapeutics, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, N. Y.
Newell, Norman D., PhD., Paleontology (Invert.) and Historical Geology.
Professor of Geology, Columbia University; Curator, Geology and Paleontol-
ogy, American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y.
Niedercom, Joseph G., Antibiotics. Research CheMlst, Lederle Laboratories,
Pearl River, N. Y.
Pappas, Anne B., B.A., Biochemistry. Junior Chemist, Venereal Disease Research
Laboratory, U. S. Marine HOSPItal, Staten Island, N. Y.
Paul, Andrew B., MD., Medicine, Allergy. Chief, Medical Clinic, Reconstruc-
tion Unit, Postgraduate Mechcal School and Hospital, Columbia. University,
New York, N. Y.
Perlman, Ely, MD., Immunochemistry, Protein Chemistry.. Research Fellow,
Rockefeller Institute, New York.
Phillips, Robert Allan., MD., Physiology and Biochemistry. Fellow, Rockefeller
Institute for Medical Research, New York, N. Y.
Portnoy, Joseph, M.s., Immunology, Chemistry. Associate SerolOgIst, V. D.
Research Laboratory, U. S. Marine Hospital, Staten Island, N. Y.
Rhodes, Robert Clmton, PhD., Protozoology, Parasitology, Human Genetics.
Eugenics. Professor of Biology and Chairman of Department, Emory Uni-
versity, Ga.
Roberts, SIdney, PhD., Endocrinology. Research Associate, Worcester Founda-
tion for Experimental Biology, Shrewsbury, Mass.
Robins, Jack, B.s., Analytical Chemistry. Chemist, Vanadium Corp. of America.,
Niagara Falls, N. Y.
Roepke, Raymond R., PhD., Bacterial Mutation and Metabolism, Chemotherapy.
Research Biochemist, American Cyanamid Company, Stamford, Conn.
Russo, Vincent J., B.s., Inorganic Chemistry. Research Associate, Polytechnic
Institute of Brooklyn, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Schachfel, Ernest G., LLD., Psychology (Psychological Tests). New School for
Social Research, New York, N. Y.
Scheinberg, Herbert, MD., Physical Chemistry, Internal Medicine. Medical
Division, Edgewood Arsenal, Md.
Schwimmer, David, MD., M.Med.sc., Medicine-Metabolism and Nutrition.
Associate, New York Medical College, Metropolitan Hospital Research Unit,
New York, N. Y.
Seeley, Robert D., PhD., Biology, Protein Metabolism. Research Associate and
Instructor, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N. J.
Shanes, A. W., Ph.D., Biollhysics, Cellular Physiology, Electrolytes, Potentials.
Assistant Professor of Physiology, New York University College of Dentis-
try, New York, N. Y.
Shemin, David, PhD., Biochemistry, Protein and Amino Acid Metabolism. As-
sociate in Biochemistry, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
Sober, Herbert A., PhD., Biochemistry, Physiology_, Research Assistant in Gas-
tro-Enterology, Mt. Sinai Hospital, New York, N. Y.
Sondem, Clarence W., Ph.D., Pharmaceuticals. Director, White Laboratories,
Newark, N.J.
Spaney, Emma, M.s., Statistical Methods-Educational Research. Statistician.
Committee on Measurement and Educational Guidance, New York, N. Y.
Stansly, Philip G., PhD., Microbiology, Biochemistry. Research Biochemist,
Stebbins. Robert Benedict, M.s., Antibiotics, Pathology, Endocrines. A.ssists.nt
to Head of Pathology Department, Merck Institute for Therapeutic Research,
Rahway, N.J.
Stone, Florence M., PhD. Department of Bacteriology, Long Island College of
Medicine, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Szego, Clara M., PhD., Endocrine Physiology. Research Associate, Worcester
Foundation for Experimental Biology, Shrewsbury, Mass.
174 TRANSACTIONS
Tabenkin, Benjamin, M.A., BiochE'miqtry of Microorganisms. ResearcD. Chemist

Hoffman-La Roche, Inc., Nutley, N. J. '
Thayer, James D., Ph.D. Chi!:'f Bacteliologist, V. D. Ret:learch Laboratory U S
Marino Hospital, Stat('n Island, N. Y. ' ..
UngE'rleider, Harry E., M.D., Internal Medicine, Cardiology. Associate Medical
Director, Equitable Life Insurance Compnny, New York, N. Y.
Van Burkalow, Anastasia, Ph.D., GC'omorphology. InlStructor, Departtnent of
Geology, Hunter College, New York, N. Y.
Vaughan, James R., Jr., Ph.D., Organic and Medicinal Chemistry. Research
Chemist, American Cyanamid Company, Stamford, Conn.
Weil, Alfred Julius, MD., Bacteriology and Immunology. Research Immunolo-
gist, Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, N. Y.
Weill, Carol Edwin, Ph.D., Chemistry-Enzymes. Research Chemist, Takamine
Laboratory, Inc., Clifton, N. J.
White, Harold J., Sc.D., Chemotherapy. Bacteriologist, Chemotherapy Division,
Williams, E. Clifford, D.sc. (London), Chemistry, Physics, Biology. Vice-Presi-
dent and Director of Research, Schenley Corporation, New York, N. Y.
Wooley, D. Wayne, PhD., Biochemistry. Associate, Rockefeller Institute for
Medical Research, New York, N. Y.
Baxter, James G., PhD., Organic and Biochemistry. Supervisor, Organic Re-
search, Distillation Products, Inc., Rochester, N. Y.
Boehme, WemE'r Richard, B.s., Organic and Biochemistry. Formerly Organic
Research Chemist, Winthrop Chemical Company, Rensselaer, N. Y., now
Pharmacist's Mate 2/c, USNR.
Collier, Charles Vines, Jr., B.s. Research Biochemist, Biochemical Research
Foundation, Newark, Del.
Elisberg, Bennett L., B.A., Bacteriology. Graduate Assistant, Tulane University,
School of Medicine, New Orleans, La.
Elsasser, Walter M., Ph.D., Physics, Meteorology, Electronics. RCA Laboratories,
Princeton, N. J.
Harfenist, Morton, B.s., Organic Chemistry. Formerly Research Chemist, Bur-
rough&-Wellcome & Company, Tuckahoe, N. Y., now Pharmacist's Mate 2/0,
USNR.
Kahan, Ira Howard, B.S., Biology. Student, Veterinary School, University of
PenIlSylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
Losee, Kathryn, B.s., Synthetic Organic Chemistry. Assistant, Squibb Institute
for Medical Research, New Brunswick, N. J.
Nyman, Melvin A., B.s., Organic Chemistry. Associate Chemist, Squibb Insti-
tute for Medical Research, New Brunswick, N. J.
Robeson, Charles D., B.s., Organic and Biological Chemistry. Chemist, Organic
Research Distillation Products, Inc., Rochester, N. Y.
Shants, Edgar M., Organie and Biochemistry (oil-soluble vitamins). Research
ChE'mist, Biological Department, Distillation ProductFl, Inc., Rochester, N. Y.
Smith, R. Dale, Ph.D., Endocrinology. Assistant Professor of Anatomy, School
of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Md.
Stearns, Barbara, M.S., Synthetic Organic and Medicinal Chemistry. Research
Assistant, Squibb Institute for Medical Research, New Brunswick, N. J.
Stone, Frederick Logan, M.s., tchthyology. Technical Assistant, University of
R.ochester, Rochester, N. Y.
Swart, E. Augustus, Ph.D., Organic Chemistry. Research Associate, Squibb In-
stitute for Medical Research, New Brunswick, N. J.
Wessel. Bessie Bloom, Ph.D., Anthropology. Chairman, Department of Social
Anthropology, Connecticut ColIE'ge, New London, Conn.
Wiley, Ralph M., B.s., High Polymers. Assistant Superintendent, Saran Devel-
opment Laboratory, Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Mich.
STUDENT MEMBERSHIP
Carr, Leatrice, Biology. Student, College of New Rochell~!,. New Rochelle, N. Y.
Del Torto, Mary Grace, Chemistry. Student, College of l'iew Rochelle, N. Y.
Graf, Donald L., Geol. Engr., Minera.logy-Economic Geology. .Assistant, Depart-
ment of Geology, Columbia. University, New York, N. Y.
Knox, Margaret S., A.B., Mineralogy. Student and Research Assistant, Depart-
ment of Geology, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
Mehler, Alan H., A.B., Biochemistry. Graduate Student, Department of Chem-
istry, New York University College of Medicine, New York, N. Y.
O'Brien, James Joseph, B.A. Assistant in Geology, Department of Geology,
Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
TRANSACTIONS
of
SER. II, VOL. 8 MARCH, 1946 No. 5

FEBRUARY 4, 1946
DOCTOR FRANco RASE'lTI, Professor of Physics, Laval University,
Quebec: Problems of Cambrian Stratigraphy and Paleontology in
Quebec. (This lecture was illustrated by lantern slides.)
The south shore of the St. Lawrence, from a few miles above, to
more than 250 miles below, Quebec City, is occupied by a complex of
red and green shales, with interbedded sandstone, quartzite, and lime-
stone conglomerate. These rocks form the main portion of Logan's
classic "Quebec group," and are now usually known as the IISillery"
and Levis formations. Logan considered the latter the older of the
two, but later Ells showed that the "SilIery" underlies the Levis. The
Levis includes the celebrated graptolite-bearing black shales, and is
geographically limited to a narrow area in the vicinity of the type
locality. The "SilIery" is almost totally barren of fossils in place,
although Cambrian faunas of several ages occur in the conglomerate
boulders.
On the basis of a few finds of graptolites and of the supposed
conformable relation between Levis and "Sillery," it has been generally
assumed that the "Sillery" is Lower Ordovician or, partly, Upper Cam-
brian. This assumption was questioned, for the first time, by Ulrich
and Cooper, who restudied the brachiopod "OboZelZa" pretioso" de-
scribed by Billings from outcrops of the "Sillery" at the type locality
TRANSACTIONS en The New York Academy en 8c>ences. Senes II. Volume 8, No.6.
March. 1940
This publlcatloll IS dllltnbuted to Members 8.I1d is pubbshed. monthly from. November to
JUDe. mclU81ve, at 109 West ChestD.ut Street, Lancaster. Pa, by The New York Aee.demy of
SeleDcea, SeveDty-mnth Street aDd Central Park West, New York CRy.
Echtor: Roy Waldo Mmer.
Assiat8.l1t Echtor: Mlchael Dem.areot.
Executlve Seeretaey· Ewuce Thom.aa Mmer
Entered ee seoon.d-olass matter December 2. 1938. at the post oflice at LaDeaster. Pa.. UDder the
&CIt of AulQSt 24. 191.2
177
178 TRANSACTIONS
and on the Chaudiere River. They concluded that the species belongs
to the genus Botsfordia and is Lower Cambrian.
The writer, believing that no advance toward the solution of the
problem could be made with the fossil evidence on hand, searched the
exposures for additional fQf;sils. This bcarch wail rewarded with the
discovery of a small Lower Cambrian trilobite fauna in place, a few
miles east of Levis (Rasetti, 1945a). Fortunately, the fossiliferous
horizon occurs in an excellent section of more than 1600 feet of strata
in clearly recognizable order. Later, the e.ame section yielded the
graptolite Callograptus about 250 feet above the Lower Cambrian
fossil zone (named the AustinviLlia zone from one of the characteristic
trilobites). Finally, still 1300 feet higher in the section, were collected
two species of Orthis and a new trilobite. These finds prove that the
strata in this section-all apparently in conformable succession-
range in age from Early Cambrian to Early Ordovician. The shales
throughout the section present little difference in lithology; hence, the
presence of rocks of widely different ages had never been suspected.
A few feet above the Austinvillia zone lies a conspicuous limestone con-
glomerate bed, whose boulders yield many Lower Cambrian fossils.
It is tentatively assumed that this conglomerate marks the base of the
Canadian. Under this assumption, the entire Middle and Upper Cam-
brian would not be represented in the area, although no erosional dis-
conformity can be observed at the base of the conglomerate.
The typical "Sillery" of the Chaudiere (1500 feet of red shale and
sandstone are excellently exposed there, with Botsfordia pretiosa at
the top) does not seem to be represented in the section just described;
hence, it must be either entirely older or entirely younger than the
beds east of Levis. The latter assumption cannot be accepted, since
the described beds east of Levis are succeeded by the Levis formation,
with its characteristic fossils. We conclude that the beds on the
Chaudiere are older, hence, entirely Lower Cambrian. The writer
proposes a new name, Charny formation, for these Lower Cambrian
beds, since the name "Sillery" has been applied both to Lower Cam-
brian and to Lower Ordovician strata, and its further use would cause
confusion. For the Lower Ordovician strata underlying the Levis,
the old term Lauzon, introduced by Richardson and later abandoned
in favor of "Sillery," may be revived.*
• A detailed account of the stratigraphy of the LevlS-Chaud.ere aree. will be pubhiohed iD. the
Bulletm of The Geolollcal SOClety of A.lIl8UCla.
A puzzling problem in the area here discussed is the origin of the

numerous beds of limestone conglomerate with exotic boulders. These
conglomerates occur at several places on the south shore of the St.
Lawrence, and seem to be all of Early Ordovician age. Those in the
Levis shale at Levis are celebrated for their rich trilobite faunas
(Rasetti, 1944, 1945b). The others, farther east, seem to belong to the
Lauzon; they are usually associated with sandstone and quartzite,
often in exceedingly thick beds. The limestone boulders in these con-
glomerates yield a variety of Lower, Middle, and Upper Cambrian
faunas i sometimes all these faunas occur in the same bed (Rasetti,
1945c). These limestones of different ages are all similar, lithologic-
ally, and also have in common the fact that no strata of corresponding
lithology and age are now known anywhere in Quebec. An attempt
toward the explanation of the origin of these conglomerates has been
made by Bailey, Collet, and Field (1928). The strata from which the
boulders came may now be buried under the overthrust mass of the
Charny, Lauzon, and Levis. In the foreland (northwest of the St.
Lawrence-Champlain fault), no Cambrian strata were sedimented,
the Trenton overlying the pre-Cambrian gneiss. However, the slope
of the sea bottom may have been very steep, and such Cambrian strata
may have existed in the area, now buried under the thrust sheet, a few
tens of miles south of the margin of the pre-Cambrian shield.
Whatever the origin of the limestone boulders, the study of their
faunas is worth while, because they yield a great variety of unusually
well preserved Cambrian trilobites of different ages. The description
of the Upper Cambrian faunas has now been completed by the writer,
who is undertaking the study of the Lower and Middle Cambrian
forms. A few points that are relevant for the phylogeny and classi-
fication of trilobites will be briefly discussed.
Beecher divided the trilobites into three orders, Hypoparia, Opis-
thoparia, and Proparia, according to the character of the cephalic su-
tures. In the Hypoparia, the free cheeks were supposed to be repre-
sented by a ventral plate, and the marginal suture that separates it
from the cranidium was homologized with the facial suture of the other
two orders. Since the eyes of proparian and opisthoparian trilobites,
whenever present, are invariably situated on the course of the facial
sutures, Beecher could not consider the eyes of such forms as Tretaspis
and Harpes (which are situated in the middle of the cheeks and not on
180 TRANSACTIONS
the marginal suture) as homologous with the eyes of other trilobites.

Several paleontologists, among them, Swinnerton, Richter, and Stubble-
field, sharply criticized Beecher's order, Hypoparia, by bringing argu-
ments to show that the eycs of Tretaspis and Harpes are homologous
with the eyes of other trilobites, being situated on the fused facial
sutures i whereas, the marginal suture was developed secondarily and
does not correspond to the facial Buture of the Opisthoparia and
Proparia.
The writer believes he has discovered the most convincing case for
the homology of the eyes in trilobites, with and without facial sutures.
A late Upper Cambrian genus from the boulders in the Levis shale,
LoganopeZtoides, has eyes and sutures of a peculiar shape, suggesting
that the dorsal sutures are on the way to becoming reduced. An early
Canadian genus from the same locality, LoganopeZtis, is almost identi-
cal with the preceding, except that the dorsal sutures have become en-
tirely fused i the eyes have preserved the same position. According to
Beecher, LoganopeUis should be styled a hypoparian form; but it is al-
most impossible to believe that these two trilobites are not close rela-
tives, and that the eyes in both forms are not homologous (Rasetti,
1945d).
Another group of trilobites that has attracted the writer's atten-
tion is represented by the Eodiscids. These small trilobites, chieil.y
characterized by the cephalon and pygidium of subequal size and by
possessing only two or three thoracic segments, appeared in Early
Cambrian time and became extinguished before the end of the Medial
Cambrian. Here again, we have a case that shows the exaggerated
importance attributed to the facial sutures by Beecher and his follow-
ers. The Eodiscids were supposed to belong to the Hypoparia., since
the forms known in Beecher's time had no dorsal sutures. Walcott,
however, discovered, in the Middle Cambrian of the Cordilleran prov-
ince, the genus Pa.getia, which is, in most respects, almost identical
with Eodiscus, excepting the presence of small free cheeks of the pro-
parian type. It is difficult to deny the close relationship between the
two genera.
The Lower and, possibly, Middle Cambrian boulders in the con-
glomerates of the Lauzon formation yield a remarkable variety of
Eodiscids, with eyes and free cheeks. Some of these have been as-
signed by the writer to the genus Pagetia, some to a new genus, Paget-
ides (Rasetti, 1945a). Furthermore, a restudy of certain forms from
other localities showed that MicrodiscU8 connexus Walcott, from the
Lower Cambrian Schodack formation of New York, originally described
as blind, has eyes and free cheeks; and that a species of Pagetides oc-
curs in the Parker shale of northwestern Vermont. This definitely
shows that trilobites with facial sutures of the proparian type, supposed
by Beecher to be the most advanced, already existed in the Early
Cambrian; as a matter of fact, we do not know which is the more primi-
tive condition in the Eodiscids, the presence or the absence of eyes and
dorsal sutures. It must be understood that there is not the slightest
indication that these proparian Eodiscids were the ancestors of the post-
Cambrian Proparia. The writer believes that the Eodiscids should
constitute 8 separate order, since we do not know anything even re-
motely resembling a transitional form, between the Eodiscids and the
multisegmented trilobites. The Eodiscids have long been associated
with the Agnostids, but the writer agrees with most modern authors in
considering the two groups as entirely unrelated.
LITERATURE CITED
Bailey. E. B•• L. W. Collet, & R. M. Field
1928. J. Geol. 36: 577-614.
Rasetti, F.
1944. J. Paleont. 18: 229-258.
19458. Am. J. Sci. 243: 305-319.
1945b. J. Paleont. 19: 462-478.
1945c. Na.tur. Canadien. '12: 53-67.
1945d. Am. J. Sci. 243: 44-50.
182 TRANSACTIONS
SECTION OF BIOLOGY
FEBRUARY 11, 1946
DOCTOR LAURENCE H. SNYDER, Chairman, Department of Zoology and
Entomology; and Professor of Medical Genetics, College of Medi-
cine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio: Recent Ad-
vances in Human Hered~ty. (This lecture was illustrated by lan-
tern slides.)
Advances in the basic principles of genetics have been reflected in
parallel advances in the applicatIOn of these principles to man. The
study of human heredity has progressed slowly, because it is essentially
a study of population genetics, and, as such, requires different tech-
niques than those used in the usual experimental laboratory genetics.
These techniques, involving the analysis of gene frequencies, equilibria,
contingency tests, twin comparisons, and the like, have been gradually
developed. and perfected. As a result, there is now available a con-
siderable amount of exact information on the role played by genetic
variation in the development of diverse human characteristics. One
outcome of the availability of such information is the increasing reali-
zation of the importance of a knowledge of human heredity, in modern
life. The realization has given rise to the inclusion of courses in
medical genetics in the curricula of various medical schools, the setting
up of required courses in heredity in various curricula of law, sociology,
social administration, psychology, and anthropology, and the presenta-
tion of lectures on human heredity under a wide variety of auspices.
The extent and precision of our present knowledge of human hered-
ity warrant the formulation of practical applications to human welfare.
These applications include, first, genetio prognosis, that is, the predic-
tion of the appearance or reappearance of hereditary traits within fam-
ilies; second, diagnosis, on the basis of genetic data, of condItions diffi-
cult to diagnose readily on other grounds; third, the instituting of
preventive measures against certain diseases and anomalies in the rela-
tives of affected individuals i and fourth, medico-legal applications in
disputed paternity and identification of individuals, based on the in-
heritance of specific test characters, such as the blood agglutinogens.
Examples of each of these practical applioations have been repeat-
edly presented and discussed in the literature (ct. Macklin, 1940;
Snyder, 1941, 1943, 1946b; Muller, Little, and Snyder, 1946; Wiener,
1943).
THE NEW YOltK ACAJ)~MY OF SCIENCES 183
The basis on which practical applications are built is a body of

data, painstakingly gathered and carefully evaluated, about the mutant
gene, in general, and concerning the mutant gene in man, in particular.
I have classified the basic relations of the mutant gene in man under
four main headings: spatial relations, physiological relations, ontogen-
etic relations, and phylogenetic relations (Snyder, 1942). Knowledge
of some of these, in regard to any gene, is essential, and knowledge of
all of them is desirable, before formulating a practical application, in
regard to the trait conditioned by the gene.
In man, a mutant gene may be autosomal, it may be sex-linked,
it may be holandric, or it may be incompletely sex-linked. Its behavior
in transmission will depend upon this absolute location. Manyexam-
ples of each of these types of spatial relationships are now known in
human genetics.
Two mutant genes may be independent or linked. Tentative link-
age maps for man are now available, both for the sex chromosomes and
for the autosomes (Snyder 1946a) , and their further extension may be
expected to add precision to genetic prognosis and to lead to the early
recognition of preclinical symptoms and, thus, to the institution of pre-
ventive measures.
Physiological relations of the mutant gene include penetrance, ex-
pressivity, and viability. These are all variable, from gene to gene,
and require special methods of analysis. A knowledge of these rela-
tions is important to genetic prognosis.
Ontogenetic relations include dominance, recessivity, epistasis,
hypostasis, and cumulativeness. These are the usual uMendelian"
relationships. They have some special applications in genetic prog-
nosis.
Phylogenetic relations include the frequencies of a gene and of its
alleles in the population, and the frequencies of the genotypes resulting
from combinations of the gene and its alleles. It is at this point that
the study of human genetics differs from the usual laboratory analysis,
where the employment of experimental matings insures that the geno-
type of each individual is known or can be determined. In man, the
genotypes of individuals, in the families under observation, are capa-
ble, in most cases, only of incomplete specification, and the study of
human genetics becomes, in the final analysis, a study of popUlation
genetics. Basic statistical researches by many workers, both in this
184 TRANSACTIONS
country and abroad, are constantly improving our methods of analysis

of the problems of gene frequenci('s, equilibria, mutation pressure, selec-
tion pressure, and allied phenomena (c/. Dobzhansky, 1941 j Snyder,
1942, 1946a). Through such basic researches and the careful collection
and analysis of human data, the study of human heredity is making
rapid strides.
LITERATURE CITED
Dobzha.nsky, T.
1941. Genetics and the Origin of Species. Second edition. Columbia Uni-
versity Press. New York.
Macklin, M. T.
1940. Medical Genetics and Eu~ics. I (6). Women's Medical College of
Pennsylvania. Phlladelphia..
Muller, B. J., C. C. Little, & L. H. Snyder
1946. Genetics, Medicine and Man. Cornell University Press. Ithaca.
Snyder, L. B.
1941. Medical Genetics. Duke University Press. Durham.
1942. The mutant gene in man. American Naturalist. '16: 129.
1943. Medical Genetics and Eugenics. II. Women's Medical College of Penn-
sylvania. Phlladelphia.
1946a. The Principles of Heredity. Third edition. D. C. Heath & Co. Boston.
1946b. The Rh factor in feeblemindedness and other diseases. Minnesota
Medicine. 29: 121.
Wiener, A.. S.
1943. Blood Groups and Transfusion. Third edition. Charles C. Thomas.
Springfield, Ill.
FEBRUARY 18,1944
DOCTOR KURT LEWIN, Department of Economics and Social Science,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachu-
setts: Research in Group Dynamics.
(No abstract received.)
186 TRANSACTIONS
FEBRUARY 25, 1946
DOCTOR SIIERWooD L. WAE.HBURN, Department of Anatomy, College of
Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.:
Experimental Anthropology.
Anthropology is changing rapidly. The last ten years have seen
the rise of culture and personality studies. The increased application
of anthropological knowledge, during the war, has given a tremendous
impetus to applied anthropology.
The dominant emphasis of traditional anthropology, particularly
in the United States, was history and explanation of the present in
terms of the past. Today, the effort is being made to understand
social and physical processes, to analyse in terms of general principles
(such as the laws of psychology or genetics).
The change, from a descriptive-historical to an analytic approach,
has removed the boundaries of traditional anthropology. Description
can be limited to primitive peoples and primates, but psychological
principles apply to all mankind, just as biological laws apply to all
animals.
Many of the theories which attempt to explain evolutionary
change can be tested in the laboratory. Experiments simplify, clarify,
and offer new insights into complicated natural processes.
The way in which experiment enters into the theoretical Bcheme
of physical anthropology may be described as follows: The primates
are described. Theories attempt to explain what is observed. Then,
experiments are performed to test the validity of the theories.
The complementary role of historical and experimental studies
may be illustrated by consideration of the human orbit. If one wishes
to know the stages through which the orbit has evolved, one must study
the primates, particularly the fossils. If one wishes to know what
forces shape the orbit, one must experiment. Each type of analysis
supplements and enriehes the other.
Frequently, when experiments are performed, unsuspected factors
are discovered, and these make possible new approaches to history.
The experiments whieh led to the theory of genetics, revolutionized the
theoretical basis of evolution. (The theoretical scheme was illustrated
by slides of rat skulls, showing the effects of removal of various muscles
and bones.)
There is a strong tendency for sciences to be divided, so that de-
scriptive studies are separated from the complementary and experi-
mental sciences. Anthropology should make every effort to include both
forms of knowledge. No thorough understanding of man or his culture
is possible without history and experiment.
188 TRANSACTIONS
SECTION OF BIOLOGY
FEBBUARY SAND 9, 1946
Conference on uThe Physico-ChemicaZ Mechanism of Nerve Activity."
The Section of Biology held 8 Conference on "The Physico-Chem-
ical Mechanism of Nerve Activity," arranged by Doctor David Nach-
mansohn, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University,
NewYork,N. Y.
FJUDAY, FEBRUARY 8
Morning Session. Chairman, Tracy J. Putnam, College of Physi-
cians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
Opening Address, by Tracy J. Putnam.
"Membrane Theory," by Rudolf Hoeber, University of Pennsyl-
vania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
"Chemical Mechanism of Nerve Activity," by David Nachman-
80hn.
Afternoon Session. Chairman, John F. Fulton, Yale University,
School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut.
HAn Electrical Hypothesis of Synaptic and Neuromuscular Trans-
mission," by John C. Eccles, University of Otago, Dunedin, New
Zealand.
Evening Session. Chairman, Frederic Bremer, University of
Brussels, Belgium.
IIChemical Activation of Nervous Function," by Detlev Bronk and
Frank Brink, Jr., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Penn-
sylvania.
"Electric Characteristics of Electric Tissue," by Richard T. Cox,
C. W. Coates, and M. V. Brown, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
Maryland; New York Zoological Society; and College of the City of
NewYork,NewYork,N. Y.
SATUBDAY, FEBRUARY 9
Morning Session. Chairman, McKeen Cattell, Cornell University
Medical College, New York, N. Y.
"Enzymes as Means of Studying Cellular Function/' by David E.
Green, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New
York,N. Y.
"Cholineesterase," by Oscar Bodansky, Medical Division, Chem-
ical Warfare Service, Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland.
"Effects of Drugs on Nerve Activity," by Alfred Gilman, Medical
Division, Chemical Warfare Service, Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland.
Afternoon Session. Chairman, Francis O. Schmitt, Massachu-
setts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
"Regeneration of Nerve Fibers," by Joseph Hinsey, Cornell Uni-
versity Medical College, New York, N. Y.
"Metabolism and Function," by Ralph W. Gerard, University of
Chicago, Chicago, Illinois.
190 TRANSACTIONS
SECTION OF BIOLOGY, AND SECTION OF PHYSICS

AND CHEMISTRY
FEBRUARY 15 AND 16, 1946
Conference on "Muscular Contraction."
The Sections of Biology, and Physics and Chemistry held a Confer-
ence on "Muscular Contraction." Doctor Alexander Sandow, New York
University, Washington Square College of Arts and Pure Science, New
York, N. Y., was the Conference Chairman, in charge of the meeting.
FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 15
Morning Se8sion: Dynamic8. Chairman, Alexander Sandow.
General Introduction, by Alexander Sandow.
"Dynamics of Single Muscle Fibers," by Robert W. Ramsey, Med-
ical College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.
"The Time Course of Tension Development in the Muscle Re-
sponse," by A. S. Gilson, Jr., G. M. Schoepfle, and S. M. Walker, Wash-
ington University, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri.
Afternoon Se8sion: Ultra8tructure. Chairman, John T. Edsall,
Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.
"Birefringence and Ultrastructure of Muscle," by Ernst Fischer,
Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Virginia.
"Electron Microscope and X-Ray Diffraction Studies of Muscle
Structure," by Francis O. Schmitt, R. S. Bear, C. E. Hall and M. A.
Jakus, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts.
"Muscular Contraction and Rubber-like Elasticity," by E. Guth,
University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana.
SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 16
Morning Ses8ion: Chemistry. Chairman, Carl F. Cori, Washing-
ton University, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri.
liThe Main Chemical Phases of the Recovery of Muscles," by Otto
Meyerhof, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
"Chemical Processes of Oxidative Recovery," by Severo Ochoa,
New York University, College of Medicine, New York, N. Y.
Afternoon Session: Mechano-Chemical Coupling. Chairman,
Wallace O. Fenn, University of Rochester, School of Medicine and
Dentistry, Rochester, New York.
"Intracellular Cations and Muscle Actions," by H. B. Steinbach,
Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri.
"The Potential Role of the Myosin-ATPase-Calcium Complex in
the Activation and Energy Output of Muscle," by Dugald Brown, New
York University, College of Dentistry, New York, N. Y.
"Latency Relaxation and a Theory of Muscular Mechano-chemical
Coupling," by Alexander Sandow, New York University, Washington
Square College, New York, N. Y.
192 TRANSACTIONS
NEW MEMBERS
ELECTED FEBRUARY 28, 1946
SUSTAINING MEMBERSIDP
Browne, Dudley, Chemistry, Pharmacology, Biology. Asst. Vice President and
Research Coordinator, American Home Products Corp., New York, N. Y.
Holm, August, Ph.D., Sc.D., Bacteriology, Immunology. Head, Bacteriological
Development Laboratories, E. R. Squibb & Sons, New Brunswick, N. J.
ACTIVE MEMBERSHIP
Adlersberg, David, M.D., Biochemistry, Physiolop, Medicine. Instructor in
Medicine, Faculty, Medical College of Physicians & Surgeons; Adjunct in
Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital; Associate Physician, Beth Israel Hospital,
New York, N. Y.
Aeschlimann, John A., Ph.D., Medicinal Chemistry, Nutrition. Acting Director
of Research, Hoffmann-La Roche, Inc., Nutley, N. J.
Atlas, Meyer, Ph.D., Physiology. Asst. Professor, Biology, Yeshiva College, New
Yorkl.~'Y'
Aungier, vincent C., M.s. Research Chemist, E. I. du Pont de Nemours &: Co.,
Inc., Niagara Falls, N. Y.
Bellamy, W. Dexter, Ph.D., Research, Antibiotics. Winthrop Chemical Co~
Rensselaer, N. Y.
Blubaugh, Louis V., Ph.D., Biology. Asst. Director, Products Development, E. R.
Squibb & Sons, New Brunswick, N. J.
Brown, George Bosworth, Ph.D.!"..Biochemistry. Associate, Sloan~Kettring Insti-
tute for Cancer Research; ltesearch Associate, Comell University Medical
College, New York, N. Y.
Brown, Jean Cameron, M.A. Asst. Geologist, American Metal Co., Limited, New
York,N. Y.
Brunings, Karl J.t Ph.D., Organic Chemistry. Asst. Professor of Chemistry, New
York UniverSlty, New York, N. Y.
Carroll, William R., Ph.D., Biochemistry, Physiology. Research Associate, De-
partment of Biochemistry, Comell University Medical College, New York,
N.Y.
Chambers, Robe~~ Ll.D., Ph.D., Experimental Biology. Research Professor,
Biology, New york University, New York, N. Y.
Chambers, William H., PhD., Metabolism, Calorimotry, Nutrition. Associate
Professor, Physiology, Cornell University Medical College, New York N. Y.
Chesler, Charlotte, B.A., Physiology, Pharmacology, Biochemistry. Pharm~
acologist, Schering COlp., Bloomfield, N. J.
Clark, Leland C'I Jr., PhD., Biochemistry, Physiology. Research Associate and
Chairman, Blochemistry Department, Fels Research Institute, Antioch Col-
lege, Yellow Springs, Ohio.
D'Angelo, Savino Albert, PhD., EndocrinololP', Aviation Psychology. Instructor
in Biology, New York University, New York, N. Y.
Dickinson, Alice M .• Pharmacology. Member, Technical Staff, Merck Institute
for Therapeutic Research, Rahway, N. J.
Dreisbach, Paul F., PhD., Organic Chemistry, Pharmaceuticals. Research Chem-
ist, American Cyanamid Co., Bound Brook, N. J.
Ellon, Gertrude, M.s., Ol'ganic Chemistry. Resea.rch Chemist, Wellcome Labora-
tories, Tuckahoe, N. Y.
Fahrenbach, Marvin Jay, PhD., Pha.rmaceuticals. Research Chemist, American
Cyanamid Co., Bound Brook, N. J.
Folch-Pi, Jordi, MD., Lipid and Brain Chemistry. Director, Scientific Research,
McLean Hospital, Waverley, Mass., and Asst. Professor, Biochemistry, Har-
vard Medical School, Boston, Mass.
Forgacs, Joseph, PhD.;.>. Antibiotics. Research, Biological Warfare, 2nd Lieutenant,
Surgeon Corps, AuS, Camp Detrick, Frederick, Md.
Furchgott, Robert F., PhD., Biochemistry, Physiology. Research Associate, De-
p~rtment of Medicine; and Instructor, Department of Physiology, Comell
University Medical College, New York, N. Y.
Gates, Arthur I., PhD., Educational Psychology. Professor of Education, Teach-
ers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
Goldberg, Moses W., D.sc., Chemistry, Biochemistry. Head, Chemical Research
Group, Hoffmann-La Roche, Inc., Nutley, N. J.
Golden, Ross, MD., Medical Radiology. Director, Radiological Service, Presby-
terian Hospital, and Professor Radiolo_gy, College of Physicians and Sur-
geons, Columbia University New York, N. Y.
Gregg, John Richard, PhD., Physiology, Chemical Embryology. Research Asst.
Department of Zoology, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
Gruenthal, Max, MD., Psychiatry, Psychology. Staff Psychiatrist, Committee
for the Jewish Tuberculous, New York, N. Y.
Harkness, David Malcolm, M.s. Instructor in Biochemistry, Long Island College
of Medicine, New York, N. Y.
Helme, William Hurd, A.B., Psychology. Madison, N. J.
Hendley, Charles D., A.B., Physiology of Vision. Instructor in Biophysics, Col-
umbia University, New York, N. Y.
Hermann, Siegwart, D.sc., Chemistry, Pharmacology, Bacteriology. Director, Re-
search Laboratory, Antidote Research and Chemical Corporation, New York,
N.Y.
Hill, Henry Eric, E.E., Communication, Circuit Research. Member of Technical
Staff, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Livingston, N. J.
Himwich, Harold E., M. D., Metabolism. Professor, Physiology and Pharma-
cology, Albany Medical College, Albany, N. Y.
Hirschman, Albert, B.s., Chemistry. Senior Chemical Technician, Department of
Biochemistry, Jewish Hospital of Brooklyn, N. Y.
Hocking, George MacDonald, PhD. Chief Pharmacognosist, S. P. Penick & Co.,
New York, N. Y.
Hultquist, Martin E., PhD., Medicinal Chemistry. Asst. Director, Pharmaceu-
tical Research, American Cyanamid Co., Bound Brook, N. J.
Jakus, Marie A., Ph. D., Biology. Research Associate, Mass. Institute of Tech-
nology, Cambrid_ge, Mass.
Johnson, J. Garth, PhD. Director, Microbiology, Ortho Research Foundation,
Linden, N. J.
Kaplan, Nathan 0., PhD. Research Biochemist, Mass. General Hospital, Boston,
Mass.
Kerr, Benjamin G., MD., Medicine, Biochemistry. Physician, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Klein, Daniel, PhD., Biochemistry!"...:\nalytical Chemistry. Chief, Analytical
Laboratory, Endo Products, Inc., .ttichmond Hill, N. Y.
Klein, Edward, DD.s., X-Rays. Associate Clinical Professor, Children's Dentis-
try, New York University, New York, N. Y.
Kline, Daniel, PhD., Physiology. Instructor, College of Physicians & Surgeons,
Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
Koberlein, Louis F., Organic Chemistry. Interchemical Corp., Research Labora-
Koprowski, Hilary, MD., Virology. Research Bacteriologist, Division of Virus
and Rickettsial Research, Lederle Laboratories, Inc., Pearl River, N. Y.
Kuh, Erwin, PhD., Organic Chemistry. Asst. Chief Chemist, American Cyanamid
Co., Bound Brook, N. J.
Lehr, Da.vid, PharmacololD'; Intemal Medicine. Asst. Professor, Medicine, Phar-
macology, New York Medical College, New York, N. Y.
194 TRANSACTIONS
Levin, Nathan, Ph.D., Pharmaceuticals; synthetic-research and deve!o_pment

Development Chemist, Burroughs, WeUcome & Co., Inc., Tuckahoe, N. Y. .
Libby, Raymond L., Ph.D., Biophysics, Immunoch('mistry. Head, Biophysics
Section, American Cyanamid Research Laborntories, Stamford, Conn.
Lotspeich, William Douglas, M.D. Asst. in Physiology, Cornell University Medi-
cal College, New York, N. Y.
Malisoff, WIlliam Marias, Ph.D. Hcad, Df'partment, and Professor of Biochem-
istry, Essex College of Medicine, Newark, N. J.
Malkenson, Laura, B.A., Psychology. Re~earch Asst. to Dr. Bela Mittelmann
(Psychiatrist), New York, N. Y.
Max, Louis W., Ph.D., Electroph~ology. Associate Professor of Physiology
College of Dentistry, New York University, New York, N. Y. '
Melville, Donald B., Ph.D., Biochemistry. Research Associate, Cornell Univer-
sity Medical College, New York, N. Y.
Mina, Frank A., M.s., Physiology. Instructor in Embryology, Fordham Uni-
Milas, Nicholas A., PhD. Associa.te Profe~or of Organic Chemistry, Massa.-
chusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass.
Mulholland, John Hugh, MD., Surgery-Clinical Research, Nutrition-Liver Func-
tion. Professor, ClinIcal Surgery, Now York University, College of Medicine,
New York, N. Y.
Myers, Rienzi V., MD., Human Fungus Infections, Virology. General Hospital,
Mansfield, Ohio.
Novak, Joseph, PhD., Medicine, Biology. Clinical Professor, Gynecology &
Obstetrics, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
Oppenheimer, Ernst, MD., Pharmacology, Physiology, Biochemistry. Vice Presi-
dent in Charge of Research, Ciba Pharmaceutical Products, Inc., Summit,
N.J.
Oster, Gerald, PhD., Physical Chemistry. Rockefeller Institute for Medical Re-
search, Princeton, N. J.
Peck, Robert L., PhD. Chemist, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, N. J.
Pick, Ernest Peter, MD., Pharmacology, Toxicology, Physiology. Clinical Pro-
fessor of Pharmacology, Columbia. University; Pharmacologist, Mount Sinai
Piersma, Henry D., Ph.D., Bacterial Nutrition. Director, Human Biological
Division, Lederle Laboratories, Inc., Pearl River, N. Y.
Porges, Nandor, Ph.D., Biochemistry, Microbiology. Technical Director, Chase
Chemical Company, Newark, N. J.
Porter, Keith Roberts, PhD., Cytology, Experimental Embryology. Research,
Rockefeller Institute, NE'w York, N. Y.
Reynolds, Monica, A.B., Physiology (Circulation). Gradua.te Student and Asst.
in Physiology Dept., College of Physicians & Surgeons, New York, N. Y.
Rheinberger,. Margaret n., PhD., Neurophysiology. Electrocncepha.lographer,
Montefiore Hospital; Research Associate, Neurology, Columbia University,
New York, N. Y.
Robbins, Lillian, M.8c. Bacteriologist, Laboratory, Bellevue Hospital, New York,
N.Y.
Rosen, Leonard Josei'h, PhD., Organic Chemistry. Research Chemist, Celanese
Corp. of America., Cumberland, Md.
Rosenak, Stephan, MD., Surgery, Elq)erimentai Physiology. Associate Surgeon,
Hospital of Dauahters of Israel; Research Asst., Surgery, Mount Sinai Hos-
pital, New York,"'N. Y.
Sacks, Jacob, Ph.D'l MD., Pharmacology, Chemistry. Director, Pharmacology
Laboratory, Enoo Products, Inc., Richmond Hill, N. Y.
Schneierson, S. Stanley, MD. Asst. Bacteriologist, Mount Sinai Hospital, New
York,N. Y.
Scholz, Caesar Richard, D.sc., Organic Chemistry; yohimbine, corynanthine,
steroidal hormones. Chief Chemist, Ciba Pharmaceutical Products, Summit,
N.J.
Schwarzkopf, Otto, Ph.D., Biology. Director of Research, G. D. Research Insti-
tute, New York, N. Y.
Schwenk, Erwin, D.sc., Chemistry, Biology. Director of Research, Schering Corp.,
Bloomfield, N. J.
Seeger, Doris R., PhD., Organic Chemistry. Research Chemist, American Cyan-
amid Co., Bound Brook, N. J.
Shaw, Lawrence A., B.s., Dermatology. Shaw Laboratories, Inc., Mount Rainier,
Md.
Silverstone, Felix A., MD., Internal Medicine, Cardio-Vascular Disease. Research
Fellow, Medicine, King's County Hospital, New York, N. Y.
Smith, James Miller, Jr., Ph.D., Organic Chemistry. Group Leader, Pharmaceu-
tical Research, American Cyanamid Co., Bound Brook, N. J.
Spain, David M., MD., Chest Disease, Pulmonary Tube. Pathologist, Bellevue
Hospital; Asst. Professor of Pathology, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.
Spieth, Herman T., PhD., Entomology, Limnology. College of the City of New
York, New York, N. Y.
Sprague, James M., PhD. Director, Organic Chemical Research, Sharp & Dohme,
Inc., Glenolden, Pa.
Stone, Irwin. Chemist-in-Charge, Research Laboratory, Wallerstein Co., New
York,N.Y.
Summerson, William H., Ph.D. Asst. Professor of Biochemistry, Comell Univer-
sity Medical College, New York, N. Y.
Traub, Frederick B., MD., D.PE., Bacteriology, Serology. Associate Bacteriol-
ogist, Jewish Hospital, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Udenfriend, Sidney, M.s., Biochemistry, Metabolism. Teaching Fellow, Bio-
chemistry, New York University, New York, N. Y.
Wainio, W. W., PhD., Metabolism. Asst. Professor, Physiology, New York
University, College of Dentistry, New York, N. Y.
Ward, Roland, PhD., Chemistry. Associate Professor, Inorganic Chemistry, Poly-
technic Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Weiner, Nathan.!. PhD., Chemistry, Pharmacol~. Director, Chemical Research,
and Chief vhemist, Endo Products, Inc., Richmond Hill, N. Y.
Weiss, Ulrich, Res. Nat., Organic Chemistry. Research Chemist, Endo Products,
Inc., Richmond Hill, N. Y.
Weld, Julia T., Bacteriology, Immunology. Research Associate, Pathology, Col-
lege of Physicians & Surgeons, New York, N. Y.
Weseoe, William Clarke, MD., Medicine, Pharmacology. Asst. resident physi-
cian, New York Hospital, New York, N. Y.
White, Abraham George, M.D. Fellow, Medicine, Montefiore Hospital, New
York,N. Y.
Wicher, Enos R., M.s., Physics. Specialties, Inc., New York, N. Y.
Wilde, Charles E., Jr., A.B., Zoology, Morphogenesis. Cramer Fellow, Princeton
University, Princeton, N. J.
Wood, John L., PhD Asst. Professor, Biochemistry, Comell University Medical
Coll~ge, New York, N. Y.
Yo~, Nelson F., Ph.D., Metabolism. Research Chemist, Memorial Hospital,
New York, N. Y.
Beyer, Karl H., Ph.M., PhD., M.D. Director, Pharmacological Research, Sharp
& Dohme, Inc., Glenolden, Pa.
Govier, William M., M.D., Pharmacology, Enzymology. Pharmacologist, Sharp
& Dohme, Inc., Glenolden, Pa.
Greenfield, Michael, Experimental Biology. Student, University of Vermont,
Burlington, Vt.
196 TRANSACTIONS
Gurin, Samuel, PhD., Biochemistry. Professor, Physiological Chemistry School

of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. '
Harris, Sterling G., M.s., Chemistry. President, Blue Channel Corporation
Beaufort, S. C. '
Maengyn-Davis, Gertrude D., M.sc., Organic Chemistry, Biochemistry. Quaker
Oats Co., Research Laboratories, Chicago, Ill.
Miller, A. Katherine, PhD. Bacteriologist, Sharp & Dohme, Inc., Glenolden, Pa.
Minsk, Louis M., M.A. Research Chemist, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N Y
Patnode, Winton 1., PhD., ChemiStry. Liaison Representative, Research Lab~r~
tory, General Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y.
Redlich, Otto, PhD., Physical Chemistry. Chemist, Shell Development Co.
Emeryville, Calif. '
Sage, Charles G., Ph.D., Chemical Physics. General Electric Research Laboratory,
Schenectady, N. Y.
Verwey, Willard F., SeD., Bacteriological Research. Sharp & Dohme, InC.,
Glenolden, Pa.
STUDENT MEMBERSHIP
Greene, Selig__ R., Neurology. Medical Student, New York University, New
York/ N. Y.
Reilly, Flora J., Neurology. Medical Student, New York University, New York,
N.Y.
Wilner, Esther, B.A., Education and Psychology. Graduate Student, Hunter Col.
lege, New York, N. Y.
TRANSACTIONS
of
SER. II, VOL. 8 APRIL, 1946 No.6

MARCH 4, 1946
DOCTOR H. T. U. SMITH, Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey, Washing-
ton, D. C.: Sand Dunes.1
In the United States, sand dune areas cover more than 40,000
square miles, or approximately 1.4 per cent of the total land area of the
country. The largest areas are in the Great Plains, mainly in Nebras-
ka, Kansas, and eastern Colorado. Smaller areas occur in inter-
montane basins and plateaus, in the Pacific coastal area, along the
southern and eastern shores of Lake Michigan, in adjoining lake states,
and along the Atlantic Coast.
Primary dune forms may be grouped in two main classes: (1) those
in bare, free sand, and (2) those developed in the presence of vegeta-
tion. The former occur mainly in desert regions, and comprise bar-
chans, transverse dune ridges, certain varieties of longitudinal dunes
(dunes parallel to wind direction), wind-shadow dunes controlled by
topographic obstacles, and various irregular forms. Of these, the
barchans and transverse dunes are migratory, the others essentially
non-migratory. In the desert areas of western United States, trans-
verse dune ridges are, perhaps, the commonest type, and barchans, as
in other desert areas, are comparatively rare. In the Sahara, however,
longitUdinal dunes are more prevalent, and these show considerable
diversity both in size and in details of form. There also are found cer-
1 Published by pemusslOn of the D,rector of the Geological Survey, U. S. Department of
the Interior.
TRANSACTIONS of The New York Academy of Sciences, Series II, Volume 8, No.6, AprlI,
1946.
This publication is diBtn'buted to Metnbers and is published monthly from Novemher to June,
inclusive, at 109 West Chestnut Street, LancasterL_Pa., hy The New York Academy of Sciences,
Seventy-mnth Street and Central Perk West, New xork CIty.
Asaistant Editora: MIchael Demarest, Lother N. Salin.
Executive Secretary: Eunice Thomas Mmer.
Entered as second-class matter December 2, 1938, at the pest office at Lancaster, Pa., under the
a~t of August 24, 1912.
197
198 TRANSACTIONS
tain special dune forms, the lIIulji," or deep depression resembhng the
imprint of a giant horse's hoof, and the lIrhourd," or rudely pyramidal
stationary dune with radmting, sharp-crested spurs.
Dunes of the second class, those developed in the presence of vegeta-
tion (phytogenic), occur in coastal areas and in semi-arid plams regions,
and comprise U-, V-, and Y-shaped forms, varIOUS modifications and
combinations of these, certain vf:meties of longitudmal dunes, "fore-
dunes" bordering sandy beaches, and minor llTegular forms. Dunes
of this class, although subject to growth in a down-wind direction, are
essentially non-migratory. Their development is best described in
terms of an ideal dune cycle, comprising eolian and eluvial phases.
In the eolian phase, wind action is dominant and sand is blown from
bare source area to a bordering zone of accumulation, where vegeta-
tion checks sand drift. Where the vegetation is of such a type as to
resist choking by sand, its upward growth progressively traps more
sand, and a definite mound or ridge develops. As the sand accumu-
lates, variations in the resistance offered by the vegetation may lead to
localized "break-through" of the sand, permitting differential erosion
and transportation of sand and consequent formation of a bulge or
salient in the dune form. Under favorable conditions, the growth
and extension of this salient may entirely overshadow the antecedent
form.
The eolian phase may be ended, at any stage, through stabilization
of the dune and source area by vegetation. Thereafter, gradual degra-
dation by soil building, creep, rainwash, and related processes consti-
tutes the eluvial phase of development. Contours are rounded, hollows
are filled, slopes are lowered, relief is reduced, the soil zone thickens,
and, at some stage, thorough-going surface drainage may be estab-
lished. Dune forms become less and less distinct and finally unrecog-
nizable, as the topography passes through stages of youth, maturity,
and old age of the eluvial phase.
The eluvial phase may be interrupted, at any stage, by breaking of
the vegetal cover and renewal of wind attack, thus initiating the eolian
phase of a new cycle. Primary dune forms are dissected by secondary
blowouts, and a wide range of forms may develop.
Continued alternations of eolian and eluvial development lead to in-
creasing topographic complexity, and in many areas, the details of geo-
morphic history become undecipherable. In the semi-arid Great Plains
of this country, examples of all stages of the above scheme of develop-

ment are foundj the major period or periods of dune building, however,
belong to the past, and wind action, at present, is on a very small scale.
Dunes are predominantly "fossil" forms, also, in the more humid areas
of western Europe, but complexity due to multi-cycle history is less
common.
Correction
In TransactlOns for February (Vol 8, No.4) page
168 a.t the end of the footnote, InStead of "the most recent
pnze W88 a.warded In 1938 to Hans Bethe" read "the
most recent prIzes were d.warded m 1938 to Hans Bethe
and m 1940 to R. E Marshak and Hans Bethe "
200 TRANSACTIONS
SECTION OF BIOLOGY
MARCH 11, 194.6
DOCTOR F. DURAN-REYNALS, Yale University School of Medicine, New
Haven, Conn.: Virus Variation in Relation to the Cancer Problem.
Cancer, like so many other diseases, seems to occur in some species
preferably to others. We can, thus, speak of human cancer, murine
cancer, and avian cancer, as the three main groups. The latter offers
many analogies with mammalian cancer, with the added feature that
viruses, as causative agents, are easily demonstrable in many tumors.
It has been shown that sarcoma viruses of chickens, with infect-
ing embryos or chicks, do not induce cancer, but induce a destructive
disease of a hemorrhagic sort, comparable to the disease caused by
inflammatory, necrotizing viruses. Fundamentally, the same is true
for the viruses of chicken lymphomatosis, rabbit fibroma, and sheep
pox. So, we have a group of "neoplastic" viruses, which behave as
neoplastic only when infecting adult hosts. The reason for this duality
of effect is to be found in the extreme susceptibility of the embryo and
the young, in contrast to the resistance of the adult and the old. Treat-
ment of young chicks infected with a sarcoma virus with serum from
old chickens makes the chick react to the virus much as adults do.
Further, it has been shown that chicken tumor viruses are en-
dowed with the property of varying or mutating in association with the
infection of foreign species, but this property is only manifest when
the virus comes from a tumor, grown in an adult or old host, which
provides an environment somewhat adverse to the virus, without, as
yet, reaching the point where the environment is so unfavorable as to
make large tumors regress. The phenomenon is analogous to the devel-
opment of variants in ageing bacterial cultures. Other manifestations
of the influence of age on cancer are the difficult transplantability of
either spontaneous or transplantable tumors, and the lack of :filtrability
of the latter tumors from old hosts.
In summa.ry, old age, on the one hand, offers a ground favorable
to mutation or variation of viruses into cancer viruses, and on the
other hand, is a ground fundamentally adverse to the development of
infection. Indeed, if the resistance of the old were just a degree
higher, then complete resistance against cancer viruses would be
achieved. Neoplastic manifestation of some viruses and variation of
these viruses are the first steps leading to tumor suppression.
202 TRANSACTIONS
MARCH 18, 1946
DOCTOR H. L. HOLLINGWORTH, Professor of Psychology, Columbia Uni-
versity, New York, N. Y.: Experimental Psychology and Ethic,.
In the report to be made here, we are interested, not in the bearing
of ethics on the activities of experimental psychology, but in the appli-
cation of certain experimental methods to ethical topics. Ethics has,
of course, an old-fashioned sound, and some may feel that experimental
psychology should occupy itself with livelier issues. There are, how-
ever, cogent reasons for reviving an interest in ethics.
Those called on to offer guidance to the young now find that they
often lack adherence to authoritarian codes, such as their parents
knew. They also lack the reflective experience, which their parents
may have had, in the historical and critical study of ethical systems.
How can they, then, be counselled, lacking both faith and dialectic?
There are also questions concerning the implications of contempo-
rary systems of psychology for moral problems and for the explana-
tion of imperative behavior. For there are imperative acts and there
is a sense of obligation. How does your favorite system of psychology
handle them? Or does it sidestep such issues as value?
Finally, there are notable individual differences in the apprecia-
tion of ethical demands, in the discrimination of varieties of obliga-
tion, and in the readiness to assume moral responsibility. Should we
not have better instruments for early diagnosis and measurement of
such peculiarities and for their correlation with other personality
traits? It is with such questions in mind that we have undertaken to
approach certain ethical topics in a somewhat experimental fashion.
A survey has been made of the psychological basis of the sense of
obligation and of individual differences in insight into the types of im-
perative conduct. In a preliminary inquiry, adults were asked to
classify imperative propositions (statements containing the word
O'IJ,fJht) into as many categories as there seemed to be. They were then
asked to describe or characterize these groups or categories. Ten
major categories were revealed: the imperatives or oughts of Inference,
Gestalt, Esthetics, Social Welfare, Utility, Duty, Safety, Convention,

Justice, and Legislation.
These varieties of imperative appear to include the whole of human
behavior, so that obligation is, in a sense, characteristic of all our acts
and conclusions, and value is not a dissociated realm of experience.
These chief catcgories, differing as they may in subject matter and
genesis, have in common the assertion of a particular item as the effec-
tive technique for the mitigation of misery, for the relief of a distress
that is either expressed or implied.
The systems of psychology known as structuralism, behaviorism,
gestalt theory, and purposivism do not provide adequate basis for the
understanding of these fundamental imperatives, nor for the basis of
the sense of obligation. Structuralism is interested only in the momen-
tary, sensory description of an experience of obligation, with no con-
cern for genesis or for values. Behaviorism, in its naive historical
form, pays attention only to sequence of stimulus and movement. It
might distinguish positive from negative reactions and between native
and learned connections, as well as between slow and rapid sequences.
But the obligation, the imperative, could, for this point of view, be
nothing more than the coerciveness of a reflex; the feeling of obliga-
tion, along with all other feelings, would have to be repudiated. For
more sophisticated and contemporary behaviorists, conduct has, for its
outcome, what is called need-reduction. But needs are described as the
lack of commodities, and the mere non-existence of something would
appear wholly unable to produce anything in the way of action. It is
not the absence of a commodity, but the positive presence of a misery,
that motivates conduct.
Gestalt theory is so pre-occupied with the stresses and strains of
field dynamics that it overlooks the actual individual distresses that
motivate our acts and give force to the facts of what it calls "re-
quiredness." The alleged instincts of the hormic psychology do not
accord, in any clear fashion, with the list of fundamental imperatives.
Even if they did, they would be wholly ex-post facto ways of describing
our behavior, not ways of producing it. The purposivist's "sentiments"
are more flexible, in this respect, since any kind of a sentiment can be
formed about any kind of a thing. But the sentiments, also, are
merely convenient summaries of the ways we act, not explanations of
why we do so.
Our analysis leads to three fundamental principles that have been
204 TRANSACTIONS
found useful in summarizing psychological facts, in various other

fields, and arc found to be equally useful in this connection. These
arc the principles that: (1) All motives arc distresses; (2) Learning is
cue reduction; and (3) Control is n function of scope.
Applied to the analysis of the fundamental varieties of obligation,
these principles yield a theory of value and a system of ethical
evaluation. They give a helpful account of the nature of the good, the
criteria of the moral, the meaning of happiness; and show the import-
ance, also, of socially recognized hierarchies of distress and of tech-
niques of alleviation. Such an account is offered as a substitute for the
cruder historic systems of hedonism, asceticism, utilitarianism, intui-
tionism, authoritarianism, logical idealism, and the like.
Important in this account, among other features, is the rejection
of the classical, bi-polar theory of motivation and affection. Distresses
are conceived as primary, and pleasure is the relief from initial and
instigating distress. Happiness, moreover, is not mere absence of dis-
tress; it is the possession of a repertoire of effective techniques for
eliminating the distresses incident to being alive. The supreme happi-
ness is the level of playful mastery on which the individual seeks out
or devises difficulties for the sheer pleasure of mastering them. Such
a viewpoint emphasizes the role of education as against that of social
reform, and encourages the individual to be the instrument of his own
salvation.
The moral quality of an act is determined by the completeness,
the promptness, and the permanence with which it relieves the distress
which is its motive, with a minimum of correlated misery in any crea-
ture, and by the recognized level of that irritant and of that technique
in the relevant, individual and social hierarchics of distresses and of
techniques.
The distresses underlying the imperatives of logical inference are,
of course, such miseries as doubt, uncertainty, and curiosity. Basic to
the gestalt imperatives, are the disoontents of incompleteness and inap-
propriateness. Esthetio imperatives relate to the relief of such dissatis-
factions as those of ugliness, discord, and asymmetry. Imperatives of
Welfare and of Safety are motivated by such calamities as pain, anx-
iety, hunger, failure, illness, and similar varieties of suffering, inolud-
ing the pangs of sympathy. The oughts of Utility show how to avoid
waste and defeat; those of Convention, how to avoid social chagrin,
and those of Legislation, how to escape the inconveniences of legal en-
tanglement. Under the category of Duty, come all the 'oughts' based
on codes, ideals, hero worship, religious precepts. The imperatives of
Justice have not been given adequate psychological attention. Appar-
ently, it is the feeling of injustice, rather than a sense of justice, that
really operates. The experience of injustice may be based on the kin-
esthetic appreciation of imbalance in the tensions of our bi-laterally
symmetrical musculature. .
Under any circumstances, what we commonly call conscience may
underlie the imperatives of any of these categories. To all of them,
also, we find such words as good and bad, right and wrong, equally
applicable. It is for such reasons that we advocate the extension of
such terms as moral and ethical to all of these classifications and obli-
gations. We find no essential difference between the 'oughts' of ex-
pectation, the 'oughts' of responsibility and the loughts' of necessity,
although individuals differ importantly in their capacity to appre-
ciate such differences as do exist.
Tentative experimental methods or tests have been devised for
the measurement of individual differences in moral insight, as revealed
by the appreciation of these ten fundamental categories. Typical re-
sults are now available from such methods, in the case of several hun-
dred persons varying in age, education, and intelligence. Several al-
ternative procedures have been compared, and a form chosen which
seems to differentiate on various developmental levels and to require
not more than half an hour for its administration. Quantitative scores
ranging from zero to one hundred points make comparative study
possible.
The range of moral insight, as thus assessed on the same educa-
tional or intelligence level, is surprising. So, also, is the relatively ad-
vanced level required before a clear understanding and recognition of
these categories of obligation is achieved. The existence of such
marked individual differences and the qualitative moral confusions ex-
hibited by individuals suggest the desirability of improved methods of
moral instruction. The high school years are indicated as the appro-
priate time for such instruction and measurement. A feasible course
of study may be based on the analysis and comparison of the ten funda-
mental categories. Thus, the obligations or 'oughts' of esthetics may
be surveyed; likewise, the oughts of utility, of convention, and so OD.
These departments may, then, be contrasted, and practire may be given
in their recognition.
206 TRANSACTIONS
Insight of the kind here measured appears to follow a develop-

mental curve which it would be valuable to know more about in de-
tail. Attempts are now being made, not only to perfect the procedure
and materials, but also to secure results from groups varying widely
in developmental status, in the endeavor to construct such a curve.
In these preliminary experiments, several rather different pro-
cedures have been tried out and compared. Two sheets are here re-
produced, constituting Plan 4, which appears to be the best of those
yet tried out. The first sheet is a Set of Instructions, with illustrative
examples for each of the fundamental categories emerging from the
results secured by Plan 1. The second sheet gives 50 imperatives
(statements containing the word (ought'), which are to be classified
according to the Instructions. Standards of correctness derived from
the concensus of opinion of a group of sophisticated adults enable each
classification to be scored right or wrong. Two points credit are given
for each correct classification, according to this standard key.
Other plans tried out experimentally have the following charac-
teristics: Plan 1: only statements provided, the subject to discover his
own categories and classify the statements under them. Plan 2: names
of ten standard categories given, and a brief definition of each, with no
examples. Plan 3: ten sets of two propositions, each pair illustrating
one of our standard categories, but the category is neither named nor
defined. The plan finally used, and illustrated here, is essentially a
combination of plans 2 and 3, and appears to have many advantages.
Plan 1 had to be abandoned, because of the inability of even educated
adult subjects to handle it.
A SAMPLE INSTRUCTION SHEET (Plan 4)

INSTRUCTIONS
In PABT I are given several varieties of O'O'GHT or kinds of obligation. Each
is indicated by a oapitalletter, by a brief description, and by a sample proposition.
Read this list carefully.
Now take PABT n. On it are 50 propositions, all conto.ining the word 'O'O'GHT.'
In front of each proposition, put the capital letter showing to which variety or cate-
gory of O'O'GH'l' that proposition belongs. The description and sample of PABT I
ma.y be referred to for guidance. If you need to, you may put more than one
letter before a proposition, but in that case, draw a. line under the letter that you
think fits best.
PABT I. CATEGORIES
B-BEA'O'TY. Esthetic sense or personal taste prefers it.
"This green hat ought not to have a blUe ribbon on it."
C-CUSTOM. Conventional propriety, etiquette or custom requires it.
"Those in mourning ought to wear black."
D-DUTY. Religious scruples, conscience or ideals are involved.
"Children ought to honor and obey their parents."
G-cOMPLETENBlSS. Some occasion. situation or pattern calls for it.
"Such music ought really to be played on a pipe organ."
I-INFIClIBlNCB. Certain premises or facts lead logically to it.
"The morning is clear; we ought to have a fine day."
J-.TtTSTICB. Fairness and equity demand that this be.
"Teachers ought to be willing to work for small salaries."
L-LAw. Legislation, police rules, or statutes require this.
"If you carry a pistol you ought to have a police permit."
S-sAFETY. For the hygiene, success, safety, or well-being of the person.
"There ought to be a guard rail on these stairs."
U-trTlLITY. Expediency, usefulness, or efficiency are the reasons.
"You ought to cover these bulbs before cold weather."
W-WELFARIll. To make the world better for people in general.
"People who are closely related ought not to marry."
PART II. PROPOSITIONS
I-We won the game and we ought to celebrate.
2-That picture ought to have a wider frame.
3-Every man ought to have a chance to work for his livelihood.
4-A room like this ought to be painted a lighter color.
5-In introducing people the younger ought to be presented to the older.
6-To vote in November you ought to be over 21 years of age.
7-Everyone ought to keep his promises.
8--Capital punishment ought to be abolished.
9-This pudding ought to have more sugar in it.
l0-0ne ought to be careful in the choice of friends.
ll-You ought not to labor on the Sabbath day.
12-Those driving cars on public roads ought to have drivers' licenses.
13-You ought not to dive with your eyes shut.
14-Real estate owners ought to be responsible for taxes assessed against their
property.
15-The wedding ring ought. to be worn on the third finger of the left hand.
16-The school term ought. to be longer than it is.
17-1£ Tuesday was Christmas this ought to be New Year's Day.
18-Stripes in a fat man's suit ought not to be horizontal.
19-5ome cure for that disease ought to be discovered.
20-Income tax ought to take into account a man's age and obligations.
21-A man like that ought to be whipped.
22--Defective vision ought to be detected at an early age.
23-Every dog ought to be entitled to two bites.
24-The average room temperature ought to be about 68 degrees.
25-The fish ought to bite well this morning.
26-Women and mE'n ought to receive the same pay.
27-One ought not to take revenge into his own hands.
28-A fur coa.t ought to cost more than a woolen one.
208 TRANSACTIONS
29-Ac(.'ordJ.ng to traffic signs cars on tms road ought not to go over 25 mIles an
hour.
SO-Every family ought to live withIn its income.
31-PE'opJe who are gOIng to be marrIed in New York ought to secure a marrIage
license from the proper authoritie!!.
32-That black cover ought to have a gold bOlder.
33-You ought to wear heavier clothing in the wInter.
34-The strong ought to bear the infirmities of the weak.
35--We ought to catch the bus if we take this short-cut.
36-A man ought to tell the truth regardless of consequences.
37-This knife ought to be sharpened.
38-This axe ought to have a longer handle.
39-The garden soil ought to be cultivated often but not too deep.
40-Ariihmetic ought to precede algebra.
41-Garden peas ought to be soaked thoroughly before planting.
42-You ought to ha.ve your hair cut.
43-A buck saw ought to be loosened up a little when not being used.
44-People ought to mate with those whose trlllts are similar to theirs.
45--When walkmg with ala.dy a man ought to take the outside next to the curb.
46-You ought to have seen him make a fool of himself.
47-Where there is so much smoke there ought to be some fire.
48-With a full dress suit a man ought to wear a whIte tie.
49-A good classification ought to provide for all the actual cases.
OO--In America. a driver ought to keep to the right side of the road.
Illustrative results, from college juniors and seniors, may be cited

as typical for that level of intelligence and education. Using one of
the plans finally ohosen as most workable, the soores from the classifi-
oation under appropriate moral oategories of 50 statements containing
the word "ought" range from 68 to 94 points, 2 points credit being given
for each correct olassification. The median score for this college
group is 82.
High and low groups, according to scores on intelligence tests, give
different medians, the difference being 12 points, when the upper half
is compared with the lower half. Relia.bility, as shown by the corre-
lation of two slightly different forms of the test, is .85.
There is a correlation of .50 with scholastic aptitude tests taken in
freshman year. However, students with the same scholastio aptitude
scores, say near 500, which is average, range in insight scores from 60
to 90, that is, they vary as much as the entire unselected group. Thp
indication, then, is that, while there is a positive correlation between
such scores as those here considered and verbal intelligence scores, the
two are far from being identical. One of the problems has to do with
the nature of the other determinants, aside from intelligence scores.
Using the same plan, representative high school students in grades
10 and 11 give a median score of only 54 points; half of the cases fall
below the lowest score for the college group. A group of high school
students, from a school laying special emphasis on moral instruction,
gave a better median (62 points), and scores in the lower brackets were
wholly mise.ing. High school students also made a somewhat different
use of the ten possible categories, as compared with college students,
and this difference deserves more careful qualitative analysis.
The distributions of scores for these three groups are shown in FIG-
URE 1. The graphs are placed on the same base scale at the bottom of
the figure, and the median scores for each group are indicated on the
base lines of the respective graphs. The numbers of cases are small,
but the distributions are fairly regular. Curiously enough, when the
three graphs are compared it will be observed that the column showing
the mode of each group represents the column in which are to be found
the lowest scores of the group just above.
The distributions of the classifications over the various categories
and the analysis of individual instances reveal extremely confused
comprehension of the principles on which obligation is based. Boys
and girls, so far as at present determined, give similar scores, and there
is no clear age difference from 15 to 18. It is such results that suggest
high school as the appropriate place for the introduction of a new type
of course of instruction in the principles involved in moral obligation.
Several plans have been tried out in the devising of a quantitative
test, the plans differing in the Instruction sheet. The one here repro-
duced has been found to have several distinct advantages, and further
studies are to be based, in general, on this form of instruction. It may
appear also desirable to revise some of the items in the test sheet, and,
perhaps, to reduce the number of items employed.
In the form here given, and with the 50 items on the present test
sheet, crediting 2 points for each correct item, the median score of pre-
sumably average high school students (10th and 11th grade) is near
50 points; the median score of specially selected high school students
in similar grades is near 60 points; the median score by juniors and
seniors in Barnard College is near 80 points. There is indication that
this plan can be used lower down in the educational scale, but scores
from pupils in elementary schools are not yet available.
210 TRANSACTIONS
College
Juniors,
Seniors
N·44
I ,•
I
, Special
High
School
N·30
,•
I
I
Consolidllled
High School
10 20
I30 40 50
N·S8
..• 60 70 80
I
90 100
FxGtl'lllt t. Distnbution of Scores IIIId. MedilUl8 of three comparable groupe.
It is believed that such tests may not only serve the purpose of
iIrltia.1 dia.gnosis of degree of ethical insight, but may also be used to
measure the progress made, as the result of special moral instruetion,
increase in age or education, and the like.
Of our preliminary forms, Plan 2 and Plan 4 are found to give
the same scores on comparable groups. CombiIrlng all the groups that
used either of these two Forms gives our most reliable figures for the
high school and the college groups, respectively. These figures are as
follows:
High School College
Highest score ............ 88 98
75 ccntile ................ 66 86
~edian Score ............ 58 84
25 centile ................ 46 76
Lowest Score ............ 30 54
Number of Cases ......... 68 70
The four quartiles, from high to low, might be designated by letter
grades, such as A, B, C, and D. These letter grades might be explained
as meaning, Superior, Good, Fair, and Poor. Tentative scales, based
on the table just given, would then be as follows:
High School College
Top Quartile, SUPERIOR. 67-88 87-98
Second Quartile, GOOD ... 58-66 84-86
Third Quartile, FAIR ..... 46-57 76-83
Lowest Quartile, POOR .... 30-45 54-75
Lower Scores, FAILURE .. Below 30 Below 54
In scoring, the individual's classification of the 50 items is com-

pared with the standard key. Credit of 2 points is given for each cor-
rect item. When more than one answer is shown by the key to be
correct, credit is given if either of these is indicated.
The degree of confusion experienced, even by fairly sophisticated
people, in trying to make these discriminations may be briefiy illus-
trated by a few random samples from the papers of college juniors and
seniors. Here, for example, is one who thinks that the imperatives
that determine the color of a room, the length of the school term, the
sequence of arithmetic and algebra, and the mating of people with
similar traits, all belong together under the category of Justice. Wear-
ing the wedding ring on the conventional finger, she classifies under
Beauty; loosening up an unused buck-saw belongs under Safety and
Hygiene; and it is because of Social Welfare, that where there IS so
tnllch smoke there ought to be some fire. On the other hand, telling the
212 TRANSACTIONS
truth, regardless of consequences, is classified as a Convention. What

degree of moral understanding is possessed by such a person?
But she is not alone. Here is another who thinks that the impera-
tives dealing with the length of the school term, the occurrence of the
New Year a week after Christmas, the presence of fire where there is
so much smoke, the cost of a fur coat, and the desirability of using a
short cut in order to catch the bus, all belong under the category of
Esthetics, and she calls them all cases of Beauty.
Even more grotesque results may be found among the high school
classifications, but there is no need to exploit them here. Such errors
are not to be excused by the fact that sometimes one can see what
lies behind them. Something always lies behind a boner, but usually it
is just plain ignorance. Ignorance, in the cases we are here considering,
means lack of moral judgment, weak ethical insight, clouded percep-
tion of the motives of conduct.
This method differs from previous studies of ethical insight in that
principles of evaluation are considered, rather than items of conduct.
The procedure is based on the conviction that, no matter how decent
conduct may be, it does not really have moral quality without insight
into the principles underlying the imperatives (obligations) that justify
it. The present experimental results are tentative only, but they ap-
pear to deserve elaboration, repetition, and application to a larger
number of cases and a greater variety of circumstances. Correlation
of the quantitative scores with other personality measurements would
also be interesting.
Regardless of the validity of these tentative quantitative results,
the qualitative analysis of the meanings of ought and the comparison
of the list of standard categories of obligation arc believed to constitute
a useful and new approach to problems of moral evaluation. Numer-
ous circumstances and peculiarities of our present era give a new ap-
proach to ethics a very genuine value.
ANOTHER SAMPLE INSTRUCTION SHEET (Plan 3)

INSTRUCTIONS
In PART I, are given several varieties of OUGHT or kinds of obligation.
Each is indicated by a capital letter and two samples are given for each. The
samples belong together, because they illustrate the same kind of OUGHT.
First read this list through carefully.
Now take PART II. It contains 50 new propositions, each containing the word
'OUGHT.' In front of each proposition put the key letter (B or C or D etc.)
showing with which pair of samples on the Instruction Sheet the new proposi-
tion belongs. Consult the Instruction Sheet as often as you like, and take all the
time you need. When in doubt, do the best you can. If you need to, you may
put more than one letter in front of a proposition, but in this case underline the
one you think. fits best.
PART I. SAMPLES
B-This green hat ought not to have a blue ribbon on it.
To be pleasant this room ought to have windows on two sides.
C-Those in mourning ought to wear black.
The guest of honor ought to be seated at the host's right.
E-Children ought to honor and obey their parents.
We ought not to covet our neighbor's possessions.
G-Such music ought really to be played on a pipe organ.
Children ought to be seen and not heard.
I-The morning is clear; we ought to have a fine day.
This ought to be a better automobile than that.
J-Teachers ought to be willing to work for small salaries.
Anyone ought to be satisfied with 80 years of life.
L-Your car ought to have a license plate on it.
If you carry a revolver you ought to have a police permit.
S-Everyone ought to sleep at least eight hours a day.
There ought to be a guard rail on these stairs.
U-You ought to grip the handle more loosely.
You ought to cover these bulbl:! before cold weo.thC'l'.
W-People who are closely related ought not to marry.
Feeble-minded and insane ought to be prevented from having children.
PART II. PROPOSITIONS

I-The morning is clear; we ought to have a fine day.
2-This ought to be the road to Boston.
3-Children ought to obey their parents.
4-This ought to be about where I lost it.
5-They ought not to impose such burdens on the young.
6-We ought to render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's.
7-Teachers ought to be willing to work for small salaries.
8-Children ought to be seen rather than heard.
9-The war ought to be ovedn a year.
10-That ought to be plenty of material for an overcoat.
ll-Anyone ought to be satuJied with 80 years of life.
12-This ought to be a better automobile than that.
13-The pie ought to be done by this time.
14-We ought to start today if we want to be there by Friday.
15-A bed built like that ought to be very comfortable.
16-This piece of string ought to be long enough.
17-Eight tons of coal ought to heat that housE' for the winter.
18-Youth ought to be patient with the prejudices of the aged.
19-With good treatment this pen ought to last a life-time.
20-You ought to have been able to buy it for half that price.
214 TRANSACTIONS
21-There ought to be a law Against that.

22-Five dollars ought to be a big enough allowance for any boy.
2:J.-The climate of Arizona ought to improve your health.
24-Evcryone ought to sleC'p 11.1, ICIL~t eight hours a duy.
25-You ought to brush your clothes beforc parking them aWtty.
26-You ought to hang your tools up, not leave them lying around.
27-With his constitution he ought to live at leatlt. until morning.
2S-Every room ought to have windows on at ICllSt two sides.
29-There ought to be a guard rail on these stairs.
3D-People ought to be allowcd to vote after their 18th birthday.
31-You really ought to havc an extra blanket handy.
32-Every flesh wound ought to be kept cleAn.
33-If you observe these precautions there ought to be no danger.
34-A child of that age ought to be able to talk.
35-All motor cars ought to have effective bl'u.kes,
36-Six cylinders ought to make A car more flexible than four.
37-You ought to grip the handle more loosely.
38-This road ought to be paved.
39-Everyone ought to have a. hobby as well as a. main occupation,
40-Two ounces of it ought to be enough to kill a dog,
41-The chimney damper ought to be open while coal is being added to the furnace.
42-Frank would be better but John ought to be able to do the job.
43-The text is all right but the footnotes ought to be in smaller type.
44-On that salary he ought to live very comfortably.
4S--We have done many things we ought not to have done.
46-People who are closely related ought not to marry.
47-Verbal tests ought to be superior to motor tests in measuring intelligence.
4S-A statistical graph ought to be intelligible without textual explanation.
49-Feeble-minded and insane ought to be prevented from reproducing.
liO-An oration ought to begin calmly and work up to a. strong climax.
MARCH 25, 1946
DOCTOR CARL WITHERS, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, N. Y.: The Folk-
lore of a Small Town.
(This paper will be published in the May issue of TRANSACTIONS.)
216 TRANSACTIONS
SECTIONS OF BIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY

MARCH 1, 1946
Conference on "Physiological and Psychological Factors in Sex Be-
havior."
The Sections of Biology and Psychology held a Conference on
"Physiological and Psychological Factors in Sex Behavior." Doctor
A. H. Maslow, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, N. Y., was the Conference
Chairman, in charge of the meeting.
"Animal Endocrines in Relation to Sex Behavior," by W. C. Young,
Cedar Crest College, Allentown, Pennsylvania.
"Sex Behavior in Primates," by William Galt, New York, N. Y.
"Sex Behavior in Animals in General," by Frank Beach, American
Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y.
"Normal Sex Behavior in Humans," by Alfred Kinsey, Indiana
University, Bloomington, Indiana.
"Aberrant Sex Behavior in Humans," by Morris Hermann, New
York University College of Medicine, New York, N. Y.
"Sex and Culture," by Gregory Bateson, Institute for Intercultural
Studies, New York, N. Y.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY
MARCH 15 AND 16, 1946
Conference on "The Relation of Diseases in the Lower Animals to Hu-
man Welfare."
The Section of Biology held a Conference on "The Relation of
Diseases in the Lower Animals to Human Welfare." Doctor William
A. Hagen, New York State Veterinary College, Cornell University,
New York, N. Y., was the Conference Chairman, in charge of the
meeting.
FRIDAY, MARCH 15
"Introduction to the Conference," by William A. Hagen.
"Rabies," by Harald N. Johnson, International Health Division,
Rockefeller Foundation, New York, N. Y.
"Equine Encephalomyelitis," by Raymond A. KeIser, School of
Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania.
"Psittacosis and Ornithosis," by Herald R. Cox, The Lederle Lab-
oratories, Pearl River, N. Y.
"The Relation of Brucellosis to Human Welfare," by I. Forest
Huddleson, School of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State College,
East Lansing, Michigan.
"The Prevention of Plague in the Light of Newer Knowledge," by
Karl F. Meyer, The Medical Center, University of California, San
Francisco, California.
SATURDAY, MARCH 16
"Animal Tuberculosis and Its Relation to the Disease in Man,"
by William H. Feldman, The Mayo Foundation, Rochester, Minnesota.
"Anthrax in Animals and its Relationship to the Disease in Man,"
by C. D. Stein, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D. C.
"Erysipelothrix Rhusiopathiae Infection in Swine and in Human
Beings," by Joseph V. Klauder, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
"Animal Parasites Transmissible to Man," by Willard H. Wright,
U. S. Public Health Service, National Institute of Health, Bethesda,
Maryland.
218 TRANSACTIONS
NEW MEMBERS
ELECTED MARCH 28,1946
SUSTAINING MEMBERSIDP
Cathca.rt, William H., Ph.D., Food Technology. Director of Laboratories, Na.-
tional Bakery Divn., Great Atla.ntic & Pacmc Tea. Co., New York, N. Y.
Steinbach, Maxim, M.D. Research Associate in Bacteriology, Columbia Univer-
sity, New York, N. Y.
ACTIVE MEMBERSHIP
Barol, Alfred, B.sc., Biology, Chemistry. Director, Wyeth Institute of Applied
Biochemistry, Philadelphia, Pa.
Barr, Richard Henry, M.D., Cardia-vascular Diseases. Asst. Resident, Medical
Service, New York Hospital, New York, N. Y.
Bloch, Alfred, Ph.D., Biochemistry. Research Chemist, Johnson & Johnson,
Highland Pa.rk, N. J.
Boerner, Fred, V.M.D., Bacteriology. Associate Professor, Clinical Bacteriology,
Graduate School, PhiladelPhia, Pa.
Borne, Ray, B.A. Asst. in Psychology, New School for Social Research, New
York, N. Y.
Brazier, Mary Agnes Burniston, Ph.D., Neurophysiology. Research Fellow,
Neuropathology, Harvard Medical School; Research Fellow, Psychiatry,
Massachuset.ts General Hospital, Boston, Mass.
Brent, Bernard J., Dr. Eng. (Chem.), Endocrinology, Vitamins, Chemistry, Physics.
Scientific Director, Roche-Organon, Inc., Nutley, N. J.
Bywater, W. G., Ph.D., Organic Chemistry. Director of Research, S. B. Penick
& Co., Jersey City, N. J.
Carmel, Jo~ B.A., Psychology. Graduate Student, Forest Hills, L. I., N. Y.
Castillo, Julio v., B.A. Pharmacologist, WeUcome Research Laboratories, Tuck&-
hoe,N. Y.
Cohen, Herman, M.s., Biology, Chemistry. Research Associate, E. R. Squibb &
Sons, New Brunswick, N. J.
Dobriner, Konrad, M.D., Metabolism. Chief, Research Chemistry Dept., Memo-
rial Hospital, New York N. Y.
Earl~~ Da.vid P., Jr., M.D., D.Sc., MPdical Research. Asst. Professor, Medicine,
.!.'lew York University, New York, N. Y.
Emerson, Gladys A" Ph.D., Biochemistry, Pharmacology. Head Biochemist,
Division of Nutrition, Merck Institute, Rahway, N. J.
Ervin, Clyde D., Ph.D. Research Mycologist, Led.erle Laboratories, Inc., Pearl
River, N. Y.
Garber, C. Zent, M.D. Pathologist, New York Orthopaedic Dispensary and Hos-
pital, New York, N. Y.
Green, D. F., Ph.D., Biology. Medical Dept., Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, N. J.
Griffin, Charles A., D.V.M., Biology. Associate Veterinarian Bacteriologist, Divn.
of Laboratories & Research, New York State Dept. of Health, Albany, N. Y.
Hamre, Dorothy M., Ph.D., Microbiology. Research Associate, Squibb Institute,
New Brunswick, N. J.
Heaton, Louise M., B.A., Viruses. Bacteriologist, Lederle Laboratories, Inc., Pearl
River, N. Y.
Kahn, Joseph, Ph.D., Biochemistry. Chemist, Beth Moses Hospital, Brooklyn,
N.Y.
Kantrowitz, Abraham R., M.D., Patholog;¥, Biolo8l", Chemistry. Director, Labora.-
tories, and Pathologist, Beth Moses Hospital, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Karr, Walter G., Ph-D., Pharmaceutical and Medical Chemistry. Director, Re-
search Laboratories, Smith, Klme & French Laboratories; Asst. Professor,
Physiological Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania; Consulting Biochemist,
Medical Chnic, University of Pennsylvania, Bryn Mawr Hospital, and Abing-
ton Memorial Hospital, Philadelphia, Pa.
Kittredge, Winifred, M.A., Psychology, Pathology. Priva.te practice, Speech
pathology, New York, N. Y.
Klein, Bernard, B.s., Organic Chemistry. Graduate Student, Brooklyn Poly-
technic Inst., Brooklyn, N. Y.
Laszlo, Daniel, MD., Cancer Research. Medical Associate, Montefiore Hospital,
New York, N. Y.
Levy, Hilton B., M.A., Biochemistry. Research Chemist, Memorial Hospital,
New York, N. Y.
Linegar, Charles R., PhD., Pharmacology. Chief, Biological Development &
Control Laboratories, E. R. Sqmbb & Sons, New Brunswick, N. J.
Lore-nz, Fred W., PhD. Physiologist, White Laboratories, Inc., Newark, N. J.
Mann, Conklin, A.B., History. Vice President, Campbell-Stanford Advertising
Agency, New York, N. Y.
Mollov, Mollie, M.s. Bacteriologist, Queens General Hospital, Jamaica, L. I.,
N.Y.
Morales, Manuel F., PhD., Biophysics, Physical Chemistry. Instructor, Mathe-
matical Biophysics, University of Chicago, Chicago Ill.
Moser, George C., PhD., Psychology. Vocational Adviser, Brooklyn College
Veterans' Advisement Unit, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Moyer, Arden Wesley, Ph.D., BiochemistlX, Nutrition, Immunology. Instructor,
Biochemistry, Cornell University Medical College, New York, N. Y.
Mozingo, Ralph, Ph.D., Organic Chemistry. Chemist, Merck & Co., Inc., RaIl-
way,N.J.
Novotny, Dorothy, B.A., Biology, Bacteriology, Chemistry. Bacteriologist, Led-
erIe Laboratories, Inc., Pearl River, N. Y.
Ogur, Maurice, M.A., Biochemistry. Instructor, Chemistry, Brooklyn College,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Park, S. E., Ph.D., Bacteriology, Biochemistry. Literature & Advertising Divn.,
Lederle Laboratories, Rockefeller Plaza, New York, N. Y.
Poppensiek, George C., V.MD., Veterinary Medicine. Dept. Head, Animal In-
dustry Divn., Lederle Laboratories, Inc., Pearl River, N. Y.
Randeberg, Ragnvald, B.s., Psychology. Research Co-ordinator, Klein Inst. for
Aptitude Testing, New York, N. Y.
Rosebury, Theodor, D.D.S. Associate Professor, Bacteriology, Columbia Uni-
Scheuer, Joseph S., PD., Physics, Chemistry. Director, Research, Scott & Brown,
Bloomfield, N. J.
Smith, Dorothy G., B.A., Microbiology, Chemotherapy. Research Asst., Dept.
of Chemotherapy, Merck Institute, Rahway, N. J.
Smith, Harriet Hull, M.D., Internal Medicine. Asst. Resident, New York Hos-
Smith, Lawrence Weld, MD., Antibiotics, Pathology. Medical Director, Com-
mercial Solve-nts Corp.; Medical Consultant, Rystan Co., New York, N. Y.
Stein, Ann M., M.A., Child Guidance. Tencher, Biology & General Science, New
York City Junior High School, New York, N. Y.
Stoner, William Hoy, Ph.D., MD., SeD., Endocrinology. Medical Research
Consultant, Schering_ Corp., Bloomfield, N. J.
Vollmer, Hermann, M.D., Biology, Psychology, Asst. Pediatrician, Vanderbilt
Clinic, Columbia UniversitJ[, New York, N. Y.
Wa.elsch, Heinrich, MD., Ph.D. Asst. Professor, Biochemistry, Columbia Uni-
versity; Associate Research BiochelXlist, New York Psychiatric Institute &
220 TRANSACTIONS
Cheldelin, Vernon H., PhD., Biochemistry. Associate Prof('ssor, Chemistry, Ore-
gon State Colleg(', Corvallis, Oregon.
Fox, Portland P., B.s. Regionru Geologist, Buretlu, R('('lnmo.tion, Billings, Mont.
Glickman, Myra R., B.s., Endocrinology, Bacteriology. EndocrinologIst, Research
Laboratory, Reed and Cnrnrick, Jersey Clty, N. J.
Huttrer, Charles P., Ph])., Chemifltry, Biochemistry, Biology. Research ChemISt
Ciba Pharmo.ceutical Co., Summit, N. J. '
Kiessling, LaVerne L., M.A., Biochemistry. R('scul'ch ASbt., Bureau, Biological
Research, Rutgers University, New BrunSWIck, N. J.
STUDENT MEMBERSHIP
Davis, Sanford, B.s., Physical Chemistry, Biophysics. Matiello Research Fellow,
Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Meyer, Walter, M.S., Biochemistry. Research Chemist, Goldwater Memorial
Hospital, Welfare Island, New York, N. Y.
Singer, Seymour, A.M., Physical Chemistry. DuPont Research Fellow, Poly-
technic Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Vroman, Mary Alice, Medicme. Technical Librarian, Lederle Laboratories, Inc.,
Pearl River, N. Y.
TRANSACTIONS
of
SER. II, VOL. 8 MAY, 1946 No.7

APRIL 1, 1946
DOCTOR ALFRED K. SNELGROVE, Visiting Professor of Geology, Rutgers
Cniversity, New Brunswick, N. J.: Some Problems of Newfound-
land Geology. (This lecture was illustrated by lantern slides and
motion pictures.)
Geologically, the island of Newfoundland is an extension of the
New England-Acadian Division of the Appalachian Highlands. It ex-
hibits areally limited relations with the pre-Cambrian Shield of Canada.
The rather complete Paleozoic record is of special interest for its Euro-
pean, as well as for its North American, affinities.
Among the problems discussed by the speaker, to the accompani-
ment of a motion picture tour of the island, were:
(1) The delimitation of the submarine Ordovician iron ore basin at
Wabana, and the possible application of geophysics thereto i
(2) The origin of epithermal deposits of lead, zinc, fluorspar,
celestite, etc., in country rocks, of pre-Cambrian or Paleozoic age, on
the south and west coasts of the island;
(3) The genetic relationships of base metal deposits in the central
mineral belt of the island; and
(4) Paleoclimatic conditions, in respect to the accumulation of
evaporites and mineral fuels in this part of Greater Acadia.
The potentially important Huronian iron ore deposits of New-
foundland Labrador, and the magnificent Grand Falls of the Hamilton
River, were also depicted and discussed.
TRANSACTIONS of The New YOlk Academy of Sciences, Series II, Volume 8, No. 'I,
May 1946.
This publication is distributetl to MembE'l'S and is pubhshed monthly from November to .Tune,
inclusive, at 109 West Chestnut Street, LanC88ter~.Pa., by The New York Academy of Sciences,
Seventy.ninth Street and Central Park West, New xork City.
Assistant Editors: Michael Demarest, Lothar N. Salin.
Executive Secretary: Eunice Thomaa Miner.
Entered as oecond-class matter December 2, 1938, at the post office at Lancaster, Pa., under
the act of August 24, 1912.
221
222 TRANSACTIONS
SECTION OF BIOLOGY
ApRIL 8,1946
DOCTOR CHARLES O. WARREN, Assistant Professor of Physiology and
Anatomy, Cornell University Medical College, New York, N. Y.:
Tissue Metabolism Studies on Bone Marrow.* (This lecture was
illustrated by lantern slides.)
Bone marrow, the site of production of both red and white blood
cells, is one of the few tissues of the adult organism that exhibit active
growth and multiplication of cells. Metabolic studies of this organ
are, consequently, of general intcrcst in connection with problems of
normal and abnormal ceIluhtr growth. We have employed the War-
burg microrcspiration technique to investigate ccrtain aspects of the
metabolism of bone marrow cells, bupplementing chemical and meta-
bolic studies of other investigators. 1 - H It is the purpose of this report
to summarize some of the rcsults.
In most of the experiments, the marrow samples were slices or sus-
pensions of rabbit femoral and tibial marrow. Human material was
also used; human rib-marrow has been found to show the same general
metabolic features as rabbit marrow, and experiments with human
leukemic cells will be ('ited. Details of the experimental techniques
may be found in the publications referr<.'d to j but it should be pointed
out that the duration of thE' experiments is a matter of a few hours,
rather than of days. The tissue survives well during this period; the
cells maintain their staining charact('ristics, and the motile myeloid
cells continue their amoeboid activity. The procedure must not, how-
ever, be confused with tissue culture methods.
I. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RESPIRATION, GLYCOLYSIS, AND THE

CELLULAR COMPOKITION OF THE MARROW
Bone marrow consists of a mixture of red blood cell precursors

(erythroid cells) and white cell precursors (myeloid cells) in various
proportions, in addition to a large and variable complement of fat cells.
* TIus W01'k hIlS been gE'nl'rously bUppOl ted by gUlnts from the John and Ma.r.y R. Markle
Foundatton.
Metabolic measurements have, accordingly, to deal with this hetero-

geneity of the experimental material. The variable influence of the
fat content is eliminated by expressing the results in terms of fat-free
dry weight of tissue, which may be conveniently calculated from nitro-
gen analyses. 4 In experiments designed to determine the effect of the
varying proportions of the erythroid to the myeloid ce11s,9 the relative
numbers of these cells were varied over a wide range by subjecting the
animalB to suitable experimental procedures. In this way, it was
possible to arrive at estimates of the rates of respiration and glycolysis
(lactic acid formation) for the separate myeloid and erythroid com-
ponents of the marrow. It was found that the erythroid cells are char-
acterized metabolically by a relative predominance of respiratory OVE'"
glycolytic processes, while the reverse is true of the myeloid cells. Tbf'
active glycolytic mechanisms in the latter are transmitted to their
mature daughter cells, the polymorphonuclear leucocytesr for which
this metabolic feature is a physiological asset, permitting them to securp
energy for their life processes under the relatively anoxic circumstances
to which they are frequently submitted, in their wanderings through01lt
the organism. On the other hand, it is difficult to understand how thp
relative inactivity of the glycolytic mechanisms and, hence, a depend-
ence on respiratory processes can be other than a disadvantage to the
erythroid cells, which, nevertheless, manage not only to survive under
conditions of oxygen want, but even to respond to this situation by in-
creased growth and multiplication. This problem was further investi-
gated in the studies now to be described.
II. THE INFLUENCE OF OXYGEN TENSION ON ¥A.RBOW METABOLISM
It has long been known that exposure to conditions of lowered oxy-

gen tension produces a polycythemia, which is the result of an increase
in growth and division of the erythroid cells in the marrow. The meta-
bolic basis of this enhanced growth of the red-cell precursors in the
marrow, however, is far from clear. Some interesting experiments
of Schultze' have shown that the cytochrome oxidase activity of rat
bone marrow is increased markedly by exposing the animals, for 48
hours, to lowered oxygen tension. Unfortunately, however, no histo-
logical examinations were made, so that it is not possible to determine
whether the increased enzyme activity is due to replacement of fat by
erythroid tissue, to a higher enzyme content of the erythroid as com-
224 TRANSACTIONS
pared to the myeloid tissue, or to an increased enzyme content of the

individual erythroid cells.
We have endeavored to Ilscert.ain the total energy available to the
erythroid cells under conditions of lowered oxygen tension. When
bone marrow is exposed to lowered oxygen tension in vitro, respiration
is not increased; but, at very low levels of oxygen tension, glycolysis is
inereased.1l- 18 This increase, however, is accompanied by a decreaae
in respiration. Since respiration yields more energy than glycolysis,
the total energy available to the cells is less than under conditions of
normal oxygen tension. This seems to indicate that the erythroid
cells, under conditions of lowered oxygen tension, utilize a larger frac-
tion of their total metabolic energy for synthetic processes, i.e. growth.
How this is accomplished is not known, but changes in phosphate me-
tabolism may be implicated. 14
These considerations apply to experiments in which bone marrow
is exposed to lowered oxygen tension in vitro. When the experiment is
performed in vivo, i.e., when the intact animal is subjected to these con-
ditions and the marrow is removed for metabolic studies,ll there is no
evidence that the glycolytic components of enzyme systems are in-
creased as the result of formation of erythroid cells under the influence
of lowered oxygen tension. Respiration is higher than in marrows of
normal animals, but this is apparently due to the higher proportion of
erythroid cells in these marrows. In short, the metabolic studies offer
no support for the view that lowered oxygen tension stimulates growth
of erythroid cells by acting direct£y on the marrow. This widely-held
concept may be true, but, in our opinion, convincing evidence to sup-
port it has not been brought forward.
III. BONE MARROW METABOLISM IN RELATION TO TUMOR METABOLISM

In the course of these studies, it became apparent that the respira-
tory and -glycolytic metabolism of the myeloid (but not the erythroid)
cells of bone marrow in many respects resembles that considered to be
characteristic of malignant tumor cells. Further investigations were
then made/ll and it was found that the myeloid cells fulfilled 8 out of 9
criteria,16 generally accepted as indicative of a, tumor type of metab-
olism. Furthermore, the one criterion upon which they are found to
fall into the normal rather than the malignant group of tissues, namely,
their relatively high respiratory quotient, is the least dependable char-
aoteristic of the nine enumerated, low respiratory quotients being by no

means a universal attribute of tumor cells. The resemblance between
the respiratory and glycolytic metabolism of normal myeloid and tumor
cells is, then, particularly striking. It is especially notable that, al-
though both the erythroid and myeloid cells are actively growing cells
in the adult organism, only the myeloid cells show malignant trans-
formation (leukemia). The corresponding malignant disease of the
erythroid cells (erythroleukosis) is a rare disease in certain animals,
notably in fowl; it is virtually unknown in man.
It would appear, therefore, that the myeloid cells may be pre-
disposed to malignant transformation by reason of the close resem-
blance of their normal metabolism to that of a tumor type. This ob-
servation, in turn, adds weight to the concept that there is, indeed, an
important relationship between the respiratory and glycolytic activity
of cells and their malignant potentialities.
IV. THE ACTION OF CERTAIN DRUGS
Potassium arsenite was studied17 because of its clinical use in the

treatment of myeloid leukemia in man. It was found to induce a
marked depression in the rate of respiration of normal and leukemic
myeloid cells, and a secondary or consequent increase in aerobic glycol-
ysis. However, the drug also affected various other normal tissues in
essentially the same way, and given concentrations of the drug de-
pressed the respiration of normal and leukemic cells to virtually the
same extent. In order to account for the greater susceptibility of the
leukemic cells '£n vivo, one must, therefore, conclude: either, that these
malignant cells are less able to withstand a given depression of respira-
tion, or, that the effect on respiration is not the essential feature of the
drug action.
Thiouracil, another drug investigated, is now being widely used
clinically, in the treatment of hyperthyroidism. Unfortunately, an
occasional individual, during a carefully supervised course of treatment,
may suddenly develop a serious leucopenia or even a fatal agranUlocy-
tosis, due, apparently, to a toxic effect of the drug on the bone marrow.
It was, therefore, of interest to determine whether thiouracil influences
the metabolism of rabbit bone marrow in vitro. It was found 18 that
thiouracil does, indeed, have a direct depressant effect on the marrow
respiration, and particularly on the myeloid cells of the marrow. It
226 TRANSAcrrIONS
was necessary to employ high concentrations of the drug (100 mg. 10)
in order to demonstrate thil:! action, but Williams I:Lnd his co-workers19
have found that, in the bone marrow of pati('nts receiving the drug,
concentrations of a similar order of magnitude mlLy be reached. Pyri-
doxine, which has been used clinically to counteract the effect of thio-
uracil on the marrow, is without demonstrable protoctive action in vitro.
It is suggested, however, that these methods might be employed to test
new chemotherapeutic agents for possible toxic effects on the marrow;
also, to test the action of compounds proposed to protect the marrow
from the depressant effects of drugs.
V. THE INFLUENCE OF SERUM ON MARROW REsPlRATION AND GLYCOLYSIS

Early in the course of these studies,20 it was observed that marrow
respiration and glycolysis are nearly twice as rapid when serum, rather
than the usual Ringer solution, is used as the suspension medium. This
action of serum has been noted in the case of several other tissues,21 but,
with marrow, the effect is particularly striking. Contrary to what
might be anticipated a priori, the serum proteins appear to playa minor
role, for protein-free ultrafiltrates of serum are very nearly as effective
as serum itself.l!2 When the ultrafiltrate is further fractionated, more
than half its activity in sustaining marrow respiration is found to be
attributable to its content of bicarbonate ions, or to the CO2 with which
the bicarbonate is in equilibrium. Other authors, employing carbon
isotopes, have recently demonstrated that metabolic fixation of CO2 oc-
curs in certain organs of the body, notably in the liver. lIa,2' We find
that bicarbonate-C02 enhances liver as well a!:l marrow respiration. 23
It is quite possible that, in both sites, the effect on respiration is asso-
ciated with a metabolic fixation of CO2,
When freed of bicarbonate-C02 , serum ultrafiltrate still induces a
rate of respiration in marrow and liver that is 25 to 35 per cent higher
than in Ringer-glucose solution. The nature of the substances re-
sponsible for this residual activity, which may well be preferred sub-
strates for marrow metabolism, is currently under investigation. The
evidence, to date, points to their fatty acid nature. There is, however,
little information yet available as to what foodstuffs (sugars, amino
acids, and fatty acids) are preferentially utilized by the marrow, and it
is particularly in this direction that our inquiries are being continued.
LITERATURE CITED
1. v. Breza., J.
1926. Arch. expo Path. & Pharm.117: 240.
2. Felix, X., A. GrassmUck, X. Huck, & X. Matzen
1933. Zeitschr. f. Physio}. Chem. 2S0: 137.
3. Schretzenmaur, A., & H. Br6cheler
1936. Klin. Wochenschr. 15: 998.
4. Orr, J. W., & L. H. Stickla.nd
1938. Biochem. J. 32: 567.
5. Huggins, C., J. McFa.yden, & E. Wiege
1940. Anat. Rec. 76: 309.
6. Schultze, M. O.
1941. J. BioI. Chem. 188: 219.
7. McCoy, B. H., & M. O. Schultze
1944. Ibid. 166: 479.
8. Scott, E. M., & R. H. McCOJ'
1944. Arch. Biochem. 5: 349.
9. Warren, C. O.
1940. Am. J. Physioi. 181: 176.
10. McLeod, J., & C. P. Rhoads
1939. Proc. Soc. Exp. BioI. & Med. 41: 268.
11. Warren, C. O.
1941. Am. J. PhysioI. 136: 249.
IS. Warren, C. O.
1942. J. Cell. & Compar. Physiol. 19: 193.
18. Warren, C. 0., & C. E. Carter
1943. J. BioI. Chem. 150: 267.
14. Johnson, M. J.
1941. Science 94: 200.
16. Warren, C. O.
1943. Cancer Res. 8: 621.
16. Burk, D.
1942. Symposium on Respiratory Enzymes: 235-245. Univ. of WISconsin Press.
17. Warren, C. O.
1943. Am. J. Physiol. 139; 719.
18. Warren, C. O.
1945. Ibid. 145: 71.
19. Williams, B. H., G. A. Kay, & B. J. Jandorf
1944. J. Clin. Invest. 23: 613.
20. Warren, C. O.
1940. Am. J. Physiol. 128: 455.
21. Ca.nza.nelli, A., & D. Rapport
1939. Ibid. 12'1: 296.
1942. Ibid. 135: 316.
228 TRANSACTIONS
as. Warren, O. O.
1944. J. BioI. Chern. 166: 559.
28. Solomon, A. It., B. Vennesla.nd, r. W. Itlem.perer, J. M. Buchanan, &
A. B. Hastings
1941. J. BioI. Chern. 140: 171.
24. Evans, E. A., Jr.
1942. Science 96: 25.
ApmL 15, 1946
DOCTOR RICHARD H. HOFFMANN, New York, N. Y.: PsychosomatW
Medicine.
I have chosen the subject of "Psychosomatic Medicine" merely
because the word itself is newly minted from dies cut in the time of
Hippocrates. In my opinion, the greatest achievement of human
thinking, after the impulse of the 'missing link' to strive toward homo
sapiens, has been the recently proven concept of the essential identity
of matter and energy.
The little sister of this Gargantuan discovery has been the slow
birth of the idea that body and mind are not separate and discriminate
entities abiding in their human host, but that they are kindred expres-
sions of Life answering the laws of Nature.
It has become an axiom among biologists that, in every cell, there
exists a primitive consciousness, a sentient protoplasm dedicated to a
purpose. That cell developed into an organism of more complicated
structure. Gradually there were created, through need, higher cen-
ters destined to control and preside over the ever-growing number of im-
pulses and reactions complicating the life of that organism.
Behind all this was the instinct for survival, through which
there slowly developed from primitive protoplasm a nervous sys-
tem that progressed from a ganglian cell to a spinal cord, to a medulla,
to a midbrain, and, eventually, to a neopallium. Then came that in-
explicable force that we call consciousness and thought, amplified to
the point of achieving the knowledge which taught scientists to split the
atom. We have also been given the insight to discover that we are
So mass of instincts and emotions which, in our higher integration, are
subservient to our reason, the distillate of what Dr. Frederick Tilney
called the 'master organ of life,' the human brain.
I shall mention only in passing the attempts that have been made
to solve the riddle of human consciousness. The approach has been
materialistic, mystical, philosophic, behavioristic, biochemical, ana-
lytical, and even spiritual. I prefer to look upon the individual, "in
conflict with Fortune in men's eyes," from a synthetic standpoint, util-
izing every avenue of inquiry, and applying to him the fruits of what-
ever talent and experience I possess.
230 TRANSACTIONS
Very early in my medical career, after an interneship in one of our

most. scientifically dcoicat.ed hospitals, I found t.hat the rules and
methods leading to umgnosis were far from fulfilling the aim of the
healer.
A patient of min(', who walil 0. vCl'it.ttblc museum of pathology, an
encyclopedia of complaint, was gomg from bad 10 worse, under my
most assiduous ministrations. It. was only wben I discovered that she
planned to marry a pickpocket. and might easily have been implicated
that I stopped all treat.ment, and warned her to give up her plans and
beware of quicksands upon which she was about to build her home.
The patient returned in three months in the very prime of health. I
asked her who had cured her, and what had been her malady. She
answered, "No one cured me. I broke my engagement. My fiance is
in jail."
From this case, I learned very early in my career that, while I
thought I knew a great deal about medicine, I knew very little about
the human being. More than thirty years ago, I felt that, in the field
of so-called psychiatry, which, at that t.ime, was considered to be the
treatment for the insane, I would find the causes of many ills which not
only the spirit, but also the Besh, was heir to. There were, however, four
horses to the psychiatrist's chariot, driving him to the Revelation-the
physical, the chemical, the psychical, and the Elpiritual. He must not,
however, lose his sense of awareness to disease due to infcction, trauma,
and neoplasm.
Whether a patient complains of physical or mental discomfort, or
both j whether his malady be determined as primarily due to tissue
change, glandular dysfunction, allergy, emotional instabihty, habit in-
sult, or inability to fulfill the primary aim of life-t.o sec a goal and
progress towards its attainment; we shall find, upon careful inquiry,
that, somewhere in the realm of the psyche, there hnlil b('('n an under-
development, or an arrest, or a frustration, or a defeat, which has made
it impossible for the individual to accommodate himself comfortably
to his environment.
"Blessed are those whose blood and judgmcnt are so well co-
mingled that they are not a pipe for Fortune's finger to sound what stop
she choose.1'
We usually see the people who, at some t.ime in life, have been the
objects of its processes, rather than subjects who create them. As a
result of this conflict, there ensues fatigue. By fatigue, I do not mean
tired muscles. I mean a chemical fatigue in which the necessary fuels

that keep the organisms burning adequately are exhausted, spent, or
distributed to the wrong ovens. Out of this fatigue is bred appre-
hension, and continued apprehension fathers distortion.
Two major conflicts beset life: one is something you want and can-
not get; the other is something you have and cannot get rid of. In
this conflict, the patient falls back from civilized adjustment to primi-
tive mechanisms of thinking and feeling. First came the word. It is
over a bridge of words that we lead our patient from dislocated organ-
ization back to adequate function. These patients come reminding us
of light-struck plates, incapable of taking impressions. They must
be resensitized before they can be exposed to their objective lives. That
is why the psychiatrist must be an internist and a biologist. If he dis-
regards physiological disproportions and endeavors to constrain his
patient to only one method of investigation and therapy, he will find
himself like an Icarus, soaring on wings of wax.
The careful psychiatrist has learned that many maladies arise
in people who try to fit square pegs into round holes, and insist upon
success. Whatever the protest may be, whatever organ may cry out in
pain or passion against the injustices of life, it behooves the psychiatrist
to ferret out from the history of the patient, from his birth to the time
of his appearance, the hurdles that he either had to avoid or knock
down in order to keep in the race. Often, it is necessary to educate our
patients to an understanding of our interpretation of their problems. I
usually draw a pattern in which I symbolize the concept by a triangle,
the idea by a square, and the act by a star. I show him that, as he goes
from one to another, the stream of energy is directed by currents of
reason and emotion. I try to convince him that the adult travels this
path led by reason; that the stultified individual-the one who is sub-
adult-follows an infantile pattern dominated by his emotions. I then
draw a tripod and label the stanchions "Security, Loyalty, and Love."
I try to prove to him that he has superimposed a primitive upon a
civilized pattern of existence; that his way to survival is through secur-
itYi that, without it, neither love, nor loyalty, can play an adequate
part in the drama of life. I then explain that loyalty or honesty is a
policy and that it is not indigenous to the untrammeled primitive cell,
or primitive manl Experience has taught his forefather that, although
it was against his nature not to take what he wanted, it was good policy
to treat his neighbor as he himself would like to be treated, and thus
232 TRANSACi'IONS
avoid the battles born out of revenge and spite. He is made to realize
that the history of civilization is the history of the harnessing of our
predatory instincts.
Finally, we come to the discussion of lovp. Just as it has been
said that, in the name of the Prince of Peace, more wars have been
fought than in the name of Satan and all of his ilk, so, in the name of
love, there have been more battles fought among its pensioners than
have been waged in the name of all the imps of the cosmos. Here in
the sphere of the Ipangs of despis'd love,' we see numberless moods of
strife and discord that are born in the spirit of men, reflecting its
despondencies in innumerable manifestations of disease.
The Lange-James Theory of the Interpretation of Fear can be ap-
plied to any distortion that makes its inroads upon the serenity of
human choice. The discord produces a visceral protest, discomfort;
the mind becomes aware of the discomfort and reacts to it with fear and
apprehension, producing, literally, a new disease.
It would be a wonderful thing if we could take the Ibuffets and
rewards of Fortune' without disturbing our sympathetic nervous sys-
tem. Then we could avoid tension and spasm, secretory change, im-
balance, and, eventually, organic disease. But the swallowed sigh,
having been born in the heart and imprisoned in the stomach, may
eventually produce an ulcer. The cure of that ulcer does not lie in
local treatment. True enough, with rest and diet and drugs, the ulcer
will heal. However, the pain in the heart must be removed to prevent
its recurrence.
I may have given stress to the chauvinistic conclusion that, among
physicians, the psychiatrist is the portrait-painter. If I were to admit
a sub-group, the psychoanalyst, I would call him the caricaturist. The
physician, in the ordinary sense, is a photographer. He gets a likeness
of his patient by making his necessary scientific exposures and eventu-
ally deciding upon the one he likes best, labeling it, and treating the
label. The psychiatrist, on the other hand, becomes intimately ac-
quainted with his patient. He aees him as a child, as an adolescent,
as an adult. He watches his mood, he sees his relation to time and
space, and when he has memorized his personality, he puts him on the
platform, and using the brushes and colors of insight and understand-
ing, creates a true portrait which has the likeness not only of the with-
out, but of the within, and re:B.ects the character and disposition of the
sitter.
APRIL 22, 1946

MB. PAUL S. WINGERT, Department of Fine Arts, Columbia University,
New York, N. Y.: Art and Its Function in the New Hebrides.
(No abstract of this paper has been received.)
234 TRANSACTIONS
MR. CARL WITHERS, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, N. Y.: The Folklore

of a SmaZZ Town.*
Although the assigned topic indicates a wider scope, I shall at-
tempt to discuss only the medical folklore of a small midwestern com-
munity which I have pseudonymously described elsewhere, in more
general anthropological terms. A book-length treatment of its folk-
lore, including the more usual folkloristic categories, is in preparation.
The community will, in this present paper, be called Smalltown.
The population of Smalltown is slightly under three hundred, and it
is the local trading center for about two hundred farms which lie on
a small prairie surrounding the village, and in the nearby hills.
In Smalltown, there arc five historical layers of medical and
pseudo-medical lore, all of which coexist and have coexisted, in varying
ratios, for a long time. They are, in a kind of rough-and-ready his-
torical order of appearance: (1) Early magical practice, including both
"witchcraft" and divine healing; (2) an enormous body of "home
remedies"; (3) rational or pseudo-rational medicine connected with
the recognized medical profession; (4) patent medicines; and (5) a
new and recent wave of curing by prayer and other religious techniques.
Old men and women now1 in their seventies say that, when they
were children, "the woods were full of witches." Most witches were
women; a few were men, though the word, when applied to a man,
usually meant only a "water witch" or dowser, who with a forked
stick could locate underground "streams" of water. A few witches had
power to harm with ill-luck, sickness, even death. Most were benign,
however, serving as "granny women" (midwives), sick-bed nurses, and
respected repositories of the lore of home remedies. Women who prac-
ticed these arts were not necessarily witches, but most granny women
were. Midwifery was a semi-specialized proiession.
A granny woman was in particular demand, not only if she had
practical command of childbed techniques (some of these were magi-
cal: for example, she should know enough to burn cobs under the
bed when parturition was difficult), but also if she knew spells to ease
pain, could stop blood from Bowing by murmuring a Bible verse or
magic rhyme, could remove warts with spit or string or words, and
II' Thla ~ was delivered a.t the meetine of the Section of Anthropology, March 25. 1946.
I "Now" means 1981-4.0, when fieldwork WM done.
knew charms or devices to catch reluctant lovers or to repel undesired

ones.
Many people, other than witches, knew and practiced various
J;nagical charms, some of which are still used. I imagine that no one
any longer tries to capture a sweetheart by stealing a bow off his ha.t-
band, by dropping a toenail clipping into his drink, or by baking a
drop of menstrual blood in his cake. The first two are still often
laughingly mentioned, though it is "indecent" to speak of the third.
However, everyone knows several magical methods of removing warts
and tells of occasions when they worked. The old-time witch simply
knew more magical tricks than the average layman, and her prestige
hinged on her store of knowledge in all medical and magical situations.
Many witches could also see or communicate with ghosts, interpret
dreams, or tell fortunes from cards, tea leaves, coffee grounds, or a
bottle of whiskey used as a crystal. Some had second sight. These
knew instantly when a distant house or haystack caught fire, and
when far-off relatives suffered injury, sickness, or death. All these
powers, taken together with a tremendous system of omens, tokens,
and signs, related to human health and well-being.
Except for one famous local story, only a few scraps of evil witch-
craft are any longer remembered. One way to harm people used to be
to leave a "pully bone"-a chicken's wishbone-on the doorstep of an
enemy. If he stepped on the bone, he suffered whatever harm had
been wished against him. About thirty years ago, the families in a
rural neighborhood who used the same spring grew angry, because a
man of the neighborhood kept dropping horsehairs into the water, "to
poison people." Presumably, the horsehairs would turn into snakes,
a notion which probably a third of the people still believe. Many have
tested it out by putting a horsehair into a bottle of water for a week
or two, and most have found it to be true I
The community's great story of evil magic occurred in 1897, and
terminated in a court trial. A man whose farm adjoined that of his
two elderly aunts repeatedly found horsehair ringlets in his house, barn,
paths, and even pockets. He finally decided that they were "witching"
him and prayed to God for guidance. God appeared to him and told
him to kill the witches on a night when the moon dipped three times.
For three nights he watched the moon and, on the third night, it dipped
low three times. He sharpened his corn knife, crept up to his aunts'
236 TRANSAc'rIONS
house, and cut the women to pieces. At his trial for murder, he showed
a pocketful of horsehair ringlets, but they were not accepted as legal
evidence and he received a life term in the penitentiary. In a few
years, however, he was paroled to relatives in another state, with whom
he lived out the rest of his life peacefully.
There are no longer any witches in Smalltown. Elderly women,
however, still serve as midwives, usually as neighborly and unpaid
assistants to the attending physician. There are also still a few ghost-
seers and "dreamers," mostly in the backwoods, and a large body of
signs and omens, which some believe in, some half believe in, and others
view with mirth or contempt.
Most of what are locally called "the old-home remedies" are pass-
ing into disuse, but enough were reported to fill many pages. Here are
a few, together with the names of the ailments for which they were,
or are, given. Colds are commonly viewed as "something you just
have to wear out," yet there are many old remedies for them. One
is to eat honey, because it is made out of wild flowers; another, a tea
brewed of field balsam, and sweetened. For coughs, drink hot tea
made by boiling mullen leaves and hoarhound, or by boiling shredded
hickory bark. ("Hickory tea," in another connection, is a "remedy"
applied directly with a hickory switch to the backside of a small boy.)
For a sore throat, swallow a teaspoonful of sugar saturated with tur-
pentine or kerosene, or blow dry sulphur into the throat through a paper
funnel. A preventive gargle for colds is one quart of boiled rainwater
containing a teaspoonful of salt, soda, and carbolic acid; this should be
.used every morning, Another gargle is vinegar, liberally sprinkled
with pepper and salt. Some "old-style" farmers and town people
swallow skunk oil for colds, though they know that most of their
neighbors laugh at this remedy. Skunk oil if! also taken internally for
"croup," dropped into the ear to stop earache, rubbed on the chest for 8
chest cold, and applied externally to any part of the body beneath
which there is a pain or lIinformation" (inflammation).
To cure colic in her seven-day-old baby, one young mother a.dmin-
istered sulphur soaked with the juice of a baked onion. An elderly
neighbor had suggested, instead, two teaspoonfuls of boiled catnip juice
with sugar. Calamus root tea is occasionally given for "cramp colic";
the boiled juice of rhubarb root, for "stomach cramps"; spice tea, for
"the stomach ache." For "a rising in the bowels,"2 one old woman
recommended a hop-tea poultice, made of the boiled cones. "A fine
remedy for the flux or summer complaint," she said, "is mules'-tail tea."
Mules'-tail is the native name of a plant. An old man said, "We don't
never go to a doctor for summer complaint. We just bile witch hazel
bark or the sticks, either one, and drink the juice. It's a cure for
people or hogs that's got the scours." He cures styes by applying castor
oil, though his father's remedy was "weak terbacker ooze" i "the seven
year eetch," by boiling polk root and rubbing it on. This remedy he
described as "from a way back" and severe-"It'll raise up big welts ...
but hit'U sure cure the eetch."
An old couple living in town have cured hives with (1) saffron tea,
(2) an onion bandage, or (3) a peppermint poultice. The old man has
cured himself three times of "blood boils" by drinking burdock-root
tea. With this treatment, in 1901, he cured himself of a series of
twenty-five boils on his neck. His wife has cured shingles with soda
and with catnip tea, applied to the rash; but the best remedy, she said,
is to "cut off a black eat's tail--or a black chicken's tail will do-and
let it bleed over the sores." She cured her husband, using a black
chicken, in 1931.
She, at least, does not think of this treatment as magical, but just
as an old-time home remedy that works. In her childhood, "every-
body" took sulphur and molasses, each spring, to thin the blood. The
practice was to take a dose on three successive mornings, miss three
days, and so on, until nine doses were taken. In her childhOOd, also,
she said, though nobody else mentioned this, scarification was widely
J There are IiCOres of curious local names for Dln_, for e:sa.m.ple: "risiD~" in the head
stomach, leg, or any other member; "asthmy" of the windpipe or stomach; 'information" of
almost anv part of the body including internal organa' "congestions"; "nerve trouble'" "female
complaini."· kidney, liver, StOmach, or heart "trouble"; "slow" or "quick" (sometinles called
"galloping") "consumptIon'" etc. etc.
Some diseases are considered' to be "imaginary" or to rest only "in the mind." Most suf-
ferers are ea.id to be womon. The maiD causes are "a nervous disposition" or "broodin~" <I'!::
haps over a headstrong child or sinful husband or a recent death in the family) or from ' thin~
about one's seU too much." Such a disease msy have or lack organic sym~tolDS. The "worst
mental disease is, of course, insanity. There are two kinds of iDsanityl the 'hannless" kind and
the "violent" kind, and the former gains much more sympathy for lts victim than the latter.
The wife of a leading citJ.Zen was insane while I war. in SmalitoWD. She was not considered
really dangerous, but her outbursts of extremely frank talk emblllT8Ssed people. Eer illness WIIS
almost universally attributed to her having washed clothes whUe menstruating, yet a good many
people thought that she was llO crazier then she wanted to be. I rather often heard inmlitr. de-
soribed as voluntary. "Brooding over religion" is probably the commonest cause of insanIty in
SmalitoWD; a number of past suicides were by people who "went crazy over religion." The in-
sanity of a middle-lilted man now "in the asylum" was explained as follows: When he was a boy
and his mother wanted to punish him, she ueed to seize hUll by the heels and danale him over a
well. "She done that a lot when he wouldn't mind her, and that always did seem to bother
him a little and prey on his mind." To have kinfolks in the asylum is somewhat disgraceful, and
to have "lD.'IIInt' blood in the family" is a fearful thiDi.
238 TRANSACTIONS
practiced. "My older sisters," she said, "didn't have an inch of skin
on their shoulders that wasn't welts." To thin the blood in spring, or
for agues, bitters were taken until recentlY-"n big swaller every morn-
ing before breakfast." Bittcrs were made of "sour sassaprilly," "yel-
low pecoon," ginseng, wild cherry bark, and snakeroot, boiled to a tea
to which whiskey was added. Sassafras tca is still taken to thin the
blood.
A farm boy in high school mentioned with ridicule all of the fol-
lowing remedies and said they were "still in use": putting a spider web
on a wound to stop bleeding i applying salt to a cut to heal it; smoking
coffee for toothache i a quid of tobacco on an aching tooth i a tobacco
quid on a baby's stomach to cure "worms" ; pumpkin seed tea for
"stomach worms"; salt and vinegar poultices on the back for kidney
trouble; gunpowder and cream ointment for ringworm; canning acid
and pine tar salve for eczema i nicotine from a pipe for eczema; golden
seal for sores in the mouth j applications of cow dung tied in a white
:Bour sack to mump-swollen testes to draw out the swelling (cow dung
is also sometimes used as a face bleach) j application of a mixture of
coal tar, turpentine, and camphor to the right side to cure appendicitis;
and carrying a buckeye or a lump of sulphur in the pocket to cure or
prevent rheumatism. In a forthcoming book called Ozark Supersti-
tiona, Vance Randolph mentions a respected Ozark physician who car-
ries a buckeye for rheumatism, on the basis that it can't do any harm
and might help. Patent medicine is, for the most part, a commercial
development from the recognized medical profession, but, since its main
use has always been to by-pass doctors and their fees, it is best treated
in connection with home remedies. The main difference, in local eyes,
is that home-prepared remedies are made from materials that "we
know," while patent medicines are prepared from formulae that "city
doctors and manufacturers know."
Patent medicine camo into great favor at least forty to fifty years
ago, although this seems also to have been the period of greatest rivalry
between all methods of curing; through witches (specialists in both
magical formulae and home remedies) i through a far wider parental
knowledge of home remedies than at present; through patent medicines
of various kinds; and through regular physicians. There were over a
dozen physicians in the county in 1900. In 1940, there were only three,
only one of them active. Whether sickness has diminished during the
same period, I do not know. Some oldsters say, "There wasn't no

sickness around when I was a child." Others say, "In them days
ever'body was down half the time." Medical records were wholly
lacking until recent years and are still inadequate. Malaria does seem
to have been very prevalent until recent years, and typhoid fever a
scourge every summer. Undoubtedly, there were also more frequent
epidemics of such diseases as Whooping cough, measles, mumps, scarlet
fever, smallpox, and diphtheria.
A type of patent medicine, no longer sold, was the universal nos-
trum. A dozen curealls were advertised in the county forty years ago,
as curing anything from piles to "consumption." Other patent medi-
cines were more modestly claimed to cure only piles or consumption,
or female complaints, or nervous disorders, or rheumatism and lum-
bago, or diseases of the stomach, kidneys, liver, and bowels. Numerous
patented tonics, salves, liniments, and physic pills were on the market.
At picnics and carnivals, barkers sold the panacea "bear grease" and
various potions and lotions in bottles, powders, salves, and pills. The
labels on many packaged remedies bore the names of doctors and thus
carried the aura of the medical profession. Perhaps some of these
doctors were imaginary. Some were, of course, authentic medical doc-
tors who were willing to lend their name to products which promised to
harvest dollars from the sick and gullible, and the public had even less
legal protection from charlatans than it has today.
In the average Smalltown kitchen, there is a shelf on which sits
the family's staple supply of "boughten" home remedies. s Not all of
these are patent medicines. They generally include, minimally, pallia-
tives like aspirin and vaseline; a widely advertised mentholated salve
(used in various ways for colds); turpentine (for liniment and anti-
septic) ; and one or more varieties of patented physic pills. Most fami-
lies have also a supply of epsom salts, castor oil, and calomel. Regular
bowel movements are highly valued, and both children and adults are
dosed with physic at bedtime after any day of "irregularity." Prob-
ably most old people take a physic daily, sometimes five or six times
the dosage recommended on the package. Whatever other patent medi-
cines are bought are usually purchased for specific or chronic ailments,
• A dock generally sits there too, and often, on nails beneath the shelf, haDg a number of
alma.I!acs whiCh are distributed free through local ll!ercha.nw by va.nous patent inedicine firms.
In addition to advertismg matter, these booklets Include a ca.lendar, detailed weather forecasts
for the year, and mformation about the zodiacal sips and moon changee, on which a great deal
of local agrioUltural mqie is based.
240 TRANSACTIONS
like stomach trouble, nervousness, fatigue, etc. The customer decides ,

after comparing symptoms with neighbors, or after consultation with a
physician, what his illness is, hears radio auvertie.mg, reads ads in pat-
ent medicine almanacs and newspapers, examines labels on packages in
the drugstore, consults druggists and friends, and shops around, trying
out this or that packaged remedy, untll he finds somethmg that "seems
to help," or until his ailment abates. The supplies on the medlcine
shelf are the present-day basic body of "home remedies," having largely
supplanted the older home remedies descrlbed earlier, which were in
addition homemade, mainly of leaves, roots, and barks found in the
local woods. They are ue.ually administered without the advice of a
doctor. DoctOlS and other health officers of the region in general
rather weakly sanction their use, though condemning their "abuse."
When children or adults become ill, home diagnosis and home
treatment are generally tried first. Home diagnosis of the child, the
husband, or of herself, is usually done by the wife, though some men
are also "good in sickness," which means good in diagnosis, treatment,
and "care." The five primary diagnostic points are these: (1) Test-
ing the sick person's brow with the back of the hand for fever. If the
brow feels much hotter than the hand, the patient is "feverish." (2)
Examining the tongue to see if it is coated. (3) Asking, "When did
your bowels move last?" (4) Asking, "Does your head ache?" And
(5) asking, "Do you hurt anywhere else?" A child, who may have
been "piecing" from the cupboard or eating wild or tame fruits gath-
ered outdoors, is also asked, "What did you eat?" Except for colds
and children's epidt'mics, most illness is at first diagnosed as due either
to constipation or an upset stomach, and a physic is taken or pre-
scribed. The "severe" physics, epsom salts, castor oil, and calomel,
are dreaded and hated by children, the first two for their evil taste,
and calomel because children cannot eat anything sweet or sour for
some time after taking it or they will be ('salivated"; that is, their teeth
will come out in a horrible manner which will leave gaping holes in
their cheeks. These physi('s are administ<:>red to children partly as
medicine, pa.rtly as punishment, for eating things they knew they
shouldn't, like green apples or too many wild chcrri('s or raw turnips
or sweets.
An old country proverb goes: "When home remedies fail, try a
doctor." There is one aged physician in the community, whose tech-
niques are presumably similar to those of other rural practitioners of

his generation-perhaps better, since his son, with whom he is on ex-
tremely intimate terms, is a respected physician in the regional metrop-
olis, a city of 60,000, sixty-five miles away. There is also a young
osteopath in another town in the county.! There seems to be no great
local recognition of the differences between the two types of skill and
training. People select between the two on the basis of past experience,
the comparative age and "modernity" of the two men, and out of a
whole welter of hearsay and comparisons of cases of "kill" and of
"cure."
Other general practitioners are consulted in nearby county seat
towns, but since home call rates are based on mileage, they are too ex-
pensive for ordinary home calls. Beyond the immediate area is the
regional metropolis, where people go to consult specialists, for hospitali-
zation, for major operations, and for some minor ones. Emergency
cases, for example, of acute appendicitis, or what is diagnosed as such,
are rushed there in the local undertaker's ambulance.
There are also a few "radio doctors" and "mail order doctors" who
advertise in the press, whom some people patronize. The local jeweler
and tinker has "got more good" from one of these, with whom he is in
correspondence, than from all the "regular doctors." He claims to
have spent, in earlier years, thousands of dollars with physicians, whom
he calls "butchers and thieves." His mail order doctor denounces all
drugs, and prescribes foods, particularly melons, prunes, bran, and min-
eral oil as medicines. For the notorious "goat gland doctor" Brinkley,
whose broadcasts from Kansas were terminated by law, there was about
as much sympathy as condemnation, and some people still listened to
him broadcast from Mexico. A cancer hospital in the state, which
"cures without operations," carries on local propaganda, and it is well
thought of. Some people "swear by" chiropractors, though there is no
chiropractor nearby.
Beyond all these regional services is the world of "big city doc-
tors," which everybody has heard of, though none has patronized.
People have heard of doctors who "charge you $100, just to see if your
tongue is coated." Some have read of psychiatrists and other "mind
• Smee my study was made, m 1939-40, the old doctor has retu'ed and beeD supplanted by
another osteopath, and a tJ:uni osteopath haa come to the county eeat A large conege of 0ste-
opathy m the state 11 PUl'BUlDg a very IIUOOeBBful program of tralll1llg young men and encouragmc
them to locate m ~ numerous small toWDS of the state, which no longer IOft......t M n ,_
242 TRANSACTIONS
doctors." One young man in the community, otherwise highly re.

spected, is a peeper. He hils been known to peep through the bedroom
window of two girl cousins. Since this is a family matter, he has gotten
into no serious trouble, but a neighbor took the locally unusual view
that this young man was "sick and couldn't help his peeping"-and
really should consult "one of them city sakitrusts."
Another medical resource that should be mentioned is the District
Health Office, fifty miles away and covering five counties. This is a
partly fact-finding, partly educational and steering service. In fact.
finding, according to a District Nurse, "We have just barely scratched
the surface in this county." She hazarded the very tentative and un-
doubtedly exaggerated guess that all the children were rachitic and that
ten per cent were tubercular. Her office had no information on whether
there was any trachoma or undulant fever in the county, though it is
in a region where both have a rather high incidence. As a reform serv-
ice, the District Health Office works through such agencies as the county
relief office, the county agricultural agent, the home economics demon·
stra.tion agent, and vocational agriculture teachers. No citizen ever
visits the office directly, though patients unable to pay are sometimes
routed by it to clinics and to state hospitals.
The one dentist in the county provides probably more than half of
the professional dental care received by the county's six thousand citi-
zens. The rest that is done, is done by dentists in adjoining counties.
A small group of adults try to keep in repair their own teeth and their
children's "second" teeth. Milk teeth are not worth spending money
on. The rest of the community gets no dcntal care whatever, except
extractions, and usually, at last, false teeth, either fitted by a nearby
dentist or bought by mai.}.!' Nowadays, most extractions are made by
a dentist, but gruesome tales are told of the days when people visited
farmer-blacksmiths who pulled teeth with their forge tongs, sometimes
just as "an accommodation," sometimes lor a small fee. Some adults
have been known to pull their own teeth. Those who do not visit a
dentist for fillings buy a good many commercial toothache-killers to
stuff into the cavities. One man told me that, for a particularly severe
toothache, he plunged a red-hot piece of baling wire deep into the
• AmODg people with artificial teeth, there ill mach talk about how they :tit a.nd the "satisfac-
tion" they Slve or don't sive. It WIIB CODSidered odd that a D8Wcomer, the wife of a government
employee never mentioned ''her teeth," but seemed emba.rraaaed when told how pretty they were.
Old -peopie without teeth. or with just a few teai:h, llll.ioy a I90d dea.l of pleasant OOI1vel'8B.tion on
such topiCIIIIB Pl'Ofi.oieJuly at "gumming it" or whethet they mil hava two or more teeth that "hit."
cavity. "It hurt like Sam Hill," he said, "but that was the end of my
toothache." Extractions, it might be added, seldom come at the same
time in the history of a tooth when a city doctor would extract it.
People, in general, think there is not much to be done about dental
decay. Either you have good teeth or you don't. Many think that,
if you start dental repairs, the dental work itself, particularly cleaning,
which, they say, takes off all the enamel, stimulates further decay.
They point out that this is to the dentist's financial advantage. Some
oldsters say that people used to have better teeth than folks have now-
adays, attributing this fact to tobacco chewing, clay pipe smoking, the
prevalence of home-grown foods, and many other factors. Some mod-
ern ideas are coming in that brushing the teeth prevents decay; that
oranges prevent decay; that milk prevents decay.
It is told that, in the old days, a good many old people grew a com-
plete third set of teeth, long after their permanent teeth were gone.
At least ten long-since-dead oldtimers are supposed to have done so. A
related story is that many old people in the past, after years of fading
eyesight, received their "second sight," and for the rest of their lives
were able to read their newspapers and Bible (if they knew how to
read) or bead their rifles on a squirrel, as in their days of youth.
Before going further into the attitudes toward medical facilities
and the extent of their utilization, it may be well to describe the wave
of divine healing which has swept one sector of the county in recent
years. It is connected with the Holiness Church. No completely
faithful member of this organization puts any faith in doctors as curers
of disease; though it is all right to use a doctor as a bonesetter or to
sew up a cut. Even this should not be n6C68sary, however, if your
faith is strong enough in God, because He can heal anything. In this
whole cult, the widespread popularity of Christian Science, on a rela-
tively high class level, seems to have encouraged and sanctioned the
rebirth and expansion of a lower-level and older series of religious su-
perstitions. The Holiness taboo against patent medicines is also rather
great, but against old-time home-made remedies there is very little
taboo. Apparently, in Holiness theory, these are not "medicines";
they pre-date doctors and drugs, and share none of their evil. An old
man, whose wife was a leader in the Holiness congregation, described
many old-home remedies, testifying to their efficacy, and he also nar-
rated many cases of cure from prayer. Here are a few: His wife was
244 TRANSACTIONS
down ",Hh ulcers; "She couldn't raibe herself up and hadn't et for sev-
eral days i the neighbors said, 'Git a doctor-she cain't live 1''' Brother
MIller (the preacher) came and prayed over her. She arose fully re-
covered from her sickbed and ate a big bUppel'. "Now, when you see
anything with your own eyes you believe it," said the old man; "I be-
lieve in a doctor, too, and I asked the doctor and he said, 'Prayin'
cain't do no harm!'" The same man's daughter-in-law got a coffee
bean in her windpipe. "The doctor said, 'Operate!' But Brother
Miller and others cnme and prayed and she coughed it right up." At
a camp meeting, there was a boy with "paralzy" in one leg. "He was
all drawed up-hadn't walked for years. They prayed for him and he
straightened right up and walked. Now nobody couldn't doubt that,
surely I" A cow hooked the old man's neighbor, Molly, in her arm,
tearing the IIleaders." The preacher and others gathered for prayer,
and Molly suffered no more. The old man himself received a IIbad
horse-kickin'," a few years back. His life was despaired of, but
prayer cured him quickly. "'Course ... the Lord don't intend to heal
'em all," said he. "It ain't His will."
In fact, the main pillar of the Holiness Church, a widow, had just
died of cancer, though committees from the chureh met nightly during
many months to pray over her, and preachers flocked in from adjoining
counties to help. For weeks, in an affiliated church called Pisgah, in
far away California, perpetual prayers were said, and, as a ritualistic
action, airmail letters were kept constantly en route between Pisgah
and Smalltown. I was unable to learn their contents. An anointed
handkerchief was sent from Pisgah to lay on her cancerous breast.
Non-Holiness people criticized and ridiculed these proceedings, and
some said, "She ought to be forced to have a doctor," but no physician
saw her. Her death did not weaken her co-religionists' faith in prayer,
but was taken as a manifestation of God's will. For her, it was inter-
preted as a release from earthly suffering into eternal bliss. Other
cases were cited, in which it was God's will to cure even cancer. While
most religious people in the community believe in the efficacy of prayer
in sickness, in encouraging good crops or financial success, and for
other matters, most non-Holiness church people consider that its proper
medical use is as an adjunct to medication by traditional remedies or
by a physician. A man who repeatedly testified in the Methodist
Church hnw God cured his rhE'umatism at the same time He converted
'IHE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 245
hIm from t'infidelism and a life-long quest of sin," is officially approved

by the preacher, but laughed at prIvately by many members.
The local physician is usually consulted or called in only in cases
of sudden sevcre illness or injury, or when chronic symptoms of one sort
or another have not "worn themselves out" or disappeared after home
medIcation. A deep ax-cut or knife-cut or a shotgun wound is nearly
always taken to the doctor for dressing; so is a hand mangled in a
piece of farm machinery. Minor cuts or bruises are, of course, handled
at home, with or without antiseptic, commercial liniment, poultice, or
bandage. If a rusty nail is run into the foot, it may be pulled out with
nothing further done; the wound may be soaked in turpentine, iodine,
or other antiseptic, at home, and bandaged; or, the patient may be
taken to the doctor for treatment and even for anti-tetanus shots.
A broken arm or leg is always set by the doctor. A broken rib or
finger is very often allowed to heal of itself. People feel little concern
if a broken finger heals crooked or stiff. Almost anyone bitten by a
rattler or copperhead would get anti-venom injections from the doctor,
though dozens of traditional snakebite remedies are known. These in-
clude: liberal dosage with whiskey; soda and onion juice squeezed on
the wound; and plunging the bitten finger or toe into the body of a live
setting hen, to remain there until the hen dies. There is a madstone
in the county. It came from the stomach of a white deer, and old
people say "Nobody ever went mad who used that madstone." How-
ever, nowadays, anyone bitten by a dog proved to be rabid, takes the
Pasteur treatment. The rabidity of the dog is determined by sending
its head to state health officers for examination. Suspiciotn regarding
rabidity is aroused if the dog is "a stranger," or if he froths at the
mouth, or otherwise behaves oddly.
Native attitudes toward recognized physicians and standard medi-
cal procedures are a curious hodgepodge of old and new, of suspicious
resentment and dependence. Part of this resentment reflects an atti-
tude of suspicion toward science and all its works, including evolution.
Part of it comes, of course, from the fact that medicine suggests dis-
ease, pain, and ultimate death-subjects which are not very pleasant to
think about. People utter proverbial generalizations, like "Doctors
don't know anythingl" or "With doctors, it's all guesswork." Many
natives speak of doctors as callous butchers or, like lawyers, as inter-
ested in prolonging a case for what they can get out of it. The finan-
246 TRANS.A.CTIONS
cial motives of most doctors are considered questionable, and some-

times very strange rationalizations are offered. I heard one man deny
the existence of tlrabbit fever." He had skinned and dressed rabbits
all his life without catching anything, and he said all the talk. about
rabbit fever resulted from a league between the doctors and meat-
dealers, to prevent people from eating meat which costs nothing. The
highest tribute to a doctor is to say, til have faith in him." The word
"faith" here carries a kind of ov('rione of the sacred, as in the phrases,
"faith in God" or "faith in Salvation."
Vaccines and serums of all kinds are viewed with suspicion. Few
children are immunized against smallpox, and any movement to intro-
duce compulsory immunization of school children is cried down. Many
people say, "The vaccination is worsc-and kills more people-than
the disease." Others view vaccination as valueless, because its theory,
as the theory is locally understood, seems foolish and unreasonable.
liTo stick dead bugs into you to keep live ones from working on you-
now you know that's silly I" Still others consider vaccination to be
sinful, nor are they all prayer-curers. Yet, if a child has diphtheria,
parental anxiety is so great that most parents welcome injections of
the serum (a few will refusel) and speak of its discovery as a great
thing.
The urban prestige value of operations has only begun to penetrate
Smalltown. A few women are said to "want operations" and to boast
of them; and, oddly, people seem rather proud of tonsilectomies for
their children. However, in general, surgery is viewed with great fear
and horror, and as often useless. Appendectomies, in particular, are
thought of as a surgical lracket.' There are stories of people threat-
ened by a doctor with death, unless they submitted to an appendectomy,
but who just took a physic, got well, and stayed well. Others went
through the operation only to have the symptoms recur later. In a
new operation, the appendix was found intact. The widespread story
is told (with local application) that, in one caso, a pair of scissors and
a wad of gauze were found sewn in beside it. People seem pleased to
narrate and to believe such stories.
Hospitals, though beginning to be patronized fairly extensively,
are often spoken of as places "where more people come out dead than
come out alive."
Physicians themselves help perpetuate this piece of folk.lore,
though the point they intend to make is somewhat different from that
which native critics intend to make. Hospitals, however, are dreaded

excessively, and few people go there, except on very serious business.
Only one or two Smalltown babies a year are born In hospitals, and it
would be almost unthinkable to enter a hospital for diagnosis only. An
odd bit of local history or folklore, which many informants mentioned,
illustrates how very new cultural traits are often integrated with very
old patterns. About fifteen years ago, a man died who, for twenty years
or more, had earned a few dollars each year by peddling "The Farmers'
Almanac" about the county. He was also an expert in moon signs
and zodiacal signs (then even more important than today, in matters of
planting, harvesting, girdling trees, building rail fences, shingling
houses, castrating livestock, and weaning young animals or babies).
When physicians began to prescribe operations, he gained considerable
local fame by advising patients whether the sign was wrong or right to
have their tonsils or appendix cut out. People say, "He never missed
it." If he said the sign was wrong, and they went ahead, they always
died, or at least had a very hard time of it; but, if he said the sign was
right, then they knew there would be no danger.
Explanations of health or disease run a very wide gamut. Ma-
laria, once universal, is now practically non-existent, but people still
talk about it. What caused it? And what caused it to disappear?
Most people accept the fact that infected mosquitoes transmit malaria;
but, since there are still mosquitoes, it is hard to understand why ma-
laria slackened, unless it took a greater number of bites than people get
nowadays to catch malaria. It is said that everybody took a lot of
quinine during a good many years, but the m08quitoe8 didn't take any
quinine I Some people cling to the early theory that dampness, not
mosquitoes, caused the malaria of early days. There were more trees
in the river bottoms, and the air was damper. Besides, it ra~ned more
then, because the soil (now 52 per cent eroded I) produced better crops
than it will grow today. Others say that a mosquito may cause mala-
ria, but so maya chigger, a tick, or any other insect that bites. Some
people say that mosquitoes must have caused typhoid, once prevalent
(people say) every summer. The argument runs: Mosquitoes caused
the malaria; typhoid and malaria disappeared at about the same time;
therefore, mosquitoes caused the typhoid. Indeed, it is difficult to con-
vince people of any completely credible connection between typhoid
and lack of sanitation, because some families drink water out of green-
scummed &prings, or out of improperly walled and covered wells, and
248 TRANSACTIONS
remain ostensibly hale and hearty. The hotel well stands twenty-five
feet from the hotel privy, and slightly downhill from it. I asked the
aged proprietor if he had ever had his water tested. "Yes," he said,
"a Ulan ca.me through here from the capital and tested it, and he said
it was ninety-nine per conL pure. He said that, by rights, I ought to
concrete iL down about six feet from the top, but I didn't think that
was necessary for just that one per cent. I never got sick and I never
knowed nobody to get sick from drinkin' this water."
The whole problem of reform in sanitation presents many difficul-
ties. People, in general, believe in protection against tl germs," though
some view germs as "just a superstition of city folks." Separate towels
at hOlDe, or separate drinking eups at school, are hard to accept, be-
cause it is unsociable not to share a towel, and insulting not to want to
drink after somebody else. A system of traditional etiquette and cour-
tesy covers all such matters. A district nurse told of families in an
adjoining county who were persuaded to construct sanitary privies, but
who abandoned them, because lithe childrcn like to go together." In
certain very old techniques, like dairying, as a matter of fact, some of
the old-fashioned people scald and sun their milk vessels carefully and
attain a higher level of sanitation than more modern neighbors with
cream separators.
Under the stimulus of the agricultural experts, reform has gone
further in farming techniques than in medical practice. The current
trend is, on the whole, toward cementing and covering wells, clean
dairying, and clean poultry yards. Agricultural experts have pro-
gressed rather far in introducing techniques which bring profits, even
when these involve sanitation.s More of the actual reforms in public
health, also, have come from them than from medical practitioners, in-
• An SOCOUllt of vete:rlna.ry lore and praotloe would be intareetlDg, if th_ were space. Local
spec:lalil«l "curers" a.re in oonlliot with the lIQ1"iculturlll exports (the n~llrest Veterinarillll is too far
away to patl"Ollille at ree.sonable ceet), who are wlnDlnJr th41 battle. Tha t'hior symbols of I'I'SiRtance
to ve~ seience are two diseases of cows, "hollow horn" and "losing the cud," whit"h the
.parts ridicule and the traditionaliats anRrilY dofend and trent. Vaccination of animals meets
with less reeistance than vaccination of cbildrPn, pCl'hapw, partly, becauRo the e.nimllls "hav~ 110
80111&." The main reason is, of oourse, that animal vaeclmation is part of a "groat trait oomplext"
acientifio Blriculture, which, for tho most part, Is bl'ing in10elligently propaglllldilled. The DWD
traditional symbol of resistance to the whole wit oompin of scientific agriculture is the moon.
The moon'. wBDinc and waxing, tolother with the zodla.oal sips, fomedy IWver:nod the timing
and success of most aaxiculturat pursuits. The 1Odiaea1lore has almost vanlsht>d, but fully half
the fanners follow the "tnOOn signs" (the "light" and tho "dlll"k"), in some or many activities;
even more P8Cp,le "believe in the moon" than work hy it. New agriculturlll experta a.re always
qwslled as to ·wha.t they think about the moon," and the tactful ones answer evasively. On8
cll!Ver vnoational agriculture tee.oher UEed to answer the query by IlllYing, "My father alwayS
planted his field crops by the moon, but my mother planted her gardE'll any time she thought the
soU and weather were ready. And his crops never lIeemed to do any better than hers." This re-
mark WI' Accepted as perfectly satillfactory.
eluding the regional public health officers. These reforms enter through
vocational agricUlture classes in the high schools, and through the home
economics clubs organized by the county agent, which study nutrition,
child care, and sanitation. Active suggestions also come in through
home, health, and diet pages in newspapers and magazines. In these,
health and prestige values are built up simultaneously. Advertising
pages (and radio advertisements), which appeal to people, for prestige
and for health, to eat various proprietary foods, probably do more harm
than good, for they stimulate people to think of health in terms of single
foods. The national enthusiasm for "proper diet" introduces and
arouses a new folklore, including many strange and garbled notions:
that if people just ate raw foods they would be healthy; that they
would be healthy if they ate less meat, or nothi1l{l but vegetables; that
all they need is plenty of vitamins (vitamins tend to be animized, by
those who "believe in" them, as little, live, health-giving germs that sit
on the edges of cabbage leaves); that oranges, or prunes, or bran, or
milk, are the single sine qua non of health. I have heard it said that
"hog meat causes all the cancers in this country," and that anything
out of a tin can will make people sick.
The problem with all folklore is what to make of it. There has
been endless collection of old remedies, superstitions, beliefs, legends,
riddles, rhymes, proverbs, games, folksongs. Aside from the labors of
a number of part-time workers in the field of primitive folklore, the
concentration of effort has been on accumulating texts and variants,
and on establishing distributions of themes and items. This anti-
quarian pursuit no longer seems very fruitful or illuminating. Better
techniques should be devised to explain the use and meaning of folk-
lore in the social life of the group from which it is collected.
There is, perhaps, one very useful method of dealing with the kind
of material presented in this paper. The mixture of ancient and mod.
ern fact and fancy which I have called the medical folklore of Small-
town resembles every other aspect of the community life, as I have de-
scribed it elsewhere. Smalltown is an oldtime hillbilly farming com-
munity, in the throes of adjustment to urban influence entering by
every device of modern communication: radio, newspapers and maga-
zines, travel, and direct governmental intervention through numerous
agencies and facilities. Under the impact of the new, old attitudes are
250 TRANSACTIONS
being abandoned, or reinterpreted, or, as a form of protest, reinforced.

This hodgepodge of medical lore well illustrates the nature of the Con-
flict, and of thc resultant disorientation. The conflict is, in the main,
along class lines and between the generations. Though class is locally
denied, there is an upper class of more modern IIprairie" farmers and a
lower class of IIhill" farmers.
New remedies, new foods, new rationalizations regarding medical
care and food, disturb the old pattern of "felt security," as the young
people, the //better class" people, the new federal employees (the re-
formersl) condemn, ridicule, and try by a frontal attack to change
the ancient way of life. Some people accept the new willingly, but a
sense of inferiority and loss comes over most people when they feel dis-
respect directed toward what they were taught by tradition. Some
attack the new with venom and all their skills of rationalization. The
whole social structure suffers; the young lose respect for the old; the
old condemn the young; family and neighborhood solidarity weaken.
The old system of treating the ill involved much cooperation on a
neighborly pattern: exchanging remedies, sitting up with the sick, send-
ing food, prayer meetings, etc. The new method weakens the drama
of sickness-and even of death.
There might be still another method of dealing usefully with mater-
ial of this type. Most of the data given were not collected as folklore,
but entered as a natural part of conversation into the field notes of a
research project which had another purpose. If such materials were
collected intensively, rather than incidentally, and by people trained
to understand their medical basis, and if they were analyzed fully in
terms of the problems of cultural change, they should be useful to re-
formers, including public health officers. The public health reports
available on Smalltown were only statistical, and too inadequate, lta-
tistically, to be of lnuch usc to an anthropologist. Vital statistics were
given which local experience showed to be incorrect. The main facili-
ties, doctors, hospitals, district offices, etc., were listed. Professional
pride was expressed in increasing personnel and facilities, and in the
increasing use of all these. Yet, there seemed to be too little knowl~
edge of who utilized them, who did not, and why. In speaking with
local physicians and health officers (except for an occasional district
nurse), I heard little sympathy for, but much contempt and ridicule of,
the "native ignorance" which keeps the people who most need medical
service from freely accepting diagnosis, vaccination, hospitalization,
etc., when these are available, often gratis. The problem lies in the
nature of resistance to change. Both social scientists and reformers
would do well to study the nature of this resistance.
250 TRANSACTIONS
being abandoned, or reinterpreted, or, as a form of protest, reinforced.

This hodgepodge of medical lore well illul:lLratcs the nature of the con-
flict, and of the rm,ulLll.nt disorientation. The conflict is, in the main,
along class lines and between Lhe generations. Though class is locally
denied, there it! an upper class of more modern "prairie" farmers and a
lower class of "hill" farmers.
New remedies, new foods, new rationalizations regarding medical
care and food, disturb the old pattern of "felt security," as the young
people, the "better class" people, the new federal employees (the re-
formersl) condemn, ridicule, and try by a frontal attack to change
the ancient way of life. Some people accept the new willingly, but a
sense of inferiority and loss comes over most people when they feel dis-
respect directed toward what they were taught by tradition. Some
attack the new with venom and all their skills of rationalization. The
whole social structure suffers; the young lose respect for the old j the
old condemn the youngj family and neighborhood solidarity weaken.
The old system of treating the ill involved much cooperation on a
neighborly pattern: exchanging remedies, sitting up with the sick, send-
ing food, prayer meetings, etc. The new method weakens the drama
of sickness-and even of death.
There might be still another method of dealing usefully with mater-
ial of this type. Most of the data given were not collected as folklore,
but entered as a natural part of conversation into the field notes of a
research project which had another purpose. If such materials were
collected intensively, rather than incidentally, and by people trained
to understand their medical basis, and if they were analyzed fully in
terms of the problems of cultural change, they should be useful to re-
formers, including public health officers. The public health reports
available on Smalltown were only statistical, and too inadequate, Ita-
tistically, to be of much use to an anthropologist. Vital statistics were
given which local experience showed to be incorrect. The main facili-
ties, doctors, hospito.ls, dil:ltrict offices, etc., were listed. Professional
pride was expressed in increasing personnel and facilities, and in the
increasing use of all these. Yet, there seemed to be too little knowl-
edge of who utilized them, who did not, and why. In speaking with
local physicians and he-alth officers (except for an occasional district
nurse), I heard little sympathy for, but much contempt and ridicule of,
the "native ignorance" which keeps the people who most need medical
service from freely accepting diagnosis, vaccination, hospitalization,
etc., when these are available, often gratis. The problem lies in the
nature of resistance to change. Both social scientists and reformers
would do well to study the nature of this resistance.
252 TRANSACTIONS
SECTION OF BIOLOGY
APRIL 19 AND 20, 1946

Conference on "Some Aspects of Red Cell Production and Destruction."
The Section of Biology held a Conference on "Some Aspects of Red
Cell Production and Destruction." Doctor Eric Ponder was the Con-
ference Chairman, in charge of the meeting.
FRIDAY, APRIL 19
Morning Session. Chairman, Eric Ponder, The Nassau Hospital,
Mineola, N. Y.
Introduction to the Conference, by the Conference Chairman.
"Red Cell Cytochemistry and Architecture," by Eric Ponder.
"The Endocrine System and Hemopoiesis," by Albert S. Gordon
and Harry A. Charipper, Department of Biology, Washington Square
College of Arts and Science, New York University, New York, N. Y.
Afternoon Session. Chairman, L. Michaelis, The Rockefeller In-
stitute for Medical Research, New York, N. Y.
"Hemoglobin and Red Cell Production in Experimental Hemor-
rhage Anemia," by F. S. Robscheit-Robbins, The University of Roches-
ter, School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, N. Y.
HThc Iron and Porphyrin Metabolism in Relation to the Red Blood
Cell," by S. Granick, The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research,
New York, N. Y.
SATURDAY, APRIL 20
Chairman, W. B. Castlo, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass.
"Etiological Considerations in Macrocytic Anemia," by W. B.
Castle.
"The Hemolytic Anemias," by William Dameshek, Tufts ColleiO
Medical School, Boston, Mass.
NEW MEMBERS
ELECTED APRIL 25, 1946

ACTIVE MEMBERSHIP
Beil, Carlton, Anthropology, Geology, Ecology. Teacher, Department of Educa-
tion, American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y.
Blancl1no, Samuel Thomas, B.s., Biology. MIcrobiologist, C. D. Smith Pharmacal
Company, New Brunswick, N. J.
Do.niE'lson, Irvin S., PhD., Biochemistry. Research Chemist, Lederle Laboratories,
Inc., Pearl River, N. Y.
Dohn, Asya, M.A., Bacteriology, Microbiology. Bacteriologist, Wallerstein Labora-
Elias, Cloyd L., Laboratory anImals. Vice President and General Manager, S & E
Farms, Inc., Kingston, N. Y.
Fisher, Harold H., M.s., Biochemistry, Pharmacology. Biochemical Research,
C. D. Smith Pharmacal Company, New Brunswick, N. J.
Goldfisher, Rhoda Lee, A.B., Biology. Research Histologist, Department of
Pathology, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.
Green, James W., B.S., Physiology. Graduate Student, Department of Biology,
Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.
Greenberg, Morris, MD., Biology. Assistant Pathologist, Queens General Hos-
Ha.ughan, Harold W., M.S., Polymers, Plastics. Research Chemist, Cornell Aero-
nautical Laboratory, Buffalo, N. Y.
Hopf, Flora Paine, B.S., Education, Psychology. Teacher, Montclair Public
Schools, Montclair, N. J.
Horsfall, James G., PhD., Botany, Microbiology. Head, Department of Botany
and Plant Pathology, Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New
Haven, Conn.
Kra.us, Hans, MD., Medicine. Assistant in Physical Therapy, Presbyterian Hos-
pital; Chief of Clinic, Physical Therapy, Welfare Island Hospital, New York,
N.Y.
Lurie, Solomon J., D.D.S., Biology, Anthropology. Brooklyn, N. Y.
McKenzie, Doris, B.s., Bacteriology, Chemistry. Bacteriologist, Lederle Labora.-
tories, Inc., Pearl River, N. Y.
McMillan, William G., Jr., PhD., Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics. Research
Scientist, Carbide & Carbon Chemicals Corporation, New York, N. Y.
Maxwell, E. Mackenzie, Physics, Chemistry. Director, Domestic Sales, National
Aniline Division, Allied Chemical & Dye Corporation, New York, N. Y.
Main, Rolland J., PhD., Physiology, Medicine. Consultant, Physiology, Eaton
Laboratories; Medical Editor, Kiesewetter Agency, New York, N. Y.
Miller, James E., M.s. Assistant Professor, Meteorology, New York University,
New York, N. Y.
Oster, Kurt A., M.D. Chief Pharmacologist, McKesson & Robbins, Inc., Bridge-
port, Conn.
Parfentjev, I. A .• PhD., Biology. Research Chemist, Lederle Laboratories, Inc.,
Pearl River, N. Y.
254 TRANSACTIONS
Rachel(', Julian Richn.rd. Ph.D., Physh'ltl ChC'mistry. AA~i~tant. Professor, Bio-

Ch(,DlIRlIy, COlnc·1I lTlllYt'rl'llly MC'<iI('ul Coll('!!,(', New York, N. Y.
Rablm, Hlll,WlII B., Ph D., M('(lic'lIlc', ('nr(hoVlIt-('lIial' (!It-paM'''. R!'s('n.rch ASRociate
])ppL of l'lmrm(wo!oI!.Y, (.lorn"'l Unlvt'l'bily Mplill'ul Colll'g(', New York, N. Y:
R(,ld, I"l'urhllll, M.D., [{('''!llIutIOII, (:11 CII lal ion. N{'w York, N. Y.
Rog('l'l:I, Edwnrd 11'., Ph.D. Hl'I-l{,UI'dl ChC'llllhl, MC'I'('k & COlllpany, Rahway, N. J.
~ackl('r, MurlCl L., M.H., Uioiugy. Gra<illnll' i:ltlld('nt, N('w York, N. Y.
8pade, G(,OIIl,t' 0., Animal colony mamipnance. Pl·C':-.idC'nt, S & .I!: Farms Inc
Kml\.,loll, N. Y. ' .,
Straub~, i:lllnon, 13 H., Inorganic' (,hC'llli:;lry. Gmdu:l!e StudC'n!, Polytechnic Insti-
tnl e or Brooklyn Brooklyn, N. Y.
Turn('l', JOA!'ph Cary, MJ)., S(·.D., Hematology. Ali.~o('illte in M('dicine, Columbia
lTmvC'rMly, N(·w YOlk, N. Y.
Van Halh!', Pluh[l H .• M. FL, Bioiofl,Y, Mpcii('innl ch('mi:-.II'Y. TC'chnicru Editor
of Pllhil('allOn~, Wy!'lh Ill(·., l'ill!:I\IP!phw 1'0.
W!'II'tIIl,!'r, .JamI'K R, Ph]), BJ()('ilt'mJ~lry. AIo.~II.,tltlt (,h('m!::.t, Rorkcf('lIcr Insti-
tull', N(w Y()lk, N. 'I.
Whitner!', Fran('11'! M., Ph D. Ch(,lIlil"t.ry, Biology. Dn'C'ctor, SciC'ntific Relations,
~('h1l'frpjm .Y: Compnny, N I'W York, N. '\ .
Whit(', Hurry J., Ph. D., PhY~I(':;. Ihl'C'ctor, R(,HC'ur('h, ReSC'al'ch Corporation,
Bound HI ouk, N. J.
WoH, Donnld B., Ph.D., OrganIC Ch<'mi~try. ReR<'urch Chemist, Merck & Com-
PU.I1y, Rahw!IY, N. J.
Anderson, Donnld Grigg, M.D., InCC'ctious diAeIl.FlC's. Dean, Boston Univel'E'ity
School of MedICine, Boston, Ma::;s.
Applezweig, MortImer 11., B.s. Instructor, D('partlllent of Psychology, University
of D!'nvcr, Denv('l', Uolo.
Boger, William P., M.D., Endocrinoloey, Ini('1'nal MC'di('inl'. Asst. Medical Direc-
tor, M('dicai R('~~al'ch Dlvn., I:lharp & Uuhm<', Lnc., Ol('nolden, Pa.; Instructor,
Medtcine, UnlVE'rslty of P('nnsylv3.llllt, School of M('dlCln(" Philadelphia, Pa.
Botsford, E. France'S, Ph.D., Physiology. Associate PlOfcssor, Zoology, Connecti-
cut CoUC'g(', New London, Conn.
Farnrr, Donald S., Ph.D., Omitholof!,v. AbRif'ltant Pl'ofc~or, Zoology; Curator of
BirdH, UDlv(,l'I-oily of KfiDRUA, LllwJ'( D('(', KunA.
Fro.n~ell, Dorofhl'll, M.A., Mollu'IkH of KnIlHuA. 01'11.(1111).1C' Hludl'nt, D('partmC'nt of
Zouioll.Y, Unnl'lhJly of KUllI'oUr., LUWII'Jl("" I\ull~.
B('()hicr, Olll'ur, Ph.n., Flndorrin(, PhYKi()loI!;Y. AM.'1orint(' MC'mber, Wor('C'ster
l!'olln(ilttion for ~1xI)('rJlIl('nlul Biology, Hhl<'w~hUl'Y, MIlr.~.
Ma.ldonnrlo-Ko!'rclcll, Manuoi, IH1<:., M()l'llh()I()~v, Puit\('ontol()gy'. Gmduu.tc Stu-
d<>nl, Dt'plI.rtm('nL of Zoology, Univor~ity of Kanhat., Lnwrl'u!'!', !{anll.
Stern, Malvin D., B.s., PhYFliCttl Ch!'mil:1t.ry. Omduato Sludt'nt, ~'ri(lk Chemical
I,aboratorit's, Princeton UniverHity, Princeton, N. J.
Swain, AnFlE'I P., Ph.D., Bio(:hcmistry. R<'s(,atch Chemist, McN('il Laboratories,
Inc., Philadelphia, Pat
STUDENT MEMBERSHIP
Grantbarn~!ean, B.S., Chemistry. Research Assistant., Columbia Univ(,l'I-oity, New
York,.N. Y.
Shwartzman, Ells., B.A. Graduate Student, Dcpartm('nt of Bioch('mil'ltry, Colum-
bia University, College of Physicians & Surgeon!:!, New York, N. Y.
TRANSACTIONS
of
TIlE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
SER. II, VOL. 8 JUNE, 1946 No.8

MAY 6, 1946
DOCTOR GEORGE GAYLO.RD SIMPSON, Chairman, Department of Geology
and Paleontology, The American Museum of Natural History; and
Professor of Vertebrate Paleontology, Columbia University, New
York, N. Y.: Tertiary Land Bridges. (This lecture was illus-
trated by lantern slides.)
An early discovery of paleontology was that animals now confined
to one part of the globe may occur as fossils in different and distant
regions. In some cases, such as that of the elephants and their allies,
it would now be impossible for the animals to migrate between the
regions where they currently occur, and regions where they were for-
merlyabundant. It was necessary to conclude that regions now sepa-
rated by the oceans have been connected by land, at various times in
the geological past. It has also been found that continents now con-
nected by land must have been separated during some geological epochs.
The problems involved in these varying land connections and sepa-
rations are among the borderland studies that overlap two, or more,
scientific disciplines. Solutions of these problems are essential to both
geologists and zoologists, and such solutions can only be reached by
combined study, from both the geological and the zoological point of
view. Some zoologists have concluded that the recognition of related,
or supposedly related, animals in two widely separated regions justifies
the postulation of a direct land route between those regions, even
though this may be in reckless violation of geological principles and
TRANSACTIONS of The New York Academy of Seiences, Series II, Volume 8, No. S.
JUlIe, 1946.
Thill publication Is distributed to Members and is published month!y from November to JUDe.
incluSlve, nt 109 West Chestnut Street,-Lancaster...Pa., by The New York Aeademy of Sciences,
Seventy-ninth Street and Central Park west, New rork City.
Editor: Roy Waldo Mmer.
A8eistant Editors: Mlohael Demarest. Lather N. Salin.
Exet'utive Secretary: Eunice ThOlIl88 Miner.
Entered as aecond-olas$ matter December 2. 1988, at the post office at Lancaster. Pa•• under the
act of Aucust 34. 1912.
256 TRANSACTIONS
probabiliti('s. Some geologists, particularly a few of the advocates of

continental drift, have postulated continental connections of a sort and
at timC's and places imhratcd IlR pradirally impossible by the zoologi-
('al data.
There have also beC'n numerous bober and careful e,tudies of inter-
('ontinental connections, or their abbencc, but even these have neces-
sarily b('en inromplete and inconclusive. My efforts to evaluate these
studies, and to contribute to making them more precise, have been
based primarily on the re-exnmination of faunal relationships that are
known, beyond reasonable doubt, to have involved the rise and fall of
intercontinental land bridges. The simplest and clearest case avail-
ublc is the relationship between North nnd South American land faunas
during the CC'nozoic. This has been analyzed elsewhere, in some de-
taiP Among other things, there emC'rgc, from this and similar studies,
certain faunal criteria for the existence, position, and nature of land
bridgC's, especially that postulation of a given bridge requires evidence
of:
1. Exchang(' of varied types of land life, not only of one kind of
animal.
2. Faunal interchange in both directions.
3. Interchange involving or maintaining ecologically balanced
faunas.
When these conditions are not met by a postUlated land bridge,
the alternatives to be considered are:
1. Indirect migration, e.g., via the well-established North Ameri-
can-South American and North American-Eurasian bridges, rather
than by a direct tra.ns-Pacific Asian- (or Australian-) South American
bridge.
2. Migration without a continuous bridge, by what I have called
a swe<>pstakes route, e. g., between Eurasia and Australia, or the Ameri-
can continents and the West Indies.
More recently, I have been working on the application and exten-
sion of these and other principles, with regard to Eurasian-North Amer-
ican Cenozoic faunal and continental relationships, a much more com-
1 See, espeCially, SImpson, G. G., Mammals and land bridges. J. Washington
Acad. Sci. 30: 137-163. 1940; and Slmpscm., G. G., Turtles and the origin of the
fauna of Latin America. Am. J. Sci. 841: 413-4.29. 1943.
plex problem than that of South American-North American relation-

ships. There is a very large literature on this subject, but the best gen-
eral reviews of it are now far out of date/ and much of the literature
is fragmentary, excessively subjective, or otherwise inadequate. There
are two main lines of evidence, which are frequently confused: first,
earliest dates of common appearance of given groups on both conti-
nents, which are limiting dates for the migrations of these groups; and,
second, fluctuations in faunal resemblance of the continents. In each
case, not only the overall statistical picture, involving numbers of
migrant groups and degrees of resemblance, but also the nature of the
animals concerned, especially their ecological and climatic preferences,
are pertinent.
An attempt has been made to place this study on a more objective
and quantitative basis than heretofore. There are various difficulties
and shortcomings in the quantitative approach. These have to be
studied carefully, and applied with due caution, but preliminary re-
sults are encouraging. The work is still under way, and it would be
premature, now, to give any detailed conclusions. Some of the pre-
liminary results, however, seem likely to stand up.
As regards frequency of migration between Eurasia and North
America, preliminary study indicates an early Eocene climax, a mid-
Eocene low, a dual late Eocene-early Oligocene climax, a middle-to-
late Oligocene low, slow resumption in the early Miocene, building
steadily to a dual late Miocene-early Pliocene climax, another dual late
Pliocene-Pleistocene climax, and then a drop to the Recent low. Mi-
gration is only one of at least five separable factors involved in faunal
resemblance. Faunal resemblance does not vary directly with the
frequency of intermigration, and its measurement and analysis are
particularly complex and difficult, although reasonably good results
have been obtained and better are in sight.
The presence, or absence, of a land bridge and, when present, its
position, do not follow as directly from the evidence as to frequency of
migration and degree of faunal resemblance as has commonly been sup-
posed. As far as this new analysis of the faunal data has yet been
followed, it suggests that there was a Eurasian-North American land
bridge almost continuously throughout the Cenozoic, with probable
2 Notably: Osbona, .. :1"., The .Age of Mammals. Macmillan. New York.
1810.
258 TRANSACTIONS
interruptions of appreciable duration only in the middle Eocene, middle

to upper Oligocene, and Recent. As regards the position of the bridge,
or bridg('s, it is a flurpribing result of this study thnt no good evidence
is found for any Atlantic, direct European-North American, bridge
during the Cenozoic, contrary to my own former opinion and that of
most paleogeogl'aphers. The evidence throughout is consistent with
a single Siberian-Alaskan bridge, as adequnte to explain all the known
facts.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY
MAY 13, 1946

Symposium on llThe Place of the Standard Dog in Medical Research."
The program consisted of the following papers*:
liThe Physiological and Biochemical Standardization of the Dog,"
by James B. Allison, Bureau of Biochemical Research, Rutgers Univer-
sity, New Brunswick, N. J.
"Phases of Conditioned Reflexes of Dogs used in Medical Re-
search," by Hans Molitor, Merck Institute for Therapeutic Research,
Rahway, N. J.
"Some Practical Aspects of Selecting and Maintaining Dogs for
Medical Research," by Mark L. Morris, New Brunswick, N. J.
* The p.~ by Doctor Allison IIIICl Doctor Morris are publlshed m this Dumber of the
~ No ab6tract of the paper by DoctOr Molitor bas been ..-ved.
260 TRANSACTIONS
DOCTOR JAMES B. ALLISON, Burea.u of Biological Research, Rutgers

University, New Brunswick, N. J.: The Physiological and Bio-
chemical Standardization of the Dog.-
A scientist never uses a delicate apparatus in the laboratory with-
out carefully checking and calibrating it. Too often, however, an ani-
mal, such as the dog, is used as an instrument of measurement without
much knowledge of its physiological state. There is no more delicate,
nor complex machine than the living system, a machine that requires
much thoughtfulness and knowledge to use properly in the laboratory.
This machine, that we call living, can be described, grossly, as a dy-
namic equilibrium between cells and the media in which they func-
tion. Thus, body fluids reflect the well-being of the community of cells
which is the animal, abnormal behavior of the cells being detected by
changes from normal in the composition of the body fluids. A study,
therefore, of these fluids contributes much to an understanding of the
physiological state of the experimental animal. It is toward this un-
derstanding that the following review of the composition of the blood
and urine of dogs in different physiological states is directed. It is a
review of elementary attempts to calibrate the dog for experimental
purposes in medical science.
The variations in the volume and composition of the body fluids
are relatively large in a heterogeneous group of so-called normal dogs.
A normal range of variation is often determined for such groups. How-
ever, it is the purpose of this paper to point out that changes within
that range may be important in an experiment; that, although large
numbers of dogs arc often used to get statistically significant results, a
few carefully calibrated animals can tell the story more truthfully and
accurately. To do this, each dog should be placed in as constant a
physiological state ns possible, and the range of varia.tion established
for that state. Similar physiological states cannot be achieved, how-
ever, by putting every animal under the same experimental conditions.
The caloric intake of the diet, for example, necessary to maintain a
population of dogs in an optimum state of nutrition, can vary, indi-
vidually, from 40 to 150 calories per day per kilogram of body weight.
One dog may require much more protein than another to maintain nitro-
to These studies were supported In part by the ProteID Metabolism Fund of the Bureau of
BI01o£waI. .Research.
gen equilibrium. Thus, the caloric intake and nitrogen intake must be
adjusted for each dog, to bring the populatiOli into similar physiolog-
ical states. Other dietary factors must also be controlled. Hence, a.
semi-synthetic diet1 is recommended for carefully controlled experi-
ments.
The plasma volume was found by Gregersen and StewartS to vary
between 35 and 65 ml. per kg. of body weight in a heterogeneous group
of dogs. However, as these authors point out, individual variation is
not nearly so large. Indeed, under controlled conditions, plasma vol-
TABLE 1
PLASMA AND AVAILABLE FLUID VOLUMES IN FoUR DOGS
(Sample e was taken 6 days after sample 1. Plasma volumes were determ~"ned by
using the dye T1SS4j ava~lable jluzds, by u~ng Na SON.)
Dog No. Sample No. Plasma volume Available fluid AlP

(P) (A)
28 1 529 2470 4.7

2 527 3090 5.9
42 1 500 2700 5.4
2 509 2640 5.2
65 1 557 2700 4.9
2 560 3000 5.4
68 1 749 3140 4.2
2 731 3850 5.3
umes can be kept constant in single individuals within the error of the
determination. The data in TABLE 1 illustrate the agreement which
may be expected in plasma volumes and "available :fluid volumes," in
dogs kept under such conditions. One of the changes which will effect
plasma volume markedly is a shift in protein stores of the animals.
Reduction in plasma albumin, for example, is reflected by a faU in
plasma volume, and a rise in available fluid. A complete description
of these shifts in fluid balance, which accompany changes in protein
stores, will be published elsewhere. It is, however, important to note
here that changes in labile protein stores in the dog during an experi-
ment can alter markedly the volume of body fluids.
The volume of red blood cells in a population of laboratory dogs
varies considerably, averaging around 45 per cent of the whole blood.
Individual volumes, also, can vary from time to time, because of the
262 TRANSACTIONS
pooling of these cells in the spleen. However, under controlled condi-

tions, they arc quite constant. The reduction in hemoglobin and red
blood cell count, as well ns leucocyte count, during barbiturate anes-
thcsia, illustrated in TABLE 2, is an exaggerated example of the pooling
of these cells in the dilated spleen. The data in the literatures demon-
strate that the red blood cells increase in numbers, from a few million
per c.mm. of blood in young puppies, to an average of 6.2 million in the
adult dog. The average corpuscular hemoglobin is 24 X 10-12 gm. in
both young and old dogs. The hemoglobin concentration of the blood,
therefore, increases from 9 to 10 gm. per 100 ml. of blood, at 2 months
of age, to an average of 15.1 gms. in the adult animal. These are all so-
TABLIIl 2
AVERAGE DATA OBTAINED ON THREE DOGS GIVEN 48.8 GMS. OF DELVINAL SODIUM
PEa KGM. OF BODY WEIGHT
(Data taken from Allison, Seeley, and Morris,t 1944)
Hemoglobin Red blood cells White blood cells

Condition of dogs
gms./lOO mI. Millions per c. mIn. Thousands per c. mm.
Normal .............. 14.6 6.2 15.9
Dee&sleep ........... 12.3 5.3 9.7
Awa~ ........... 12.6 5.1 10.7
Recov ............ 14.3 6.3 16.0
called normal values. It may be, however, that the low red blood cell
counts so often recorded for young clogs are due in part to dietary de-
ficiencies. Recently, Nakamura, Morris, and Atkinson,S for example,
reported red cell counts as low as 1.5 to 2.5 million per cubic milli-
meter, and hemoglobin as low as 7.5 gm. per 100 mI., in puppies re-
ceiving milk from a mother fed an inadequate diet. A quick and
complete regeneration of cells and hemoglobin was accomplished by
treating the puppies twiee a week with liver extracts. Regeneration of
this type, however, can take pIneo only in the presence of an adequate
intake of the right kind of protein. It has been our experience that
regeneration is most rapid if the animals receive, da.ily, at least 0.4
grams of protein nitrogen per kgm. of body weight, together with a salt
mixture containing iron, copper, and manganese, and with adequate
vitamin therapy.
The white blood cell count, both total and differential, is one of the
most useful tools to determine the condition of the dog. Using the
Schilling method of classification,6 the polymorphonuclear neutrophils

are classified as myocyte, juvenile, stab, and segmented forms. The
first two forms, however, are rarely found in the blood of the normal
dog. The average white count for the normal adult dog is 11,467
(TABLE 3), just about twice that found in man. There is a tendency
for young dogs to have a slightly higher white count, with a greater
TABLE 3
COMPARISON OF THE BLOOD PICTURE OF NORMAL DOGS AND DOGb SUFFERING FROM
DISTEMPER
(Data compiled primarily from records kept at the Raritan Hospital for Animlll8,
Stelton, N. J.*)
2-8 month!:! 9 month!:! a.nd older

Normal Distemper Normal Distemper
35 dogs 80 dogs 31 dogs SO dogs
Aver- Aver- Aver- Aver- Aver- Aver- Aver- Aver-
age age age age age age age age
Num- per Num- per Num- per Num- per
ber cent ber cellt ber cent ber cent
W.B.C .... 12165
-------
-
12611
---------------
11467 12123 -
Beg.......... 6795 55.85 8115 64.35 7525 65.27 8451 69.71
Lymph....... 4051 33 30 2050 16.26 2491 21.72 1492 12 31
Sta.b•......... 816 6.70 2050 16.26 753 6.56 1652 13 63
Eosin....... 484 3.97 71 0.56 623 5.43 ISO 1 48
Mono......... 19 0.15 147 1.17 77 0.67 145 1.20
proportion of lymphocytes, a.nd fewer segmented forms than adult dogs,
the numbers of lymphocytes being more labile, as they respond more to
changing physiological conditions in young, than in adult, dogs.
A decrease from norma.l in the percentage of lymphocytes, and the
increase in percentage of stab cells, are characteristic of dogs suffering
from distemper. The average total number of white blood cells re-
corded in TABLE 3 are not changed from normal in the distemper dogs.
Nevertheless, these average figures can be misleading, since, with a
pure virus distemper, the total number of white blood cells is always
reduced below the normal range. In virus distemper, the number of
white blood cells is reduced, accompanied by a reduction in the percent-
age of lymphocytes and an increase in neutrophils. A dog in this physio-
logical state is very susceptible to secondary infections. These infec-
* Acknowledgement is made to Dr. M. L. Morrill of the Raritan Hospital for .Animals. fn..
permission to compile these data.
264 TRANSACTIONS
tions usually cause an increase in the total numbers of white blood cells,
often increasing them well above normal. Thus, a leucocytosis may
accompany dlstcmper, if secondary infections arc present, but, in a
hcterogenoub population of distemper dogs, whILe blood cell counts may
range from below, tlnough average, to well above normal. The differ-
enLIal, however, regardless of the white count, will always show the
characteristic "shift to the left."
A marked leucopenia and a polymorphonuclear leucocytosis is an
unfavorable response to distemper. Dogs in this condition can appear
normal to the laboratory worker, but are very susceptible to secondary
infections, developing meningo-eneephalitis,7 and other diseases. It is
not uncommon for a <.log e.uddenly to sicken and die, after apparently
recovering from distemper. Such animals are always in a condition
which produces a marked lymphocytic leucopenia. Indeed, a low lym-
phocyte count in a dog is always associated with lowered resistance to
disease, possibly reflecting lowered antibody formation. Certainly,
such dogs, when depleted in proteins, are very susceptible to infections.
One dog, apparently normal, but with a low lymphocyte count, placed
on a protein-free diet, always developed a severe sore throat, which
could be cured only by repletion on a good protein diet, such as whole
egg.
Depletion in body protein stores is reflected by a reduction in
plasma proteins including antibody proteins, reductions in plasma vol-
ume, increase in available fluid volume, reduction in excretion of body
nitrogen, and a decrease in resistance to disease. 2 Wounds heal very
slowly in depIcted dogs, sores sometimes called kennel sores developing
in their skin. It is not unusual to find pound and even laboratory
dogs in this depIcted conrlition. If such dogs arc used as experimental
animals, they will yiold results which arc quite different from those ob-
tained on animals with adequate protein stores. The nitrogen balance
index, for example, of casein determined in a normal dog is 0.8, while
in a protein-depleted animal this index may be as high as 1.0.3 In
general, if the plasma proteins are loss than 5.5 grams per 100 mI., the
nitrogen balance index will be abnormally high and the excretion of
urea nitrogen abnormally low.
Many other examples of biochemical and physiological standardiza-
tions of dogs, correlated with physiological states and experimental
results, could be given, but would be beyond the bounds of this short
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF scmNCES 265
paper. It might be helpful, however, to reemphasize the necessity of a

careful study of the experimental variables under controlled conditions.
The data in TABLE 4 were obtained on four dogs, during a period of
approximately two weeks, while they were being prepared for an ex-
periment which involved, among other variables, the hematocrit, blood
urea, and liver function tests. The data in the table show that the per
cent red blood cells are normal and quite constant; yet, there may be a
tendency, ever so slight, for the per cent cells to decrease over this two
TABLE 4
HEMATOCRIT, BLOOD UREA, AND BBOMSULPHALEIN TESTS ON FOlJR DOGS DUllING A
CONTROL PERIOD OF APPROXIMATELY Two WEEKS
Dog No. Red Blood cells, % Blood urea, mgs. % Bromsulphalein test,
%
(1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3)
I 46.9 45 4 45 1
-16 -- - - -- 2-- 9---
9 17.6 17.3 7
2 44.9 45 0 423 10 6 10.4 11.2 19 23 15
3 45 9 460 444 9 3 82 88 4 10 9
4 49.5 47.5 463 8.6 74 90 8 - 12
week control period. This slight decrease warrants further investiga-

tions, especially since it is possible that the vitamin content of the diet
and the intestinal flora of the dog may have been deficient in certain
hemoglobin-forming factors. The blood urea nitrogen concentrations
are all within the normal range for the four dogs, and yet dogs 1 and 2
have higher blood urea nitrogens than dogs 3 and 4. Preliminary
studies, which will be amplified elsewhere, indicate that these differ-
ences are correlated with the utilization of dietary nitrogen in the
presence of varying protein stores of the animal. Finally, dog 2 is
separated from the other three by the bromsulphalein test for liver
function, this dog having a decreased liver activity toward the dye.
Thus, though variables may be within a so-called normal range,
significant differences can be established within that range. Each ani-
mal must be considered as a complete instrument of measurement,
which records significant results. The interpretation of these is de-
pendent upon knowledge of the state of the instrument at the time the
record is made. A few carefully calibrated animals will tell the story
more truthfully and accurately than a large heterogeneous group, no
matter how clever the statistical treatment of the data from the group
may be.
266 TRANSACTIONS
LITERATURE CITED
1. Allison. J. B .• & J. A. Anderson
1945. J. Nutrition 29: 413.
2. Allison. J. B., J. A. Anderson. & It. D. Seeley
19 W. Ann. N. Y. Acad. S('i. 41: 3. (In press.)
3. Allison, J. B., It. D. Seeley, J. H. Brown, & J. A. Anderson
194.6. J. Nutntion 31: 237.
4. Allison, J. B .• It. D. Seeley, & M. L. Morris
1944. Am. J. Vet. Res. 5: 62.
6. Gregersen. M. 1., & J. D. Stewa.rt
1939. Am. J. Phy:.iol. 125: 142.
6. Morris, M. L., J. B. Allison, & D. F. Green
1940. J. L:lb. & Olin. Med. 25: 353.
1. Morris. M. L. t & T. J. Murray
1940. J. Am. Vet. Med. A:.soc. 96: SO.
8. Nakamura, F. I., M. L. Morris, & L. N. Atkinson
1945. J. Am. Vet Med. As"Io('. 106: 336.
DOCTOR MARK L. MORRIS, New Brunswick, N. J.: Some Practical As-

pects of Selecting and Maintaining Dogs for Medical Research.
The practical aspects of selecting and maintaining dogs for medical
research will be considered under five headings.
The availability of suitable dogs constitutes a problem, and the
situation is becoming increasingly more difficult. In the past, dogs
have been available from three sources, the principal one being the ani-
mal dealer. Such a person makes a business of buying, raising, and
shipping dogs to institutions or laboratories. The supply from these
sources is not too adequate. and the quality of animals obtained is, for
the most part, unsatisfactory. The initial cost per dog is reasonable,
in fact, very cheap. However, the mortality rate of the purchased
stock is high, often reaching 75-100%. If all of the expense is as-
signed against the conditioning of the dog, up until the time the ani-
mal is successfully employed for study, then the total cost is much
greater.
Dogs are also obtained from pounds and shelters. Such supplies
are even more unreliable: numbers available fluctuate widely, and the
quality is usually unsatisfactory. The mortality rate of animals from
pounds is perhaps even higher than of those obtained from animal
dealers, because most dogs that find their way into pounds are usually
susceptible to infections commonly inhabiting the premises. The ini-
tial cost is cheap i but, again, the end cost per animal successfully used
is quite high, perhaps even higher, than of those obtained from animal
dealers. When dogs are purchased from wardens in charge of pounds,
such a practice encourages the collecting of dogs from the street. This
may be a desirable practice; but the average pet animal owner permits
his dog to use the street as an exercising yard, and, consequently, these
pet animals are frequently impounded and subsequently reach a re-
search laboratory. If the requirement of laboratories is active and
the supply is short, in an effort to meet the demand it is not uncommon
for the unscrupulous warden or his employee to remove and destroy
collars bearing identifying licenses. It is unnecessary to point out that
such a practice creates animosity in the !ninds of the public, and they
turn for relief to the various societies orga.nized for the purpose of
protecting the welfare of animals. These organizations have influen-
268 TRANSACTIONS
tial public relations ('ontaets, so that appeals can be made personally, or

through the press or the radio. In an effort to assist the complaining
pubhc, the societies seize upon the opportunity to be of service, making
a target of research laboratories and their personnel. A serious public
relations problem is cren.ted, and the laboratory is forced into a defen-
sive pos.ition. If the animals originated as the private property of the
laboratory, there would be less criticism from animal welfare societies.
The supply of dogs from privately owned kennels is, at present,
very limited. Owners and breeders are usually not interested in rais-
ing dogs for medical research, but breed the animals for show purposes,
or to be sold as pets. In bct, many would seriously object to selling
dogs to laboratories, if the animals were to be used for medical re-
search. The present and future supply of dogs frOln privately owned
kennels mny, for the mos.t part, be largely discounted. It can, thus, be
stated that the majority of animals at present employed in laboratories
are obtained either from animal dealers, or from pounds and shelters.
The housing of animals used by Inboratories may be considered
under three headings: general physical facilities, individual kennels,
and exercising yards. The smeral physical facilities, from what I
have observed, vary widely, the most common being cellars, attics, and
back rooms. These animal houses often have no light, poor ventila-
tion, and unsanitary conditions. In contrast, there are some labora-
tories which have modern facilities, providing light and ventilation, and
the construction is such that floors and walls can be washed and kept
snnitary. The individual kennels vary from either single cages or
mcto.bolism units to wire enclosures for confining g,roups of from five
to twenty dogs. Thf.' largf.' cn('losl.1re may be practical, but it encour-
ages fighting, breeding, dissemination of disease, and poor feeding
habits. Under these conditions, the outcome is frequently a survival
of the fittest, the larger and stronger dog gulping the food, the smaller
and less fortunate anilnal surviving on left-overs.
In most instances, yards or facilities for exercising are not pro-
vided. If present, these units are usually small indoor enclosures,
either with or without drainage, constructed to accommodate 20 or
more animals, and thus encouraging a high concentration of excreta in
a small area. Outdoor exercising yards with fresh air, natural light,
and good drainage, are essentially non-existent. Visitors to research
laboratories cannot help but feel sympathetic toward creatures con-
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OJ!' SCIENCES 269
fined under crowded unsanitary conditions. In an effort to improve

the care and handling of the dogs, an employee or staff member is often
instrumental in offering suggestions to qualified persons. This encour-
ages an investigation, and develops adverse publicity for the labora-
tory, the personnel, and for the practice of using dogs for medical
research.
The feeding of dogs used by laboratories is very important. This
problem may be considered under two headings: the quality of the
food, and the method of feeding, both prior to purchase and during the
animal's stay in the colony. The institution purchasing the dog has no
control over the quality of food or method of feeding. However, each
has an important bearing on the condition of the dog, at the time of pur-
chase, and for some time subsequent thereto. When the animal is added
to the colony, its nutrition varies widely, depending upon the food
available and the purpose for which the dog is to be used. Usually, the
ration supplied by the institution is of unknown biological quality,
having been purchased from a producer who is a good customer, client,
or friend of the company, or because the particular ration is one em-
ployed by some other well-known laboratory. The palatability and
nutritional quality are too frequently secondary, so long as the food is
reasonable in price and the animals consume the ration and continue
to live.
Disease control is obviously fundamental, and must be given con-
sideration, both prior to purchase and during membership of the colony.
Control of disease in dogs requires time, skill, and expensive materials.
Animal dealers, dog wardens, or pound keepers are not interested, and
the housing and fceding techniques employed by such persons encour-
age the developmcnt of disease. It is difficult to obtain a dog from a
pound that has not been exposed to, or is incubating, a parasitic, bac-
terial, or virus-induced disease. The desire of the animal dealer is to
turn the dogs over as rapidly as possible, and collect the fee before the
animal becomes ill and dies. Towards an addition to the colony, some
attempt at control is made by most institutions. However, the addi-
tions continue to supply ample quantities of viruses, bacteria, and para-
sites to nutritionally deficient stock. Old resident members of the
colony are usually immune to "everything in the book."
Experimental animals are fed, prior to purchase, all sorts of ra-
tions of unknown values, while those maintained in laboratory colonies
270 TRANSACTIONS
arc fed rather empirically. Disease control is on a somewhat compar-

able basis, little efiort being made by the animal dealer. Most institu-
tions have inadequute isolation and housing facilities, plus an insuffi-
cient numbC'r of qualified trained personnel to cope with the problem.
As a result of malnutrition and disease, many dogs used for re-
search purposes suffer from varying degrees of organic damage,
chiefly of the kidney and liver. These functional changes directly
affect the biological status of the animal, so that the results of many
physiological, pathologicnl, and pharmacological investigations are ad-
versely influenced. Thus, it can be stated that the average dog used
for medicnl research is a malnourished, disensed, pathological specimen,
oftl.'n improperly housed and nourished, but used to obtain physiolog-
ical and pharmacological data. In selecting dogs for various projects,
the physiological state is not taken too seriously, the investigator's
criterion being frequently: "That one looks okay; we'll use him."
Subsequently, however, the animal proves unsatisfactory, fails on the
project, and is discarded. The cost of the dog, preliminary prepara-
tion, and the investigators' time and materials are a total loss. If the
investigation is completed, one is never certain of the results; attempts
to repeat the study on the same animal or one of the same species fail
to produce comparable data. It is surprising that more employees are
not bitten by rabid animals, since it is the function of the dog warden
to remove stray animals from the e,treets. These campaigns are vig-
orously carried on when rabies is most prevalent. Leptospirosis and
certain fungus infections may also be contracted frOln diseased dogs,
and these cunditions arc frequent among pound animals. Certainly,
some hazard to employees must exist.
A critical analysis of the problem is essential, if a solution is ex-
pected. Is therc nny approach, 01' ran any recommcndations be made,
which would assist in improving the biological status of dogs now
widely employed in medical research? If lnhoratories wish to con-
tinue the present practice of pUl'cho.bing animals from dealers, pounds,
or shelters, then some system for screening should be devised whieh
will immediately eliminate the most evident pathological specimens.
It will be almost impossible to obtain diet histories on animals pro-
cured from dealers or pounds. Therefore, some plan should be de-
vised for rehabilitating the malnourished and diseased. These pro-
cedures should be undertaken in quarters entirely separate from the
main colony. Disease should, in so far as possible, be eradicated, and

proper immunization applied.
In addition to improving present methods, it would seem that
some thought might well be given to the development of a so-called
standard-bred animal of known genetic background, free of parasitic
or infectious diseases, properly immunized, and fed a balanced, nutri-
tionally complete diet. Such an animal should be of convenient size
to be tractable. It should have good veins and arteries, understanding,
and a tolerant disposition. Temperamental, neurotic creatures should
be avoided. A good, rugged, disease-resistant strain, possibly devel-
oped by cross-breeding certain pure strains, might prove ideal. It is
well known that the dog is the most valuable animal employed in medi-
cal research for obtaining reliable data applicable to the human. To
accomplish thcse purposes, a properly organized, concentrated effort
must be made.
On several occasions, representatives of institutions and industries
have discussed this problem with us. It would seem that a closely-
knit program, sponsored by industrial and institutional laboratories, is
needed to n.evelop, finance, and administer a program which would
make dogs of uniform size, scientifically fed, and free of disease, avail-
able for medical research. Millions of dollars are expended annually
on various types of instruments and mechanical equipment. Is it
not logical that a comparable effort should be made to improve the
quality, feeding, houoing, and methods of handling animals which
make a major contribution to medical research and human welfare?
Appreciation is expressed to my colleagues and friends who of-
fered comments and criticisms.
272 TRANSACTIONS
MAY 20, 1946

DOCTOR EDMUND JACOBSON, Laboratory for Clinical Physiology, Chi-
cago, Illinois: "Electrical Measurement8 of Mental Activitie8 in
Man. (This lecture was illustrated by lantern slides.)
The view that mental activities, such as imagination, perception,
recollection, and emotion, occur in and through the brain alone has been
almost universal for centuries. During a series of observations of
sensory experiences which I began in 1908, and in which I later had the
assistance of graduate students and faculty members whom I trained
especially for the purpose, I was led to doubt the accuracy of the tradi-
tional view. I believed that I could detect sensory and motor experi-
ences, evident, not in the brain, but in skeletal and smooth muscles
and elsewhere, which seemed indistinguishable from the conscious
processes present during the mental activity under observation, and
which seemed, to all intents and purposes, to constitute all or part of
the mental activity itself. However, these subjective observations, no
matter what the controls, failed in themselves to constitute proof that
mental activity is not confined as a function to closed circuits within
the brain. Objective tests, based upon the subjective findings, were
obviously the next step.
Accordingly, after many years of effort, electrical apparatus of
unique sensitivity was devised and set up in 1927, capablc of measuring
transient voltages as small as one millionth of a volt, under special
conditions and limitations. Suitable electrodes were devised, and
placed in contact with skin overlying muscles to bc tested. In later
studies, wire electrodes were inserted into the muscles or into the super-
ficial nerves which were under investigation.
During the mental activity studied, which generally lasted about a
second or more, action-potentials were discovered in the muscle or
muscles which would naturally participate if the actual act were to be
carried out, but in an abbreviated and fainter fashion. For example,
if the subject imagined that he was lifting a ten-pound weight with his
right hand, action-potentials would arise promptly after the recorded
THE NEW YORK .ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 273
signal to imagine and would cease promptly after the recorded signal
to discontinue to imagine. However, this did not occur uniformly in
all subjects, for some reported that they merely visualized themselves
lIfting the weight. In these, the electrical records generally indicated
merely eye-movement to imagine. Other subjects showed electrical
phenomena, as described, simultaneously in the eye and arm regions.
With the aid of sensitive mechanical contrivances, it was shown
that the action-potentials recorded in electrodes connected with a
muscle were accompanied by actual, but minute, contractions in that
muscle. In the instance where the subject was instructed to imagine
lifting a ten-pound weight with his right hand, the muscles on the right
side actually contracted minutely, as if to lift that weight. But in
relaxed subjects, the muscles on the side showed no electrical or me-
chanical signs of contraction.
Mental activities referring to abstract matters were commonly
carried out in terms of eye or speech organ activities which could be
electrically recorded and identified.
Since these earlier investigations, many subjects have been trained
to relax, as is essential for the many types of control tests necessary in
these investigations. When the subject relaxes his skeletal musculature
to a very advanced degree during a certain interval, he later reports
that mental activity was diminished or absent for the time. Corre-
sponding with the subject's report, action-potentials are generally
diminished or absent in the specific region under test.
Evidence has been found in this laboratory that individuals, both
healthy and diseased, can be trained to relax. Individual differences
obtain, but a general trend is manifested in electrical recordings in most
instances. Training effects an increased ability in the individual to
control his mental activities in the direction of relaxation. This can
have practical applications.
274 TRANSACTIONS
MAY 27, 1946
DOt"l'OR RUTH BENEDICT, Associate Profebsor of Anthropology, Coluw-

bIll. University, New York, N. Y.: The Study of CulturaZ Patterns
~n European Nations.
EvClY nation in Europe and Asia has simultaneously denied and

boae.ted that it had a national character. It hab been almost impos-
sIble to sC'parate the wheat from the chaff in the extravagtmt e.tatements
that have been put forth, and many social scientie.ts have been inclined
to chalk up the whole probkm [l,e. a e.ubject for popular oratory, and to
throw it out of court as a matter for systematic investigation. During
the war years, however, the problem of national character became a
matter of grave practical importance. There were rl'urial questions ae.
to tithe nature of the enemy," the receptivity of satelhte nations to
certain kinds of appeals and not to others, and the oppositlOn of cer-
tain of the allied nations to meas.ures easily acC'epted by others. Those
who were engaged in psychological warfare, in political conferences, in
the training of OSS and UNRRA personnE'I, as well as those en-
gaged in military operations, were constantly handicappeo if they
madE' mistakes in estimating the way a m·s-a.-vis untion would think
and behave. It was of the utmost importance to eliminate popular
fantasiC's and misapprehensions, and to Ube whatever teC'hniques the
I'>ocialfocicncrs could offer, in orot'r to unclerflLand thesC' national char-
acters.
To the anthropo}ogie.t, t itt' btudy of nuHont,l rlutr::tcter i:o tt biudy
of l('aJ'ned culturul behavior. For sevC'rnl dc('ttd('b 1>cfore thc war, an-
thropologists had done piont'er work, in thifl field, in cOlllpart primitiv('
communities. During the last decade, theorC'tical point'S made by an-
thropologists about cult ural conditioning had been widely accepted
Anthropologists had presented their case convincingly enough so that
there was wide agreement that social arrangements are of fundamental
importance in shaping any people's tenets about life, whether they are
assumptions about the function of the State, economic motivations, re-
lations between the sexes, or dependence upon the supernatural. The
forms these tenets take in our own cultural background were no longer
generally considered to be direct consequences of human biology, and
"human nature" was no longer considered as a sufficient explanation of
them. Behavior, even in civilized nations, was increasingly under-
stood as ways of acting and thinking which developed in the special
kind of social environment characteristic of that part of the world.
In 1943, I was asked to join the Office of War Information, to
work on national character in enemy and occupied countries. I was
asked to use the insights and techniques anthropology had developed in
the study of learned cultural behavior. In spite of all the necessary
limitations impoe.ed upon research in the social sciences during war, it
was a great opportunity. Studies of modern society had very seldom,
indeed, made systematic use of the methods upon which anthropologists
had based their analyses of the simpler societies. These methods were
quite specific, and were designed to investigate how each new genera-
tion had learned and transmitted its way of life in all its specificities.
They were methods for detailed studies of specific social environments.
Experience had shown that it was necessary to stress many aspects of
life which rate as trivia in Western international studies. Habit forma-
tion in a specific social environment; the rewards and punishments be-
stowed by society; the praise allotted to certain kinds of achievement;
the connotations given to exercise of authority, and to submission to
it, in day-by-day living; the degree to which responsibility for his own
conduct was entrusted to the individual-all such questions had been
regarded as essential in cultural investigations of behavior in primitive
societies, and had hardly been raised in studies of European nations.
In classic studies of civilized countries, the approach is, ordinarily,
either historical, or economic, or political. Though such segmented
approaches are valuable and necessary, they still leave a wide field for
applications of methods which have been successfully used in anthropo-
logical studies of learned cultural behavior.
In attempting, during the war, to use such techniques in the study
of civilized nations, there was a grave handicap, occasioned not by the
nature of the research, but by the fact of war. The anthropologist's
chief technique, that of the field trip, was impossible. There were
available, however, in the United States, persons of almost every na-
tion of the world, and it was a fairly simple matter to find trans-
planted groups which retained a great deal of the way of life to which
276 TRANSACTIONS
the older members had been born. Individuals could be found from
most classes and minorities, and from most of the distinctive provinces
of a nation. It was not necessary to give up the traditional anthro-
pological reliunce upon face-to-face study, and this recourse to infor-
mants was all the more necessary, the clearer it became that much
essentiu.l material for the studies I had been asked to make was not
elsewhere available.
The usual comment on such projected studies of civilized countries
is that, quite apart from the limitations imposed by the war, civilized
nations are too difficult to study by methods that may be sufficient in
smll.ll communities. Such skepticism is often bascd on what should
rathcr be regarded as a great advantage: the multiplicity of the facts
known and recorded about Western nations. Actually, the anthro-
pologist working on civilized nations has a great head-start, in that
much work has been done in historical research j that statistics are
available in many fields; that so many observers have recorded their
personal experiences; that there are often excellent novels available;
and that the language does not present the grave obstacles it does in
tribes where it has never been recorded and ordered in grammatical
categories. Vast quantities of material are a handicap only when the
crucial problems to be investigated are not formulated. When they
are, it is possible to cull the relevant material from the most diverse
sources. The richness of the data is an asset, and, when lacunae were
discovered, it was usually possible to obtain necessary facts from in-
formants. The principal advantage the anthropologist had, was that
certain ways of stating the problems had emerged from his experience,
and stating the problcm so that it can be answered by research is
usually half the battle.
Skepticism about the application of anthropological techniques to
civilized nations is also often based on the lack of cultural homogeneity
in modern nations. This kind of skepticism frequently seems to the
anthropologist to be no criticism of his method, but a statement of an
elementary principle which he completely accepts. No anthropologist,
I think, would attempt to study lithe" character structure of such a
welter of cultures as were included within the national boundaries of
Jugoslavia. There are other multicultural states such as Poland and
Czechoslovakia. Such conditions do not mean that investigation must
be abandoned. The solution is to multiply the number of investiga-
tions to any desired point, and this holds true also of such lesser prob-
lems as are presented by the different regions of England, or of France,
or of the United States.
The criticism that the degree of class differentiation prevalent in
Western civilization makes the use of anthropological methods im-
possible, stands on a somewhat different footing. Adequate cultural
study of this situation, including all the relevant factors, has hardly
been attempted in Western nations. Such a study would investigate
what attitudes and convictions the various classes have in common in
any nation, as well as the obvious fact of conflict of interests. Even
the conflict situation is usually inadequately stated. The trained
anthropologist, in any study of complementary behavior, whether be-
tween authoritarian fathers and submissive sons, or between despotic
kings and their subjects, has to present both parties as actors in a pat-
terned situation. He can see it as a kind of see-ssw, and by studying
the height of the fulcrum and the length of the board (in the study of
classes, laws about property and land, general conditions of social
security, and the like), he can show either that the group on the high
end of the see-saw is necessarily very far up and the group on the
low end very far down, or that they are more nearly balanced. As
extremes, material or psychological, are eliminated from one position,
extremes will also be eliminated from the other. Other groups in the
society, too, may throw their weight now to one party and now to the
other. The anthropologist has good reason to know, also, that non-
material factors may be as important as material ones in any given
situation, and he investigates, for instance, the cultural acceptance of
hierarchy, as well as the relative frequency of wealth and poverty.
The similarity of the basic assumptions about life made by both
those cls.sses, in any nation, is of great importance. The wealthy
industrialist and the laborer or peasant, in a nation or area of Western
civilization, hold many attitudes in common. The attitude toward
property only in part depends upon whether one is rich or whether
one is poor. Property may be, as in Holland, something which is an
almost inseparable part of one's own self-esteem, something to be
added to, kept immaculately, and never spent carelessly. This is true,
whether the individual belongs to court circles or can only say in the
words of a proverbial expression: "If it's only a penny a year, lay it
by." Alternatively, the attitude toward property may be quite diI-
'J'RANSACTTONS
.
ft'f(·nt. fill ill Hmullnuin.. An upprr-claM person may be ' or become,
"lWlltllotWr (If 1\ w('althy man, without loss of statuI! or st'lf-confidencej
hill llrop£'l'ty, 11(' IlnyH, h~ nut "bhnlinlf." And th(' poor peasant argues
thnt, h(·in~ poor, iL is futile {()r him to lilY anything by; "he would"
1W tlnYl:I, "lf. '
he were rit·h." The well-oo-do increase their possessil)ns
hy uthcr 1Il(.'ttns than thrift, and the traditional attitude toward prop-
erty dificr<'ll('es assodatcs wealth with luck or exploitation, 1'0' ''Cl'
than with aSlIlured position as in Holland. In each of these coun-
tries, u.s in other European nations, many of which have deeply
embedded special attitudes toward property, the specific nature of these
nSlllumptions can be greatly clarified by study of what is required of the
child in bis handling and ownership of property, and under what sanc-
tions and conditions expanding opportunities are allowed in adoles-
eenet', and at his induction into fully adult status.
Attitudes toward authority are similarly localized. A Greek,
whether he belongs to the upper classes, or whether he is a peasant
villngrr, has a charact('ristic opposition to authority from above, which
permeates daily conversation and influences his choice of a means of
liv('lihood quite as much as it colors his political attitudes. On the
other hand, it is quite true that, in other rl'gions of Europe, in the
dramatic words of Ortega y Gasset, there has been a "formidable cry
rising like the howling of innumerable dogs asking for someone or some-
thing to take command, to impose an occupation, a duty." During
the war, Goebbels's propaganda broadcasts quoted the well-known
wOl'ds of Machiavelli, saying that all Germans knew they were true:
"Men work eithrr under ('olUpulsion, or of their own will. The greatest
cncrtzy they c1isplny where their own choice has the least freedom."
Such authorit,arinnisIn del::lcrvcfI the cloflest cultural study. It requires
knowledge, not only of the lnws Itnd of the economic set-up that have
fostered ib, but of the child's firl:lt experiences with authority, and of the
sanctions which arc invoked. It requires knowledge of the age at which
various disciplines arc imposed, and of the rewards of obedience. Such
knowledge can lead directly to a clearer insight into what the leaders
in any country are saying in their political speeches, and into what
courses of action the people of that country can advantageously follow
in reconstruction. Character structure can, of course, change over
generations, as different experiences are provided, but the very process
of change can be illuminated by systematic study of behavior in this
,eneration.
'I'lf]!} NlljW 10RK ACADEMY 01!' SCIENCES 279
At prl'lll'nL, e\,(lll the rt'('orded fncts lleCl'llbl1ry for a cultural studY

of the nutioJUo! of I';Ul'llPt' tire widely scattered in diIT{'rent publications,
and much l'l'ul'ialllli'Ol'lllatioll is nOL recorded at all. Our understand-
ing of ill(t'l'Uat iOllU I affairs is about where our understanding of primi-
wve peopll'tl WUH hl,rm'l' tIll' ~\nthr()pologiBts attempted the serious study
of how llrilllilivl' l>l'()plc learned their cultural behavior. Even those
t <.lentil who h:wc used Lhe method in the simpler cultures have usually
laId it a~ido wh{'n tlll'Y ('amo to ditlcussions of our own civilization.
They tend to ns:;,ume a similarity in experience among the different
Western nutillllH, which my investigations showed did not exist. There
are diiIel'cncl'll of till' Sl1me order as those with which we are familiar
in the isolaLe(l simplrr cultures. We need studies of Western peoples
which show tlH'm to us as people who have learned, in specific ways,
to solve the uuiv(,l'snl human problems by special cultural arrangements
to which they giY(' their allcgiunce as we do to ours. We need intimate
understanding of their experiences, so that we shall learn to dis-
criminate bet.ween what is truly socially dangerous and what is only
another method of urriving at a socially desirable goal. The kinds of
strength which the people of each area could use in a world organized
for peace can only be those to which they have been bred. If we insist
that they imitate another kind of strength, they will be powerless to
contribute. If we, the people of the world, are ever to achieve a world
organization which promises mutual benefits, we must be scientifically
prepared to know the strength which different nations of the world
can utilize to this end.
280 TRANSACTIONS
I:5IWTION OF OCEANOGRAPHY AND METEOROLOGY
MAY 24 AND 25. 1946

Conference on "Convection Patterns in the Atmosphere and Ocean."
The Section of Oceanography and Meteorology held a Conference
on "Convection Patterns in the Atmosphere and Ocean." Doctor
Athelstan It'. I:jpilhaus, New York University, College of Engineering,
New York, N. Y., was the Conference Chairman, in charge of the
IDecting.
The program consisted of the following pa\)ers:
FRIDAY, MAY 24
Morning Session. Chairman, Athelstan F. Spilhaus.
"Conference Introduction, Problems Concerning Convective Lay-
ers," by R. B. Montgomery, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,
Woods Hole, Massachusetts.
"A Summary of the Theory of Convection Cells," by Henry
Stommel, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massa-
chusetts.
"Internal Waves in the Atmosphere and Convection Patterns," by
B. Haurwitz, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
Afternoon Session. Chairman, J. Bjerknes, University of Cali-
fornia, Los Angeles, California.
"Convection of Aerosols," by Worth H. Rodebush, University of
Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.
"Convective Motion in Air over the Sea," by A. H. Woodcock and
Jeffries Wyman, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole,
Massachusetts.
"Structure of Summer Rain as Dctected by Radar," by Raymond
Wexler, Evans Signal Laboratory, Belmar, New Jersey.
"Observations of Vertical Temperature and Humidity Distribu-
tions in the Convective Layer above the Sea Surface," by Richard A.
Craig, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massa-

chusetts.
SATURDAY, MAY 25
Chairman, H. U. Sverdrup, University of California, The Scripps
Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California.
"Convection in the Annual Temperature Cycle of Lake Michigan,"
by Phil E. Church, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.
liThe Maintenance of Instability in the Surface Waters of the
Ocean," by John C. Armstrong, American Museum of Natural His-
tory, New York, N. Y.
282 TRANSACTIONS
SECTIONS OIf BIOLOGY AND PHYSICS AND CIIEMISTRY
MAY 29, 1946

Conference on "Folic Acid."
The Sections of Biology, and Physics and Chemistry held a Con-
ference on "Folic Acid." Doctor E. H. Northcy, American Cyanamid
Company, Stamford, Connecticut, was the Conferenl'e ChairII}an, in
charge of the meeting.
"Historical Introduction," by W. II. Petl]r8on, University of Wis-
consin, Madison, Wisconsin.
"Isolation of Liver L. Casqi Factor," by E. L. R. ~tokstad and
collabol'o.tors, Lcderle Laboro.tories, Pearl River, N. Y.
"Isolation of Fermentation L. Casei Factor," by Brian Hutchings
and collaborators, Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, N. Y.
"Degradation of L. Casei Factor by Alkaline Hydrolysis," by
E. L. R. Stokstad and collaborators, Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River,
N.Y.
"Degradation of L. Casqi Factor by Sulfite Cleavage," by Brian
Hutchings and collaborators, Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, N. Y.
"Structure of L. Casei Factor," by J. H. Mowat and collaborators,
Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, N. Y.
"Synthesis of Pteroic Acid and its Derivs.tiv('s":
First paper, by Coy WaU('r and collaborators, Ledcrll' Labora-
tories, Pearl River, N. Y.
Second paper, by M. E. HultquiRt and collaborators, CSICll Chem-
ical Company, Bound Brook, N. J.
"Pharmacological Studies," by B. K. IIarned nnd collaborators,
Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, N. Y.
"Physiological Aspects," by F. S. Daft, National Institute of
Health, Bcthesda, Maryland.
"Vitamin M Deficiency," by John R. Totter, University of Arkan-
sas, School of Medicine, Fayetteville, Arkansas.
41Clinical Aspects," by T. D. Spies, Hillman Hospital, Birming-
ham, Alabama.

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, I1G rn.

NEW YORK ACADEMY

1-'1',('1'111:"01 p} Hho{.oc;Y ANI> ~HNIm.ALOnY

logical investigations. He is an artist when he appli('s successfully his

I need not e.tross beforl' a group composed largely of geologists th('

proveInent of old tools and drilling cquipment, and the ttcquil'litioll of

the axis of the southeastward plunging Coalinga anticlinal nose, a. well-

ot IIerzog (1905). Their general conclusion was that the pigment in

tamed when anMoesthetizing doses of chloretone were used (1 cc. of a

forms, limited positional changes can take place independ('ntly of the

tiel! down to tht'ir blmtllt'!lt detnils. Th('rl' il:l, undonhlt·(Uy, t~ Cunctiul1 in

importanee and authority than to complain of their mnny duties and

tuations, and tilt' abcent or decline of individuals and groups follow

f:a. H. Lome. 1027. The Origin of the Statc-: 76-107j••Now York. E. N.

tiv(' rt·ciprocit,y. We may considtll· it as a "freezing" Dlommrl', which,

wrote the following when he was Governor-General of French }l~qua­

SECTION OF PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY

El(,cLcd from May 16, 1944 to OeLob('r 6, 1944.

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY

operate just as dirccLly as doC's binocular parallax. For, so long as

DOCTOR DONALD MARQUII'i, Director of the' Office of Psychological Per-

following the pr('scnt war. Serious cOllilidcration must be ~ivcn to the

vidual ]wri'lOlmhty I'IYf.tl'm. It i!l rdl~tl'd to otlwr f('atun'!I of that,

1111 it" pl'llhihitiOlll'l UU(ll'lI.hortntiolll'lj that tIl(' r('all:tuguag(' is the writN

1. JUsino mionation. A ri::.(' in pitch o('curs on the laRt primal'Y-

2, Jl'aZZtn!1 intonation. A fall in piLch occurs on the last primary-

3. FaLling-rising intonatl'on. A fa.lling tone occur!:! on tho la.st

4. FinaL-rising intonation. A rising tone occurs on the last sylla-

which are psychologically Ilon-sihrnifklLnt. I shall try to indicnte how

On the basis of pitch characteristics, patients suffering from states

Duffy's Tavern radio program. lIe repr(,l:Ients an old trnditional folk

Katwnhorn, Dorothy HC'IC'u, B.A., Gcoiogiclil Assistant, Columbia. Univonrity, New

change in s(lveral I:Ihe11 features. A knowledgc of thrse evolutionary

Let me, then, I:lketch as briefly as possible the developmental back-

Motivation and Symbolic Adaptation

out of the experimental situation. Again, it exhibit!'! cv('ry phYbiologic

TIlE BIODYNAMICS OF THERAPY

The experimental methods that were found to be effective in

to you four bio<iYDI.l.Jllit' I!;<'DC'ralizati(lnfl whi('h, I believe, apply to

THE BIODYNAMIC PRINCIPLEl-I OF BEIIAVIOR

1. Behavior is motivated by the physiologic needs of the organism.

This, then, is an exceedingly condensed survey of a decade of

NmUltOsrs AND ALCOHOL

permitted free access to alcohol to see if a spontaneous preference for

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN MITIGATING THE NJIlUROTOGENIC

The next question that naturally arose was: if alcohol, by impair-

Naturally, I rccognize the vast difi'crcnc('s bctw('('n the most intelli-

Certain biodynamic principles governing the motivations, condi-

ltEPORT Olt' TIlE ANNUAL MEETING

The Librarian reported that, the Academy has distributed, in re-

pIt,to voluml's, 2,169, and 4,787 billP;I(' ('opi(,l!I.

Honorary I,ife Memberl:!hip was conferred. upon the following

For Corresponding Secretary

IIPolymers and Light"

Pro/essor 0/ Chemist1'1l. ComeU Unlversity

Al,i'.XANmllt HANll()W, })('p!\rt.mC'llt.. (l f Bioloey I WIlllhingt.on Square Col-

ELEANOR ALEXANDER-JACKSON, Department of Public Health and Pre~

ZoogINt.1 iorIM have been obs('rved rep('atedly in unstained mate-

WILLIAM A. RITCHIE, Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences: An

tion, nnd bundl(.", wt'rE' simultau('ouHly prarti(,(·tl throoghout the Archaic

H01111' ('!<'('lr()('lW('pha}op,l'Ilph('rH daim that, ('ort'('lntioll ('xiHts he-

rent, have a density approximatt'ly thnt of water. Aftt'r a long sNtrch,

JANUAlty 15, 1945

publiC' work pt·oj(·(·t.,.., wili('h \\ould iudit'/tt<· orgallizl'd lll:t~b labor.

wrote the following when he was Governor-General of French }l~qua