Order aud Progress

T h 1. On ...

1111111
1111 11
l E lA~N 1 7 B S2 K
11
1l1li111
 GILBERTO FREYRE

Order and Progress

Brazil[rom lIJonarcll)' lo Republic

Edited and Translated [r011/ tbe Portuguese by

R O l> \ V. H O R T O N

Int roduction t u tbe t'aperback Rdition by

L UDW I G L A UE I<l I A S S , J R .

Ul\: IVERSITY OF CAI.I FO R;\ IA PRESS

Hcrkclcy Los Angeles London
Univ crsitv uf CJli fornia Prt'S~
Ik rkd ey andLos ,\ ngd es, CJl iforn i,l

U ni\Cni ty uf Callfornta I'rl'''. ltd.

LUlHl" ll, Ellg[a llll

Frevrv, (;ill)trI<I. ll)< " -

Ordcr anJ I'rogre~~.

TfJ. llslal i, m uf: O nkm e J>rol!rc~~u .

l . Ik~ / i l--< ;\' i l ilal i()n- I l)l h ccnt ury . l . Bru il--( ;. ili7ali" Il- l Ulh cC'l1l ury.
j . Bral il- Sucial condirions. ... Hra,iJ- F.c ' J1lomic condirions. l. llorton ,
Ru.1 WilliJm , ' 'J I< '" 11 . T ilk
F25 ,lj .;l j l , 1')1l6 ')HI ' .0 5 Hf>- I<)2q
S R;": ....P ....5682- 5 (pbk.: alk. pal'cr)

Printec l in the L'nit ed States " f ,\ T1l.'ri.'J

1 1 l .. 5 6 7 Il l)
To T 11 E .\ 1 f: .\ l O R Y O F

Gilben o Amado
L ca .\liguel-P'7 ra

Rodrigo .\1. F. de Andrade

A ntnio de Barros Carvabo

;\1 v Fltlt: SIl S

Le progre! est le d veioppemmt de J'ordre.

A U GU Sl'E CO~ITE
 Trans lator's Note

Ix P REP.-\1I.1:SG thc Englisb-language versi n of Orden; e Progresso,

curs and condensations wcre maje in the or iginal tcxt in rhc inreresr
o f readabiliry. In making rhesc abridgm cnrs, w hich were ctfcctcd
with t he aurhor's pcrrnission. rhc translaror arrcrnpted ro preserve
rhe nurhor's ideas and original em phasis and ro eliminare on ly that
material which supported a pcinr airead)' clea rly madc. T he note
on Braz lian monetary vales, the hisrorical note, and t he glossary
are rhe work of rhc rranslator. Foornores includcd to explain poinrs
for thc hendir of readers unfamiliar with Hrazilian history are gen
erally rhose of rhe translato r and are so dcsignared ; unmarked foo t-
not es are rhc aurhor's, as are rhc prcfacc ro the English-language
edirion, the histoncal outline, the note on merhod, and che bibliog-
raphies.

ROD 'V. H aRTaN

 COI1/el1/S

Prefilfe lo IIx ElIglish-Ldng~age F.d

~,~"~
""
"_ --"",,
XI1l

Note. O" -i.t1el hfJd XXIX

Note on JlQllelary Valua XX.n'

t istoncat Note t'x.n'1I

AUl hor's Pr efoce lo tlx l'ap~

,,~b~
<K~*~f.
~.
~i~
ti~
'n"_ Ii
____

Inlroduetioll 10 tlx PaP!..c,bc""'"*eRc.d"iC

' iC
"c, =Iix
,tlap o/ Hra l in tbe Harly Tsmuietb Ctntury

1 1 Fifteenlb r1c-.\",",,,'"n,,",Ix~, -,5

111 FrfJI1/J:~mpire lo Repl/blie ~"'

Ir
__ Educaticu aud L'rban Culture -'/ ~3

'_Poli/ieal und Racial Problems . 66

\ '1 Misctgtl1IJI"in~.,' _"'9H

X II Contents

r lll Tbr Gro';,;.,th Q( l lU! lIs/ry, "'0

~=

IX Tbr Re/ig~
ifJ~
"'~'~
()~,d
~,~, =
zH,

.r CarhoJicism anJ Progc",~'- ___'=

XI Tbt: Repu bJic Tv.'clIl y Y/'UTS Af!~"~ ~~

)Ji

XII TIx CbaJJm~_!!f-, hl' Trop~

i,~
, =
XIII The Restorat on J1fJ'i.:clJlen~
I ~ R6

(i~flS!Ury T"9

SUpp/r/1/OItury R(Udillg LiS!

l JJitiOf/uJRl'tr1l t Hooks PuhlisbrJ itl Bru l

Inda
 Prcface lo tlu: ElIglh-Lall!,1UJge Edition

1'IIIS ROO", OR IGISAt . l." PI)B LlS IIEIl in Porrugucse undcr rhe tit le
Orde111 e Progreeso, is now in its third edirion in that languagc: [WO
in Hrazil and one in Po rtugal. Ir wil l soon appear also in Iralian and
G erman. N O\v, t hrough rhc initia rive o A lfrcd A . Knopf lne., we
havc nn E nglish-language verxion in the cxccllcnr rranslation uf Rod
\ V.lforton.
Chrcnologically, Urdcr and 'rogress covc rs thc half-ccm urv o
Brazilan histo ry be rwecn t hc fi rsr de cisivo steps in th c carly 1870's
towa rd rhe abolirion o slavery and rhe years immediarcly fol1o wing
Brazilian participation in rhe Firsr \ \'orld \Var. Ar rhe suggest io n o
M r. Knopf his inrroduc rion is wrinen in an anempt ro show how
rhc devclcpments o rhar half-ccnrury atfec rcd subsequenr deca dcs.
Ir seeks ro point out . in a rarhcr imprcssionisric way, sorne of rhc
significant contemporary characrcnsr ics of Brazl as a Repu blic ami
ro show how t hcse c haract eristics have bcen rhe resu lt o f a series of
rransitions: (mili a purely colonial soc iety. th rough stagcs w hich
could be callcd pre-narionat and narional, ro t he country's presenr
srate as a u nifi cd cu ltu re wit h inc rcasingly importanr inre m arional
inreresrs and responsibilties. In thc course of t hese transinons. Hraxil
has beco a colony. a mona rc hy, and a democratic Rcpublic. without
having cntircly losr ccrrain cultural characrerisrics from each of irs
prcviou s stages. As a Republic. ir has ncver ceased ro show vesrigcs
of ts monarchica! pcriod. panicularl y in irs spcradic rcacrio ns
againsr whar sorne polircalleaders-c-and thcir mo rc or lcss scholarly
advisers-cconsider to be excessivc manifesterions of cccnormc and
polirical liberalism, of sratcs righrs in opposition ro narional uniry.
and of partisau polirics in co nfi icr wirh national intercst .
x i ji
Xl'L' Preiace 10 tbe Ellglish-Langu<1gc Ed tion

This book IS thc rhird of a series . At rhc same t ime, It IS an autono-

r nous work. T he fi rst volumc in rhe series, which bcars rhe Portu-
gucsc tirle Cesa-Grmde & SenZt11,1 (publishcd in En glish by Alfr cd
A. Kno pf Inc. as Tb e Jlasters and the Sl,1'l:es) , deals wirh rhe colo-
nial beginnings of Hrazi l as a prcdominanrly rhough nor exclusivelv
Europc an patriarchal society in Tro pical ami subtropical Arncrica.
Ir dcals also with some of rhe pCrTlMnent h isrorical t raits o f rhis ty pe
o f socicty. rhc most characrcrisric and cndurinp clemems which
havc marked Hrazil sincc colonial t imes as an csscnrially lberian-
Carholic system o f co-cxisrencc and as a composire Eu ropcan -
tropic al cu lture.
T he second volume, Sobrados e sucambos (publishcd by Knopf
under rhe t itlc T he Jla llsiollS and the Sbsntesv. deals wit h rhc samc
subjcct in its dcvelopmem in social, rather than chronolcgical. se-
(IUCtlCC ; irs verying ramificaticns in differenr r('gions wirhin rhc
gene ral tcn dcncy roward urbaniz arion or " rurba nization't-c-a com-
bination of ru ral and urhnn patteros-sccn t hroughout t hc enri rc
narren.
The prcsem book, the rhird of rhe series, attempts a furrher ,
d ceper analysis of rhe de cline of rhc patria rehal sys tem which has
bc cn-c-and ro some cxrcnr Mili is-the basis uf rhc Brazilian soc ial
structurc and une of t hc rnosr c haracrcr isric cxpressions of its na-
nonal culture. Ir rrcars that system in irs firsr. or orthodox . ph asc as
a prcdomin anrly ru ral phcnomcno, when rhere was a close conncc-
non bcrween soc ial bc havior and Carholic rcligious l.clicfs. and con-
rinues t hrough irs second half-urhanizcd . less onhodoxly patria-chal
period ro rhc rbird stage as an increasingty urban, industrial, secu lar,
liberal insn rurion incorporaring borh free labor and the separanon
o f Church and Sute.
Ahhough I havc placcd chronolopical Iirmts on rhis th ird volumc
nnd han atrcmptcd ro tcnuinate ir wit h rhc end o f the Firs r \ Vorld
\ Var- in which Brazil ver)' signifi cam ly parncipatcd-cmy aware-
ncss of time as a d v namic allv soc ial rat hcr than convenrionallj'
chronological phcnomcnon is suc h rbar rhc rcadc r will find nu-
merous rcfercnccs ro past pcriods, as well as projcctions into more
cootem po rar), rimes. T his vo lullIe, indeed, cou ld ser\"e as a sort of
iotrod ucli on ro preseot-da)' Brazil, and particu lar l)' 10 its social situ-
at ion. For rhe nation roda)' is still fac ing problems w hic h havc their
roots in the rather un popnlar rep lacemem o f a half-patri:uchal,
 Preiace to (be E I/f!. /ish-Lal1f!.ul1f!.. e Eduion sv
patemalistic, an d in sorne aspccrs undemocraric mona rchical rcgime
by an cxot ic, fr arc rna fisric. fcde ra lisr Republic copicd fro m the
Urnrcd Sr ares. In irs fi rsr sragc. rhis new reg im e was radically anti-
par riarchah nfrer a fcw years of such radicalism ir bcc am c half-
parriarchal. Bur it was not unril Get lio \'arg as bccarnc President in
1930 rhar ir was able to dea l wir h any effcctvc ncs s wit h [h e diffi-
culries rhar had ariscn fr om the suddcn rransit ion from monarc hy to
Republic and from slavery to free labo r.
V argas m ay be considerad a son of b ridge bcr wcen tWQ cpochs in
Brazi lian dcvelopmc nr. A lthough fo rmalty rcp ublican, if nor enrirely
legal or regula r, Vargcs's prcsidcncy, espccially bctwcen 1937 and
1946, was somewhat mo narchical in irs sociological cxpression (more
monarc hical, in some respects, rhan p rcccding Brazi lian Prcsidenrs
had evcr dared ro be ) . Ile was fra nk tv aut horita rian, bur bcing also
a verv asture politician he dsgused h is aurhori rarianism by assuming
rhc addirional role of a smiling populist an d a champion o labo r and
the com m on pcople agai nst thc inrcrcsrs of rh c bourgeois. And he
adoptcd a narionalisr posture nvcr and aboye rhe narrow, particu lar
intercsrs o f individ ual srarcs, espcciallv such cconomically ami po-
hrically po w erful stares as Sao P au lo. Ir was d uring Va rgas's long,
aurhoritarian. and, for SOTl\e t im e, dictato rial ru le tha r Sao Paulo, as
a srarc, and coffee, as an Im perial ex pon and the hasis o f a polirical-
cconomic oligarc hy. ccascd ro he [he rwo mosr imporrant fo rces in
t he R epublic.
Fro m t 889 ro 19 30 rh c rnost cflccrivc Prcsidcnrs of (he Brazilian
Republic were polincians rorn Sao Paulo-Prudenre de ,\ lo raes,
Ca mpos Sa les, Rod rigues A h-es, \ \'ashington Lu s-g iving w eight ro
rhc Ireq uemly heard srarem ent rhar Sao Paulo, wirh its powerful
coffcc inte rcsts and its prccocious industrial prugress, was the loco-
motive polling rh c [wemy more or less empty boxcars represennng
t he orhcr Brazilia n srarcs. Still, dcspire irs dominanng im age of dy-
namism, srability, order. an d sccunry, ir was in Sao Paulo that dis-
order broke out in 1924 ro contine spasmod ically rh roughour the
dccade. T his w as an un pleasam surprise to tllOSt Brazilians who, al-
though acc ustomed to sma ll outbreaks o f d isorJer in other parts o f
the counr ry, did nor expect t hese rhings to happen in such relati\'ely
prospe rous st ates as Sao Paldo or .\t inas G era is. It was ar t his period
that a d isting uished go\"Crnor of t he sta te o f "'f in as Gera i.;- Joao
P inheiro- said, with great emphasis, t hat t he peop le of his 5rate
shared a speci al pri de in ha\'ing "a dee p sense of orJer" (U1J1 /{rl1't'e
X't'J Preiace to tb e ';l1g1ish-l.allgua.i!,e Edit o n

senso de Ordem ). T bey mighr lovc progress--though nor as rnuch

as rhc rypical Paulista-c-bur rbey did not va lu ptogress wit hout
order. For them, ordcr was cssenrial.
O rder wa s csscnrial also for rh c polirical group rhar from rhc cari y
days of rhc dlR9 Rcpublic ro 1930 domina rcd rhc sratc o Rc
G rande do Sul-m en parricularly inuen ced by the politiea l o r
soci al posirivist ic pbilosop hy of A ugusto COlme. rhc French sociolo-
gise. Ir w as from this group tha t G erlio V argJs rose to be a national
polincal lcad er who would also disringuish himsclf as a bcliever in
progress subordinated to order. H e was to c hampion t hc cause o f
thc prclcrariae and rhc laborer. whose "inrcgrarion in ro modero so-
cicry" was a principie of rhc pre-Marxsr philosophy. But rhe
Brazilian Positivsts in general. anJ G erlio V argas-a half-Posirivist
- in particular, soughr ro de velop this inrcg rarion by me ans o a
pcaceful rcvolution, led by sratesrncn. governors. ami rhc Presidcnr
himself as a srrong, aurhorirarian, almosr m onarchical poliricalleader
suppon ed by [he common pcople-c-in dircct opposition to libe rals
of various ty pcs in polirics, ou rn alism, and cspccially to inre llecruals.
Ir is rhercforc inrercsting ro note thar, not only during rhc Empire
- w hen D om Ped ro 11 was himsclf an inrellccrual, a schola r, a friend
of l\ gassiz. an enr husiast of Vicror I t ugo. and an ad rnire r of Lo ng-
fellow -c-bu r also during rhc Ib:H9 Repu blic. rhc V argas prcsidcncy.
and thc subsequcm pcriods of Brazilian de vcloprnenr, inrellccruals
have in facr played a nor nsigni ficar n role. Some wcrc statesrncn.
d tplcmats. and poliricians, orhcrs werc jc um alisrs. wrircrs. and
sociolopisrs, preoccupied in their books or ameles wirh narional
problems. Presid en r Epinicio Pcssoa (1918-21 ) was a ju rist, an ora-
ror, and a scholar. Presidenr W ashington Lus Pcreira de Sousa
( 1926-3) was also a scholar: a historian. G etli lio V argas as a y ou ng
ma n in R o G rande do Sul was a [ournalist and disciplc or cnrbusiasr
not onlv
of Comte bur of Zo la; and later, when Prcsidenr of Brazil
was madc a member o thc Rrazilian Academy of Letrcrs. Barc n do
R o Bra nco, for rwelve y ears Secrerary of State in t he 18R9 Repu b-
lic- though a mona rchist and an arstocrat-was a historian and
geographer, a sc holar of inr em at ional reputation . Pandi Cal6geras
- a Brazilian of Greek origin-was a brillianr scholar and, t ho ugh a
civlian, was maje Secretar)' of D cfense during t he "firsr Rc public "
(an u nllsua l thing in Brazil). In this post he was responsible for rhe
begi nning of a son of inte!lecrualizat ion of rhe Brazilian Arrny undcr
certain disringuishcd French A rIO)' offic ers. Lauro ,\ h iller. a Brazilian
 Preiace ro tbe Engl sb-Language Editon X'L'tl

o German origin who was Sccrcrary of Srare during rhe V enccslau

Brs presidency. was ancrher intellectual-c-if not a sysrematic
scholar. H e too was clccred to t he Brazilian Academy of Leners.
A n imirarion o f rhe faruous F rene n Academy. rhc Brazilian Acad-
emy w as fcunded at rhc end of th c nincrccnth cemury. As a mancr
of po licy, ie has always elccrcd reprcscnrarive men, nor espccially
mcn of lcn ers bur, in a broad scnse, intcllcctuals ami even mcn of
acrion. liaron j accguay, a disringuishcd admiral. Archbshop Dom
Slvrio. a dark-skinncd N egro n orcd as a rcligious leader, educa tor,
and mysric, as well as fol' rhe classically correct srylc o f h is sennons
nnd ma nifestoes; Santos Dumonr, rhc inve ntor; O r vio ,\ 1angabeira,
a brillianr orator and polirician, for sa ine t ime Sccrcrary o Srare
an d, later, governor o t he starc of Babia , Osvaldo Cruz, a medica!
docror, famous for his successfu l campaign again st y ellow fevcr in
Rio de Janciro.
j oaquim Nabuco, R uy Harbosa, and Oliveira Lima wcre all in-
rellectuals fam ous for rheir activirics in pcliticallife and diplornacy
from rhc lasr y ears of the mcnarc hy until th c fi rst dccades of rhe
Re public. At presem , or in reccnt ycars. intellecruals likc Lus Viena
Filh o, now govem or of rhe state of Babia, Anhu r Reis, g(wernor
o thc statc of Baha; G ilberro Amado, a Scnaror and , larer, Ambas-
sador , Carlos Laccrda, gon rnor of the srarc o f Guanabara, .\lunhoz
da Rocha, gO\'ernor of rhe statc of Paran: l lcrm es Lima, Secrctary
of Srare , Lourival Fonres, rhc minenoc grise o f Vargas; A fonso
A rinos de ,\ tello Franco, Sccretarv o f Stare-c-to mcnrion only a few
-are or were (Fonres is now dead ) active in public life. Some of
rhesc mcn w ere nored for iniriarives rhat mere politicians would
ne ver have rakcn unlcss inspi red by inrellccrual minences Wises.
Suc h minences grises have not becn cnrirely abscnr from Brazilian
public life during the last half-ccnrury. But rhc oursranding facr is
rhar in fcw orhcr modern coumrics have inrellccrunls played such
an imports nt role as in Brazil. Evcn t he recenr rise. from rhe cnd of
t he Vargas regime to 1 9 6~. of demagogic mcthods o f rhe mos[ vul-
gar variety and o f political power back ed by prinre mone)' has nm
pre \"cmed imellectllals- rhough on a decreasing seale- from bccom ~
ing po lirically active in BraziL
In ad d irion. Bralil is a cmmrry where books written by im cllec-
ruals h a\'e had a considerable inf1 ucnce, not on ly cultural bUf of a
concrete po lirical kind. Jos de A lencar, a novelisr and polirician in
Imperial times. along wit h rhe poer Gon~ah'cs D ias comributed t
X'L1tt Preace to tbe Rllg1isb-Lmguage Edition

thc dcvclopment of narionalism in polines as wcll as litcrarurc.

Can,tJ, rhe novel by Graca Aranha. was publishcd at the bcginning
o rhis ce ntu ry aud aroc scd considerable polirical interesr among
Brazilians in rhe problcms raiscd by Ecropcan immigrarion. O s Ser-
toes, rhc monumental scmi-hisrorical work by Euclyd es da Cunha,
arouscd both lircrary admiraeion for irs aurhor and political awa re-
ncss of the p roblcm it rreated : the segrcga tion o f rustic populations
and arc haic cultures o f the serr es from rhe civilized populaticns
nnd cultures o f rhc Arlanric coast. Mo re reccnrly, another writer,
Montcirc Lobato , through t he lircrary vigor and econornic and po -
lirical sgn ificancc o f bis championing a purely Hraxilian pctrclcum
indusrry, aroused a nationalisric movement so imporranr rhar irs in-
fl uence is still ver)' much alive polincally and has even gaucd the
interese of ilhrerare Hrazilians.
T his ext cnsion o lircraey ideas ro nonlircrarv or cven illiccrarc
Brazilians is no t rarc in Brazilian hisrory. For exsmple, [ oaquim
Nabuco, as an abolirionist write r, becamc so popular as ro be con-
sidercd almosr a fol k hero. The sarne th ing ha ppencd wi th thc glo ri-
fi carion of Amcrindians by Jos de Alencar in sorne of his nov cls.
Reccnt ly. rhere has been a sim ilar prcjccrion : somc of rhc verses
written fo r popular music by so phisticated and sc holarly poets likc
Manu el Band cira, V inicius de Moracs . and Francisco Buarque de
H oland a have become cxtremcly po pular and have cven reachcd
rhc Unired SU res.
A contrar)' rendency has also bcccmc not iceab le in Bra zil dllring
rhe past three dccadcs. Fo lklore ; popular rustic concepts; N egro and
Indian songs. m usic, tales, and bclicfs: all have hccomc " Bra...ilian-
ized" t hrough t he use of rhis lively, vital, almosr virg in material by
sophisricaecd or schclarly w riters, poets. composers, painters, sculp-
rors. and archirccrs. The outsranding examplc of rhis sorr of accul-
turarion is rhe greac composcr t hc late l ieiror Villa-Lobos. accla ime d
in Europc as wel l as in the United Sutes as ene of rhe mosr o riginal
composers of our time. Though bold ly rnodemisric, much of his in-
spiraton was ta ken from Brazilia n fol k lore or from N egro, Indian,
amlmestifo sou rces (rhe mre lud ian nr th e p ure N egro are. in mod -
ern Brazil, ext rcrnely rarc both as racially seg regated grollps and
cr hnically seg regated cultures) . .l festico e(hnical types and mestiro
c ultural expressiolls are pe rhallS more abund.mt in modero Brazil
rhan in any other countr)'. T hey are no"," rep resented consciously in
(he son o f art and literature Brazilians are proud to ack nowledge as
 Preiace lo tbc Ellg1irb l.anguage Edition XIX

an cxp rcssion o f rheir charactcristicalty m ixed European. Amerin-

dian. and X egro narionat cu ltu re. This is happcn ing not c nly in are
and lite ratu re o f t he rnosr disringuishcd kind bur also in t he mino r
arts: cockery, for examplc.
In the last four dccadcs. rheir narional cuisinc has becom e a rnart cr
of open pride. ncr sccret delight, fo r Brazilians. Fifty y ears ago mcst
sophisticarcd Brazilians werc ashamed uf rhcir very Brazilian fei-
joada, of such A fro-Braxilim cu linarv masrcrpicces as cam ru and
'oaulp., o f rheir manioc fl our and t hcir rusric and indigcnous fruirs,
some o f which are ideal--cajll, m.lTacaj, pitanga, genipapo or
goiaba- for refreshing drinks. dcsscrrs. juiccs. syeups, wines. and
p reserves. Hrazilian goiaha ( guava) peeserve. like the feijoada, was
unril half a cenmry ago a pu rely d omesric, in forma l d cssen rhar mosr
Brazilians would nor dare ro includc in planning a "rcally nice din-
ncr," espccially if a disringuishcd foreign er had bccn invircd. N ow
ir is an ciegam nar io nal dcsscn which Brazrlians have ceased ro be
ashamed to include in forma l di nners, serving it with checsc-c-nor a
C0ll11110n practico in Euro pc bur standard in Brazil. Even sorne Bra-
zilian A rnbassadors in En ropc an d thc U nired Statcs d o not now
hesitare re invite disringuished Eu ropcans or X orrh Americana for a
[eijoeda or to olfer thcm guava paste wirh c heese for dcsscrr. The
une-rime A mbassador [O t hc Courr of Sr. J ames, Assis Chatcaubri-
and, cve n wenr so far as tu serve a d esserr o f rapadura (a small brick
of bro wn sugar m uch uscd by rusric Brazilians of rhe norrhcasrcm
interior) . Bur rogcther with this rapadu ra, the A mbassador rook spe -
cial pridc in including pineapple ami ot her northcastern tro pical
fruits farnous fo r rhcir fl avor and perfume, havin g them Ro w n es-
pcciallj- fo r rhc oecasion . O rhcr Ambassadors ma)' nor gc as far as
C harcau briand in adoptinp rhe Brazilian cuisine for offi cal fu nc-
tion s; bur in rccenr years t here h;1S bc en a decided rnovc toward t he
inclusin of more narional dishes in Braxilian enrertainmenr ah road .
In rhe last half-century Brazilians. ha\'ing expanded thd r con ~
tacts w ith Eutope- in add ition tu P aris- and wirh t he U nited Srates,
J apan. Spanish A mcric:l. and e\'en parts o{ A {rica, ha\'c sim ul-
raneously maim aincd ami in sollle ways even increased rhei r Bra-
zilianne:;s. 1\ n exam p le o{ rhis is rhe incrcased p ride that Bra7.ilians
are n ow taking in their Carn:lval in R o ami Reei fe: a carni\'al rhat
-replete wit h A{rican :lnd Amerindian orgiasric s\lfvivals in ies
dances, masks, d ccorario ns, ami music-had be en a source o{ sharne
to p roper Brazilians rwo generat ions ago . They fel t t har sueh
xx Preiace to the Englisb-Language Edit on

sensual d ances and lurbarian omarncrus could c nly appear disgusr-

ing to puritanical Xorrh Ame ricans. hypoc ritical Britons, and
pcdaruic Frenc hmen or G crrnans. Xow, ir is this very P uriranism-
rcprcscnted by the Norrh American and E uro pean bcurgcos ci vi-
lizarion prior 10 rhc Sccond \Vorld \Var-r hat is in d isfavor, whilc
rhc spir ir of t hc Dionysiac Brazil ian Carnaval rid es high. lndccd.
anri-Puriran arn ru dcs are so widcspread-ccvcn among the Brirish-;
rhar sucb orgiasric elcmcnts in rhe Brazilian Ca rna val are bccoming,
in com parison. mode rare and cvcn Apollonean.
T be Dionysiac elcmcnts in Brazilian culture, as in orher con -
remporary narional cu lt ures, have tended in rhc lasr thirry or fc n y
years ro become prcdominant. rhar is, ro bccome more fre cly ex-
prcssive . T his sccms to acc ou nt fo r certai n romanric and, ar rhe
samc rime, n aruralistic cxplosions in Brazilian com em po rary lit-
eraturc. in Brazilian forms o f rhc plaseic arts, in th e rhearre. ehe
cinema, in sexual mo raliry, and in att itu des toward religio n. In re-
cene y ears, re1igion in Brazil has bccome higbly secularized and
rario nalized . " G od is dcad " Chrisrianiry is fi n ding adbcrenrs even
among ccrtain Brazilian clergymen: ordinarily tit e same e nes who
are revohing. ncr o nly againsr rheology, bur also againsr celibacy,
traditional Iiturgy, and clerical drcss. \ Vhar is hap pcn ing , as a result
o f rhis so-calleo "progressive" secular artirude in the mosr pop ulo us
Carholic cotlmry in t he world, is t hat large nu mbe rs of t he n arion's
popularon are abandoning Carhohcism in order ro become evangeli-
cal P rotesranrs, spiriru alists. A fro-Brazilian animists, or a weird com-
binati on o f anim isr-C hrisrians. Despire rhese revolutionary shieings,
Brazilians cont inue ro be a deeply religious pcople, arrracred by rhe
mystcrics of spiritual fairh and morivatcd by a mysrical rcspecr fo r
whar thcy considcr sacrcd vales o r traditions, lf sorne members of
the Roman Catho lic clergy dcny ro rradir icnally Carhclic rustic
Hrazilians rhe sans facrio n of rheir relig ious incli nations, rhc reacnon
of such Brazilians is nor ro ccasc bcing rc!ig ious, bu r rarhe r t o ceasc
being Carholic.
Thc mosr lucid conremporarr Carholic leaders in Brazil- Gus-
ravo Corco among rhe Iayrne n; Doro O sear, Bishop o f J\ 1ariana;
rhe Archbishop ( now Cardinal) of Prro A legre ; and the Arch-
bisho p Card inal of Sao Paul o--are now o pposin g thc excesses of
" p rog rcssive" secular ists. Recently, the offi cial n ewspa pcr of th e
archdiocesc of ,\ Iariana admitted rhat so-called " folk- lo re Cathol-
IClsm" (considered so inferior by Catholics of the " progressivc,"
 Preiace 10 tbe Ellglisb-t llllgl/l1ge Ed tion XXI

"rarionalisr.' ano "scculansr'' type) is a legitimare form of Carholic

wcrship. Cerr ain radical cle rgymcu . w hos e ide nrificat ion w irh thc
Cornmunists is rcgardcd by some obscrve rs as nor onl y apparenr bue
real, claim ro srrivc fo r rhe "intellectualiz ation ." "modcmization,"
even "secula rizan o n" o f C at holicism . Bur ir has been nored by en ries
o the C erbolic crisis in Brazil r hat. fo r t hcsc "rarionalists, ' "inrcllcc-
rualizarion " is a purely logical, srricrly Ca rtesiano process rather rhan
[h e P aseaban varicty, which admits thc "rcasons o f rhc H cart" t hnt
"Reason does ncr undersrand."
Ir sccms to sorn e analysrs o f rhe Hrazilian erhos and Hrazilian in-
rellec ru al and social hisrory thar rhcre cxisrs an im cllcc eualism
fl exible enough ro em brace P asc al, \ Villiam J ames. Bergson. and
more rcccntly G abriel M arccl ( w ho has lectu rcd in Brazit and w ho
probabl y has more admirc rs rhere rhan Teilhard de C hard in); and
rhar Brazilian rhoug hr has long be en flex ible cnough tu allow for
e1emenrs uf rhe ncnrarional in irs cxaminarion of human and cultu ral
rclationships. In deed, rhc concepr o f a Carholicism wi rhour G od
and wirhour C hrisr. as desired by conrcm po ra ry " p rog ressives" of
rhe mosr radical ty pe, sho nld nor be conside rcd in an)' w ay a nov-
elry in a coumr)' wherc, since rhc ruiddlc o f [he ni ncreenr h ccmur)'.
Comrea n P ositivism has arrained such grear in ue ncc in inrcllecru al
circles. ,\ Iorc rhan a cenrury bcfo rc prcsent-d ay " p rogressives'' en-
gaged in rhe rask of sccula rixing and ra rionalizing Catholicisrn in
Brazil, a similar anem pr was ma dc by a small but sys rcmatic g ro u p
of Ccmrean P cs irivisrs who wcnr so far as 10 b uild, in Ro, a " Tem-
ple o f Huma ni ty," where a sort o f cthical. logical im irario n of re-
ligion was pracriccd with a minim um of religious ritu al. T cixeira
,\ t cndes. a marhcmarician and a man nored [or his hourgeois virrucs,
J officia rcd in t he sermons as main pr iest o f the T em ple d rcsscd in a
g reen go wn. And C l rild e de Vaux . che woman whom A ugusrc
Comre ccnsidercd his inspirarion and for whom he is said to bave
felr a somewhar p latonic le ve, oc cupicd a place similar ro t har which
in Carholic chu rc hes was g iven ro t he V irgin Xlary . T his logical.
racional. erhical subsrirure fo r Carhol icism. limired afre r a fe w ycars
o f activiry ro a small g roup of ad here nts. has now become a mere
cu riosiry and even an objccr o f mild p leasanrry for Bra lians-
wherher im ellectuals or no.
Ir may be said o f Brazilian im ellectuals rhat their pred ominanr-
rhoug h not exelusive- rendenc)' since pre-narional days has bcen ro
a1low for nonlogical clemem s in t heir analysis and im erprer;lrion of
XXII Preiace ro tbe Engtisb-Language Edition

social siruarions. This tend encv was charactcrisric of Jos Bonif cio
de Andrada e Silva. rhar rcrnarkable scholar. pocr, and scientist who
sparkcd thc rnove roward political ind cpendencc ar the beginning
of t he nincreenrh centu ry. If J os Bonif cio had becn srricrly a
rationalisr in 1 Hn . he would have worked for rhe establishment of
an indcpcndcnt Brazilian Republic, climinatin g a11 rhc illogical rnyt h-
clogy and ritual of a rn onarchy. l lowevcr, chis man o f acrion real -
izcd from rhc ourscr rhat such myt hs and rires had an incradcablc
place in rbc airead )' dcvclopc d Brazilian crhos and should be allowed
ro conrin uc in a free and indcpcndcn r lirazil.
Jos Honif cio de Andrada e Silva's polirical and social philosophy
may be considered rypical o f wha t has sincc his time developcd inro
an inrellccrual fc undation fo r most- if not all-c-of the solun ons t hat
Brazilians have fou nd, and continuc ro fi n d. Ior rheir nacional prob-
lems. H e also seems to have bcen the firsr ro con ncct in tellecruals
with political and national activirics in Hraz.il. Larer inrcllecruals of
Ru y Barbos a's type. however, did not n cccssarily confo rtn ro the
model of Jos Honifcio. Barboso. rhoug h b rlis nr and sc holarly,
was too rhcrorical as wel l as too mnch of a ju rist an d a gram-
marian ro avoid fo rmalism in his dcaling wirh practical problems.
Bur J os Bonif cio has bcen the proto type o f th c intcllecrual as man
of action, as staresrnan or politicia n. and as such. he has had a suc-
cession o f followcrs whose bchavior has bcen in sha rp con rrast to
Spanish-Amcrica n and cven An g lo~ATll eri can inrellccruals o [he
rath er abstraer typc whc, if involved in active polines. are inclined
to he srrictly logical or rarional in rheir altitudes. .\ fen like Halrhazar
Brum in U ruguay. rhe G arca Calderns in Peru, Estanislau Zeballcs
in Argent ina. J os Vasccncelos in ,\ lexico, and W oodrow \ Vilson
and Adlai Srevenso n in the U nitcd Srares all secm to heve been too
intellcctual for their polirical positions and, conseq uendy. to havc
failed in their polirica l carcers. In Brazil, o inrellccruals like the V is-
counr do Rio Branco in [he Empirc. and his son, Baron do Rio
Branco, in rhc IllH9 Republic; o f the t wo Nabucos-c- Jos T homaz,
th e famous jurisr and sta tesman of the Dom Ped ro era, and Jo aq uim,
rhe g reat abolitionist. polit ical leadcr. and later Amb assador to t he
United Statcs; of Baron de PeneJo, Amaro Ca \'alcame . David Cam~
pista. Epiteio Pessoa, PanJi Calgeras, and Barbosa Lima. it may.
perhaps. be said that they were eith er rclat ivcly or complerely s u c~
eessfu l. in their political careers. The)' fo llo\\' rhe J os Bonifcio
model in not being ovc rlogical or rat ional in handling problems t hat
invol\'c ccrtain irt ational or illogical considcrations.
 Preface to the Engisb-Language Edition IXIIJ

In rhc pase half-cenmry. Hrazilians ha ve generally adopred the

Bonif cic approach in faci ng rheir na rion al and int emaricnal prob-
lems. and thc rcsulrs Ola)' be said tu indicare a blcnd of rcason and
emorion. T he "Valorizanon P lan " of sorne dcc ades ago for sup po n-
ing co ffce priccs is an examplc in point. Logical, scient ific econo-
mists, likc Lineoln Gordon, are right in conside ring rhis plan as
economic hcrcsy. But sueh hcrcsy was for sorne time highly useful
ro Brazil, indced, so prcnounccd was irs vale thar a n umber of orhcr
narions adopred it for the " protecric n" of produces c rher than
coffce.
(Jr her "hcresics'' of a similar kind , with rheir positivo as wcll as
negarivc aspccts, have been perperrated by Brazilian politicat inrel-
lcct uals. T he so-called " Estado Nvo ." a sc hem c fashicned for Ge-
rlic V argas by ehc scholarly jurisr Francisco Campos, is anorhcr ex-
ample. And in 1964 and 1968, drasr c changes in t he political system
of rhe coumry havc rcduccd sorne liberal electoral aspeCTS in favor
of more pragmarc aurhorirarian procede res without abolishing
whar has always bccn an csscnt ially der nocraric rcnde ncy roward
social and polirical fl exibiliry. This srylc of dem ocracy is ccrrainly
nor t hc exact equivalcnr o f rhc Bri tish, Swiss. Scandinavian, North
American, or Soviet Russian tr pe s of dcmocracy , bur is rhere, in
rhc modero world, a purcly ort hodox ty pe of dcmocracy ? Prescnr-
da)' Brazil, with irs grcat region al, eccnomic, and social varicty, is
simply trying ro develop a style of political democracy suited ro its
own needs.
This brings us to an iruport ant point abour Brazilian devclopmcnt
in rhe lase twent y yeaes : ncmely, rhc in ucncc of th e Brazilian \Var
Collegc ( Escola Superior de G uerra ) , an inad equ arely named center
of mi lirary grad uare srudics of highly inrcllecrual objectivity. Ir is
dcubrful wherhcr. wirh rhc possible exccprions of rhe Colegio de
M xico in Mexico and rbe Atencu in Argentina, rhere are an)' orher
inrellccrual ccntcrs in Larin Amenca so cffectivcly dedicarcd ro thc
inrerdisciplinary srudy of nanonal and international prcblcms. For
the past twcnty years, such problcms hav c bcen carefully srudicd in
rhis co llegc not only by militar)' me o hut also by c ivilians: po litical
and industrial leadcrs, cducarors, economists, sociologists, n aru ral
scientisrs, writers, and journalisrs. If Brazil, hoth as mon archy and
Republic. has rrad itionally a\'oide d any inclination rowa rd militar-
ism of t he Caudillist type, this tend ency has bcen furth er strength-
encd in the past twemy y ears by thc combincd ci vilian and military
st udy of domestic and intematonal prob lems.
xxiv Preece to tbe Engiisb-Language Ed t on

For ir is a facr rhat, during rh c mon archy an d carl v Republic,

pracrical, rcalisric knowledgc of narion al and inremanonal p roblems
by poliricalleaders was confined ro a fe", scbclarly staresmcn, such
as th e Viscourn do Rio Branco. ,\ l ost ot her imellectuals active in
po lirics and rhc adminis rrarion wcre cxccssivcly acadcruic. abstraer,
inrellecmal. This w as cspccially true of g raduares of rhc schools of
ju ridical and social scicnccs, whcrc th e reaching itseH becaruc more
abstraer, book ish. thco rcrical. and exotic, so t har "const irutionalists"
wcre far betrcr acquainrcd wirh books in E nglish about the Con-
stirurion o f rhc United Sutes as a juridic al mastcrpiccc (for thc
Unired Statcs ) or with rnasrerfu l cssays like Bagchor's on Brirish
polirical instrurions adaprcd ro specifically Hrirish ccndirions than
thcy w ere wit h concrete. peculiarly Hrazilian social rcalitics.
lr is prccisely as a correcrive tu rhis rendency rhar rhe \ \'ar Col-
lege has pre ved so uscful. \ Virh irs ncw approac h. bo rh inrellec rual
and precrical, ro spccifically Hrazilian prohlcms, it avoids mihrarisric
bias and refutes rhe archaic conccpr of r niliea ry mcn as rhc natu ral
oppon ents o f civilians in rheir altitudes rnward prob lcms o f hum an
dcvelopmenr.
H cwever. it would he incorrecr ro say rhar rhc \Var C ollege has
bcen rhc only insrirurion ccnrriburing ro for m a ncw ty pe of lcader
in Brazil: leaders who, rraincd ro poliric al leadcrship ami diplomaric
acron . are also particu larlv awa rc nor only of n atural and cconor uic
conditions bur also of rhc att itu dcs ami social c haracrcrisrics peculiar
ro rbcir cOllntry. This movcmcn r to ward objccnve and dircct
srudy o f Brazilian problcms and cu ltu ral c haracreristics has hecn
increasingiy sercngrhened. since rhc 19 20' S. by che establishme nt o f
addirional institurions. Thc Unive rsity o f Sao Pau1a , with its not ab le
grou p of F rench geog rapbers and soc ial scie nrisrs imponed tn reach
in rhe facul ry o f philosophy. is onc such exar nple; o r rhc Schoo l o f
Soc iology and Politics, also in Sao Pau!o. in which foreign socia l
sc icnrists-c-Americans from rhc Unir cd Srarcs-c-rcnch the social sci-
cnccs ro young Brazilians by new method s ami direcr rhcir cffo n s
roward rhc examination o f BraJian social problcms; nr the Univcr-
siry o f rhe Federal Disrrict. cstablished by Professor An sio T eixeir a
-a Brazilian disciple of John Dewcy at l ,olumbia-as a pionecr
uni\'ers iry. wherc perhaps an eve n grearer emphasis wa." put on an 4

rhropological. sociolog ieal, gcog raphicai. and histo rieal srud ics. Ir
was at [his university rhar social and cultural anrh ro po logy was fi rsr
stu dicd in Brazil. w hen specifi c Brazilian problcms were co nside red
 Preoce to tbe RIlfl,lisb-LallJ!,lIage Edtion .rrv

nor on ly in this deparrm enr bur also in rhat of sociology-,-a subject

rhar wns firsr taught in Hrazil in rhc Normal School of the srate of
Pernambuco in 1928.
Can ir be said that in eontemporary Brazil there is a more con-
scious rnovemenr 10 adupr rh c instit uric ns an d fonns of soc ial and
cultural exprcssion ro rhc essenrial elemcnts of thc nat ional charac-
ter? Perhaps so. Thc beginning o a svsremanc sca rch Ior Bra-
zilianness ( HrJsilciridadc) is rcce nt, d aring from rhc modcmisr move-
menr, which originatcd in Sito Pauto in 1922 und spread to R io rwo
ycars larcr, nn d from the rcgionalist and rradirionalisr (and, in irs
own way, modcmist) movcmcne in Rccifc ( '924) , which gave us
rhc first modern teaehing of soei ology an d soc ial rcscarch (192 7)
and launc hcd t hc Firsr Co ngress for the Study o Afro-Brazilian
subjects (1934) . H ow evc r. rhc less svsrcmaric predecessors of rhosc
modcrn dcvclcprncnts should not be fo rgoncn. the grow th of In-
dian infl uences in litcrarurc and music during rhc Empire (G on-
calves Dias, Jos de Alcncar. Carlos Comes); t he rathcr arbitrary
scarch for relluric, tradiciona l vales in rhc sert es, rhe drv interior
subrcgions o thc count ry (Euclydcs d a Cunha. Afonso Arinos) ;
rhc study o African survivals in Bahian cultu re ( X ina Rod rigues.
Arrhu r R am os) ; rhc study and protection of Amcnndian culture
( Cou to de Magalhes, C ndido R ondon , Roquetrc-Pinto, H cloiso
Alberto T rrcs}, thc fi rst attempts in t he 1 870'S ro consider non-
European io Ruenees on Brazilian in stiturions with rhe Escola do
R cci fe led by Tobas Barrero, and including such distinguished Bra-
zilians as Sylvio R omero. Clvis Bevilaqu a, ,\ Iart ins J nio r, Jo aq uim
Nabuco, Capistrano de Abreu, j oo Ribciro, O hveira Lim a. Ed-
uardo Pra do; as well as Al berto T orres. Po nt es de ,\ 1irand a, V icente
L icnio Cerdoso. and Oli veira Vi ana in rbe ficld o social analysis.
Almost all t hese earlier, less systematic seekers of Brasileiridade are
considcrcd in t he course of rhc presem volumc.
This prcfacc has been intcnded ro act as a tem pora ry hur [une-
tional b ridge bctwecn t he Brazil o f rhc late rnonarc hy and early Re-
publie dcscribcd in t he present volume and thc characterisric,
currenr-day Hrazil. T od a)". t hc search contines for rhose cssenr ial
Brazilian elemcnrs thar remain as consrants in an cver-chang-ing

narional sccne. T he d isco" ery and d cfinir ioll o rhese elemcnts giv cs
a sense o permancnce. of :ln enduring bur e\"olving national cul-
tu re. \ Vith t hesc constam s in mind. one m ay cquaU y eOllsider as
nationally Brazilian a se\"em eenth -centu ry sermon by Farhcr An-
rX'Vt Prejace to the Engsb-Language Editon

t nio V ieira and a comemporary poem by Carlos D rummond de

Andrade ; a colonial sculprure by A leijad inho and an ulrra -modern
cboro by rbe carioca V illa-Lobos; t he carly-rwentierh-ccntury
sry le of Euclydes da Cunha's Os Sen es and t he very comemporary
prose srylc of Nelson R odrigues; the Afro-Rra lian dances per
formed hy Brazilians in rhe rime of D cbrcr and rhc Diony siac stylc
o f football b rillianrly cxem plified by Pel (in contrast ro rhc orig-
inally Apollonian sryle of rhis sport imparrcd by rhc British ) .
This prcface has pursued the samc merhod as the rexr of the book
irself in mentioning pcrsonaliries as symbols of significan r social phe-
n omena considcred, hypcrhcrically, characterist ic of rhe dcvelop-
ment o an cnrire socicty. To a conside ra ble extent, Order and
I'rogress was con ceivcd as a somcvrhat ncw experimento differing in
importanr ways from rhar alrcady classic work by William J.
Thornas, T be I'olisb l'easa1lt in Europe md A merice. I bcleve that
from the concrete, existenrial, personal, sornetirncs even confidenrial
material supplied by numerous eyewimesses, it has been possible ro
interpret-an entire body of rnass phenomena.
In dealing wirh a phase of the Braxilian pasr that was nc itbcr roo
remete for first hand recollection nor too immediare fo r objecrive
derachmcnr. 1 felr rnyself, as an alysr and in rcrprcrer, tO be in alm osr
direct conracr w ith sorne of t he evcnts and cultural rendencies men,
rioned in t he n early two hundred dcrailcd testimonies 1 was able ro
collecr. At rhc same time, ncr bcmg t he com empora ry of the men
and WOJ1len who agreed ro write or (whcn illirerare) di ctare rhese
depositions, 1 could feel a reasonahly scicnnfic lack o personal in-
volvcmenr.
T his prcface, however, is wrirren from a pcrspccrivc that diffe rs
from t hat of t he mai n tex r irsclf. H erc, a comemporary is dealing
wirh contelllporary rcprescnrativc personalities and wirh what he
considers representativo cvents and rcnd encies in Brazil, wirhour
feeling himself to be an impartial, impersonal analysr o rhe events
o reccn r dccadcs or of the irnrnediarc presento O( course, ir is doubr-
fu i that such perfecrly objccrive analysts of human bebavior or na-
rional sirunrions cxisr or have evcr exisred anywhere. \Vas Tocque-
villc-whose famous book rernains a lively masrerpiecc-c-a purely
scicmific analyse of rhc Unircd Srares of rus time ? \Vas Samayana
this ideal ohservcr of rhe England he analyzcd in Soliloquies ill Ellg-
ltmd, anot her ma.'iterpicee? Or did rhe Beards atrain t his perfeet sei-
emific neutrality in t heir exeellem srudy of American ( U nited
 Preiace ro tbc F:Jlf{Jisb-Lanf{uage Edit on XX7.:tl

Starcs) civilization. or Fran cisco Careta Caldern in his equally

pcnetraring su n "cy and intcrprerarion of Larin American democ-
racies>
H uman bcha vior differs from animal bcha vior. T his is such a rru-
ism thar ir secms almost ludic rous to have to srarc ir. Yer ir musr be
strcssed that zoologisrs lila}' be pcrfccrly scicnnfic in their smdies
of animals, but that social psycholo gisrs, anrhropolcgists, sociolo-
gisrs. hisrorians. and orher studcnrs o human behavior deal wirh sub-
jecrs which are so u nc errain. so complexo so mltiple in their re-
acric ns and mcrivations that ir is pracrically impossible for an an alysr
of human bchavic r to be totally scicnnfic abour rhcr u and, ar t he
sarnc rime, rcma in hu man. Pcrbaps t he bcsr solurion ro rhis prime
prcblcm is fo r the analysr o f h uman be havior ro resign himself ro
bcing, at bc sr. a scicnrific hurnanisr.

Recite, 1970 G.F.

 N ote 0 11 Mclhod

ORDER ASl) P R(}(RESS is the third VOI Ulll C o the series beg u n with
T be .\fasters .J1IJ tbe Slrces and connnucd with Tbe ,11,m ions snd
tbc Sbmnes. The series witl be complercd by a fourrh volu me tem a-
ticely cntitlcd T ombs and Sbsikn G rat'es. Together. rhis tetralogy
will Iorm a sociological and anthropological int erpretation of rhc
history o Brazi lian parr iarc hal socicey.
"' Ve carcfully analyze rhc prcsent in order bcttcr ro undcrsrand
rhe past and rhus be rrcr ro plan [or rhe furure," wrore V icente
Licno Cardoso in his ess a)' (JO Brazilian authors w hose birrh CO~
incidcd with thc founding o thc Republic.' "-Ir own c rirerion, in
rhe work ar hand, is quite diffcrenr : rhe analysis of a rcccnt period
of rhe Hrazilian pasT in o rde r bcrrcr ro com prehend rhat naron's
p resent and furure. and ar t hc sarue time tu show the fonn s and
p rocesses of rhe rhree periods: rhcir similarities, rhcir resisrancc ro a
progress often more apparent than real, and rhcir occasional differ-
ences, resulting in rhc erosion of insrirun ons once considcred sta ble
and end uring. It will also take inro accounr the variarions in r ancrns
of living which makc ir impossiblc to considcr the Brazi of t he
pcriod as a single unir in a homogeneous srarc of dcvclopment. Thc
Iives of Anttlnio C onselheiro an d R odrigues Alves, for example.
reecred entirely dffereru times and cultures. atholl~h t bcy we re
conrem po rarics and each was exrrcmely impo rtant in his w ay.
The parriarch al soc ierv examincd in rhese four volumcs is sccn as
cssenrially consranr in form bur some whar variable in subsrance .
var iarions which may be reg ardcd as merely chro no logical or hisrori-

1 Vicente Licnio u rdo su: A ,\lilr.l:<'m J iI Hist ri.r JiI R epliblr il ( f ootrlotes 10
tr.e lfislOry o f ,he R epublid (R in de ].neiro, 19 ' 4 ) .

%% 1%
 N ote 0 1l Metbod

ca l rarhcr t han social. \ \ ' har Intereses us more dosel)' hcrc are the
in remal changes wirhin rhc social srructu re, which carne about as a
rcsulr o f thc p rcduminating incq ualirics o f rcgions. classes, raccs, and
cultures. Thus, obscrvarions ma je in the firsr volume of rhis series
are carricd ovcr intc rhc sccond. ami rhose o f rhe sccond pass inro
the prcscnt vclume. This lcads [() a certain arnount of reiteration,
pcrhaps u ndesirable from rhc literary o r aesthenc stand pcint bu t
necessar)' in a study of rhis narurc. For rhc sanie rcason, rhcre is
conside rable flex ibiliry in thc chapter di ... isicns of rhc present \'01-
ume, which attem pts 10 covcr fi fry )'cars of Hrazilian sccicry.
T his sociological introduction ro thc hisrory of Hrazilian patri-
archal sociery has from the ourscr fo lloweJ rhe rhess t har rhc de-
vclopmcnr o f Brazil has seen. nor prog res.~. but rat her a series o f
progrcsscs. Ir has also rak en t he view that Brazil is not une mono-
lirhic socicry . bur rat hcr a variety of social orders joi ned toget hcr
into a narional system. a narion both singu lar ano p lural in its life
and cultu re. Thus while 0 0 une level progre~ can be discerned, on
another we fi nd dsordcr and lack o f unty. The sense of Carholic
order ma nifcsted by D om V ital, Bishop o f O lind a, ar a dramaric
poim in Braziliarr hisrory- mer w it h a sensc of political ordc r of an
ami-cle rica l narure. T he princi pal staresmen of the Empire w ere
rhcre forc aligncd againsr rhe c nhodox c1ergy in an odd antagonisr n
involvng t wo of rhe basic elcmcnts, not only of narion, bur also of
patriarchal socicey. Again. wirhin the Church itsclf, we find Cacho-
[ic pf()gres.~ furthcrcd hy rhe su pprcssicn of cerrain popular riles o f
indubirabl y Africa n origin in an cfforr t o regain an c rrhodcx pu riry.
And in rhc cconomic secto r, agricultural p rogrcs:s is sacrificc d in
fa vor o f a more ra pd ind ust rial adva ncc.
In his classic H mnsn N ature 1111d tbe Social Order, P rofcssor
Charles H orron Coolcy w arns o f rhc d ifficulries of srudyiog a past
era markedlv d ifferent from our own. " ' Ve can scarcelv rid our-
selves of rh~ impression thar the wa)' o f life we are use:i tu is t he
normal ami rhe other ways are eccentric." he sa)'s.3 T hus there is a
ren Jcncy ro consider rhe n inereemh cemur)'. anJ evcn Ihe begin-
nings o f rhe tw entierh. as more picruresque lhan commonplace.
bizarre in its manners. absurd in somc of its customs. In contrast to
[hese o<ldit ies. I calcu late the more "normal" presenr as begin ning, if

2 The .Ulhor ., here rderring !O he h molls ", th ir of he bishnps" in he IH70'S,

when an orth"dux h ni" n in he d crgr . he.<Ied by he bisho!", uf O linda and Pu ,
ried. Wilh p:l. p"'1 ."i,unce. lo for<:e al! memhen of he nvesled .nd lar dergy 10
resign heir membeC'\hip in !he ,\ 1:I., on;c o fders, (T r. nsl. (or.)
:1. Ch.t1es H orton Cooky; Hum.m Na rure ami rbe Social Order (Ne w York.
l \ll l } , p . 7J .
 N ote 011 M etbod XXXI

no t wirh rhe V argas dictarorship o f 1930, at Ieasr w it h rhc post-

Fi rsr \ Vorld W ar rcvoluric nary m ovcmcnts of 1922 and 19 24' that
evcnrually brought rbis dicrarorship inro bcing. These movcr ncnrs.
w hich marked rhe en d o f rhe pcnod of this srudy. werc phenomcna
of an ag e of rransirion in which thc militar)', as a rcspcnsible force
in rhe guida nce of rhc national dcsriny, was decply conccrncd wirh
thc mainrcnance of lcgaliry in the polirical secto r. Bur t his samc
c ham pionship of lcgality can elsc be found in the regim es of D eo-
J oro da Fonscca or Floriano Pcixoro: in the confronting of larer
loc al uprisings such as rhosc of Anr nio Consc1heiro in Canudos, 01
in t he na val rebellion o f j oo C ndido, o r the r niluary nutbreaks in
rhc norrheasr in 19 11. Thc principal figure in t his pscudcr mhrarism
is General Dam as Barrero, whc was t he first to bccome more nored
for his regala as a m embcr of rhe Brazilia n Acadcruy o f L cn crs rhan
for his militarv finery . Ir is sccn roo in ,\ l arshal l lerrn es da Fonscca,
rnodcmizer 01rhc Armcd Forccs in both cquipmcnr and d iscip line,
reforms madc nccessary aftc r t hc exccssivcly civilian prcju diccs of
rhc "philosophical E m pcror" had plunged t he militar)' inro a starc
of decrepirude.
Thc conclusin which emerges from thc rcsrimorw collecred in
preparario n for this study is rhat rhe cquilibriurn of the Fmp ire
could have bcen mainrained had rhc el ite o f the old ordcr man aged
to come ro rcrms wit h rhc ideo logieal demands o f the you ng repub li-
cans for a greater dcvclopmenr in national progress. Tbcsc dcmands
not being met , the Imperial ordcr "vas dcsrroyed ami rhc Rcpublic
bccame a neccssitv. Out a ncccssitv wirhin certain limitations, wirhin
t he fr amcwork indicate'! by the Positivisr mon o o f "Order and
Prog ress." After the abolirion o f slavery on ,\ lay 13, 1888, and the
com ing of t he R ep ublic on N o vcmber t 5, 1889, Brazilia ns bogan to
associare rhemsclves lcss wit h rhe pasr nnd more wirh rhc wcrld of
thcir contemporarics-bm wirhour undergoi ng any radical altera-
tion of rheir ap pearancc. rbeir rnarmcr o f living, or orher ev eryday
li nks wirh rhe ir past.
T h is conclusi n em erges from an cxaminaricn o f well-known
documents. togerh cr wirh new mater ial in rhc form of responses to
qucst ionnai rcs which 1 senr ro Bra lians living bet ween rhe peria d
of rhe enactment !lf rhe Law of rhe Free \\'omb ( 187 1) and the
p resid ency o f V enceslau Brs ( t 91 4-1 8), persons bo m bcrw een
1850 and 19 0 0 , of bot h sexes, of [hree rces and ,,rious combina-

Shurt-lind bU[ dramalic upr i, ing> uf a "lilxc ra}"' chHaC lcr, in which r,ome mili-
car)' otfk crs panicil'alcd, no! as che Arlll}" or Ihc ~a\' }" , bU! a. "liberal. " or llral -
lans w'lh "liberal ideal, ." (T ramlator.)
XXXII N ote 011 M etbod

tions of rhese races, an d of many and div erso cccupanons, social and
intellcct uallcvcls, and rcligious prcferences.
The qucsrionnaires, which werc ,oer)' diffi cult ro asscmble, were
sent ro more than 1,000 Brazlians, sorne closc fricnds, ot hers u n-
known ro me. Sorne had ro be p rotfered orally, sincc rhc persons
inrerrogatcd wcre illiteratc. Xarurally, nor e\'eryone respon ded ro
rhc inqui ry. Orhers otfcred informanon on a srricrty confi denual
basis, confide nces w hich havc bccn scrupulously prcscrved. In all,
nevcnhcless, ncarly 300 usablc rc phes were gathereJ ami Iorm rhc
basis for rhis srudy.
In add nion to the quesrionnaircs, a large number of fresh material
has bcen employcd in t he form of personal documcnrs: letrers, post-
cards, diaries, polirical p ape IS, slave rcgisrcrs. invcnrorics. wills. in-
voices for family purchases (mainly of clothing), family albums,
songbooks, schoolbooks. cookbooks. Thc flavor of the pcricd was
also caughr by exnmining lamps. china, glasswarc, fans, dolis, and
children's toys. Parricu larly inrcresting werc t he Brito A lves collcc,
rion of cigar bands and the R ica rdo Brennan d collecrion of w allers,
eameos, and snu ffboxes from rbe Im pe rial period o
St ill furrher mater ial has been garhered from rhe newspapers o f
rhe time, particularly rhc classiticd advc rrising, rhe obiruaries. wcd-
dings, and anniversary noriccs, a[ong wirh political, cconomic. and
fi nancial ne ws. ll lustrarions, childrcn's sccr ions. and caricatu res we re
also srudicd.
Some itcms on IllY qucstionnairc. apparcntly insignificant, aimcd
at discovc ring arrirudcs and valucs which applicd subtly ro <jues-
rions o f much grearer rnoment-c-rhe use of the walking cane. for
exam ple: an objec r which ac tcd as a pow erfu l sym bo l of masen-
linit y ar [he time. as wel l as o f thc parrician class. Ir ab o suggcstc d
mcrnbership in a superior racc. as d id thc abundanr c urlcd musrachcs
affecred by the same canc-c arry inp gentr)" since neithc r t he A friean
no r rhe Amerind ian race is noted for an abundance of facial hair.
As fo r cthnic aninnles. virtually ever)' person respcnding ro my
quesrior mairc insisred t har he did not fo srer rhe slightesr trace of
racial prejudice. But whcn rhis quesrion was follow ed by one testing
his attirudc toward a hy pothetical marriage betw een one of his chU-
d re n and a person o f darker colo r. the responses were m ost interest-
ing, bot h from rhe anl hropological and t hc psychological vie' v-
points. T hey broug ht liS back more than half a cenmr)' to a period
of Bra7.ilian histor), long gone and ),et srill alive in the very existence
of these w irncsscs . Pcrhaps some of rhese peorle. were rhey srill
alivc today (Ihe qu estionnaires w ere eirculared in rhe 1940'S and
earl)' 1950'S) , wo uld fi nd ir nccessa r)' ro modi fy rheir ethnoccntric
 N ote 0 11 Aetbod XXX III

views in rhe light of rhc marriagc of sorne of thcir c hildren and

grandc hild ren to persons of color, marriages occasioned eit her by
rhc dccadcnce of t he e ne-rime pat rician family or, convcrscly, by
rhc rise in social and economic importance on the part of rhe da rke r
elemenr.
This w ork is an arrem pr ro inrer pret an era sociologicay, am hro-
pologically. and psychologically through a sm dy o f symbols and
values eu rrcm at the rime as wel! as rh rough th c convenrional asscm-
bly of historical facrs. T hc rcsulr is t hcrefore less apure hisrory
rhan an artem pt ro reconsrrucr rhc cssemial social arder existing be-

---_o rween 1870 and 19w t hro ugh irs vale sysrcm, refl ccrcd in ma te rial
things: houscs, money. furn itu re, vehicles, clorhing, jewelry, app li-
anccs, common household objccrs. L< wel l as in sueh Iacrors as politi-
cal and social ideolog ies, norioos o f honor, pamcnsm. race. famly ,
and religi n. The cornhinanon of rhese vales. as acccptcd more or
lcss auromaticalty by rhc majority, o r hy various significant minori-
t ies. consrirures altogcrher the mosr vnlid picture of a narional cul-
tu re.
Sueh val es are, naturally , constanrlv in rransinon, IllJking ir
neeessary for thc invcstgaror ro accept the idea of consrant tra ns-
mutation, ro ec ho rhc words of P ro fessor Earl E . j ohnson," as " a
basic historic al conccpt." bu r at t he same time ro p reserve an awarc-
ness of rhe overall cu ltural panerns and p roc csses within w h ich
these changes rake place. T o study rhis social uidiry more clcscly, ir
is neces.<ary to subordin are t he convcnricnal preoccupation with facr
ro an empat hctic study of t he pasr as a living thing, expressing its
exisrcncc thro ugh a vib rant complcx of valucs and sym bols. Ir is
fo r rhis reason thar P rofcssor J ohoson cncou ragcs his readcrs ro "rry
y our bese to creare a nosralg ia fo r rhc past ":" in orher words. ro
cultivare the anri-sociological " sin" of w hich Bral ian schola rs have
fr eque ntly been accuscd-c-thar of too clase an em otion al identifica-
[ion w irh the period unde r srudy . P rofesso r j ohnson recognizcs the
nccessitv for rhis cl ose idcnri ficarion if w e are ro u nderstand how,
rhrcug h the centurics. t he past has extended intc rhc p resento Pcr-
haps it was preciseIy the conrin uing im pact of these past values and
sym bols whic h t he Pusitivists had in m in d when they stated that
" T he li,-jng are governed by t he dea d."
A stud y o f rhe peri od of Brazilian hisro ry w hich fo llowed rhe
cl ase o f the Paragu ayan \Var and includcd [he )assage o rhe l.aw
of the F ree \ Vomb. the R cpuhlican ,\ 1an ifesro o 1870, lhe a/fair o
~ Earl S. John~n : TbtOTY IInd Prllrtire of tbe Sod lll SruJitl (N ew York, 1955).
p.60.
~ Ibid., p. .f
XXXI't' Note 011 Metbod

the bish ops, thc corning o f rhe R epu blic, the First \"orld \ \'at. and
thc Versaillcs Peace Confcrencc shows clcarly the rcsistance of rhose
social consrants ro criscs which in other Latn -American counrrics
have brougbr about a disi ntegratinn of rhc narional culture. h is
rhrouph rhc pcrs isrencc of its basic culture thae Brazil has shown ir-
seif ro be bc rrer balanced than t hose othcr counrrics. By ami large.
the scnse of narion al arder which developcd from t his balance is
artriburahle ro rhe cornbinarion of aurhornaria n governmcnt and
pat riarc hal fami ly structure w hich obrained during rhc days of rhe
Empire. a ccm binario n which, insread o f hin deriog . ucruelly in most
aspeCts positively fevored rhc developme nr of Brazil inro a modero
democ ratjc socicry.

G.F.
 Note 0 1/ Mmletary Vatues

UNl'IL 194 3. t hc Brazilian monctar)' un ir was (he real (pl. reir ) .

Sincc thc imrinsic valu of thc real was microscopio, thc w orkin ~
mOIletary unir was t he m i/res, Uf 1,000 res. Onc thousand mi/reir
constitu rcd mn canto de reis, generally refcrrcd ro as a como.
Throughnut mcsr of the nincrccnth ccntury. cxecpt during rhe
Paraguayan \Var of 1865-70, [he milreis was worth ahout 50 cenrs
in American cu rreney and thc como $500 . Du ring the 1890's, how-
evcr, the milreis bc came drasticallv wcak and in 1898 ir rcach cd irs
low poinr of 10 cenes. From rhcn "on, ir becarn e gradually strongcr,
and during rhe earty rwcnricth ccnrury generally hovered around 35
cenrs, wirh thc como conscqucnrly worth about $350.
To calculare thc modero dallar cquivalen t o prices'quo tcd in rh is
work, therefore, it is neces..<;ary [O determine whcther suc h priccs
were currcn t duri ng rhe Empire, during rhe dcp rcssion of rhe ninc-
res, o r during the prewar years of rhc presen t century . lr is also
nccessarv ro rake into accounr rhc facr rhar rhe American dollar for
mosr of:his era had at leasr five t imes irs mod ero pu rchasing powcr.

R.\V.H.

x xx v
 Historical Naif

ursroav covered in Ordcr 111ld Progrese

TIIE PER IUl) OF B II..U I Ll A :'\
extends from rhe establishment of rhc R cp ublic in 18B9 to rhc cnd
o thc First \ Vo rld War, with chid cmphasis on rhe confusing and
ofren rurbulenr rransirion from Em pirc ro Republic. Although the
proclamarion o thc Republic in 18Hg carne as a surprise ro ncarly
cveryo nc. ir can be seco in rctrospccr rhat rhc event had a long back-
ground o prcpararion during the Tcigo of Dom Pedro 11. Ir is also
evidenr thar m:my o rhe insriturions o tbe E mpire wcre not ended
wirh rhe Republic bUI conrinued to cxisr inro rhe new ccntur), in a
republican form o Ir is a promincnr p:Jrt o Gilbcrro Frcyre's rhesis
that rhe new regime had dccp roots in rhc Imperial past and rhat, in
roany o irs attitudcs anJ pracriccs, the Fmpire fo reshadowed rhc
Rcpublic.
Ir mar be hel pful to rhose rcaders unacquainrcd wirh Brazilian
hiseory ro sketc h in sume o f rhc backgrou nd of rhc "Revolurion" of
1889. Dom Ped ro 11 had succccdcd ro t he Brazilian rhronc upon rhe
abdicanon o f his farhe r, Dom Pedro 1, in 1l:l3 l. O nl y fivc y cars uld
ar rhc rime. he was raised in a virtual prison of religous. acadcm ic.
and moral instruction during a rurbule nr rcgcncy markcd by con-
stant insurrections in rhc provinccs and palace revolrs in Rio de
janeiro. Finally. in 11140' ro end the ccnstant biekering bctwecn thc
patace and Parliamcnr, DOI11 Ped ro dec larcd himself of age and took
nver th e govern men r himsclf. Although this paremly illegal acricn
( he was more th an rhrec y ears shorr of rhc required age of cighreen)
did nor end the provincial uprisings. ir did at lcasr pur a StOp ro rhe
confusion in rhc capital, ami by 18, 0 mosr of rhe violcnr oppcsition
X XXVII
XXX't'11I H istorcel N ote

had bccn srilled and rhc countr)' had gained an interna] equilibrium
w hich was to lasr fo r more rhan a gcncrarion .
As aman. Dom Ped ro 11 is probably t he r nosr bcloved fi gure in
Brezilian history. Schola rly. dignified, devorcd ro his dutics, an ex-
cmplarv family man (unlike h is rathcr rakish fathcr ). Dolll Pedro
loved his pcoplc and was lovcd by thcm in rerurn. Ncvcrrheless. as
he himself was t he fi rst ro rcalizc. the times wc re againsr rhc con-
rin uarion o a monarc hical form o f go vcrnmcnr in t he New \\'o rld .
Ir was his ho pc [Q use his regime to effccr a grad ual and pe aceful
rransition ro an eventual Hrazilian R cpublic. presumably ro be estab-
Iished afrer his dcar h.
Liberal as his forcsigh rs were, however, D om Pedro 11 did not
have t he neeessary tem perament ro leed rbis rransition. Althmlg h
progrcssive in ideas, he was aristocraeic in rasrcs and nor nvcr-
energetic in dcvclopin g ncw prog rams to tir the chauging soc ial
nccds o f his day. As a resu lt, his rcgimc was allowcd mcrcly ro drifr
slowly in rhc general dircction of rbc {uturc. insrcad of adopting a
dynamic, clea-ly cha rped course rowar-d liberal republicanismo Ry
the lasr decades of rhe century. rhc pmcncc o f num crous ardent re-
publicans had worn rhin ami D om Pedro. rhoug h liked and rcspccted
as aman. had been wrinen off complercly as a polieical leade r and
was heing ccnremptu ou sly re errcd to as " Ped ro Banana.' an cpirber
rhar spcaks for irscl.
In addirion to being regardcd gcncrally as an inacrive ruleroPedro
11 by 1889 had ro conrcnd wirh rhc active opposieion o f mosr o f che
powerful special intcresr groups o f che narion. T hc big agriculmral-
isrs had bccn hard hit by rhc uncompcnsared abol irion of slavery in
1 RRR; the Chu rch [elr vicrimizcd by the Frnpcrcr's rarhcr casual at-

ritude roward rhc rig hrs of the esrablished religiou s hic rarchy; and
rhc Army was srnarting unde r its rule r's on ly thinly disguised con-
tempt for all aspects of rnilita ry life. Rep ublicans, of coursc, were
againsr the monarchy on pri ncipie and werc vehcmcnr in th eir agita-
rion for a c hango of polirical fo rmato Ev en rhe forrne r slaves, though
grarcfu l ro th e regimc fo r having granted them thcir freedom. gave
most of the c redit fo r th is accom plishment 10 che Princess Isabel. an
ardent aholitionist w ho had signed t he emancipa tio n proclamation
( Lei A ureJ) in he r capacity as regent du ring th e absence of her
Empernr-fat her, in Europe at t he tilIle to receive rrearnlent for di-
abetes. This illness. by 1888 in a serious stage, had g reatly under-
mined the Em peror's phy sica l strength and was begi nning to arouse
 H storcai N ote XXXIX

genuine eoneem in al! eircles as ro rhe succcssion, sinee rhc P rineess

Isabel, dcspirc her popu lariry wit h rhc cmanciparcd slaves, was not
generall)' rcgardcd favorably as a prospcctivc Empress of Brazil.
N or was her Iaeklusrer French-bc m husband, rhe Con de J 'Eu.
likely ro arousc muc h narion al enr husiasm, dcspire h is genuino serv-
ices ro his adopted cOlime)' during rhc war wir h P arag uay . A ![()-
gceher, rhe rime sccmcd ripc fo r a definitivo move on rhe parr o f th c
republicans.
lt was rhc Anny that effecred rhc chango. Srnarnog under wh at
rhey considercd consranr atracks 0 0 rbcir sacred " militar)' honor,"
an inrangible eualiry rhey held to be cven abo ve rhe law irself, ccr-
rain m ilitar)' elcmcnrs, led by ,\ Iarshal Floriao o Pcixoto, acrive ly
planned a co up . In rhis plor rhc Army was backed by ma ny radi cal
civilians, rhe rnost fervenr of whom was rhe mathemarician and
form cr military officcr Benjamin Constanr de ;\ lag alhcs. Equally
republican bu r eonsid erably Iess extreme membcrs of this c ivilian
conringenr incl ud ed Q uimino Bocayuve. in ucnrial editor of rhe
newspapcr O Pas, and rhe brilliane Bahian political leadcr R uy
Barbosa. A more hesiranr mem ber of t he re pu blican g roup was '\lar-
shal Deodoro da Fonscca, w ho vacillated berw ecn his dury ro thc
Emperor and his loy ahy ro t he A nny and on ly at rhc last minute de-
cided in favo r of rhe AmIY.
T he coup was schcd ulcd ro coincide wirh rhe opcnng of Parha -
menr on N ovembcr 20, 1889, bur wirh ru rnors fi )'ing rhick and fase,
as rhey have a w ay o doing in Hrazil, ir w as impossible ro hcld off
thc event unril rhar da te. Thc Prime ,\ 1in isrer, rhe Viscounr de O uro
Prto, well aware rhar somerhing scrious was in thc wind, began
rally ing rhe police and National G uard ro t hc defense o rhe Empire.
Rumors had ir rhat thc Anny was ro be scanered ro various remete
provnces and certain jmpo rt anr gene rals rusricared. Early in [he
moming o f Novembe r 15 , two cavalry regimcnrs an d a banalion of
infanrry srarioncd at rhe royal palace murinicd an d ma rched rhrough
thc eiry ro rhc r nilita ry hcadq uarters ar rhc Cam po de Sanr'A nna,
w here rroo ps under ,\ larshal Flcriano Pe ixoro were asscmblcd . the-
orercally ro defend [he barracks and rhe Ill inisrcrs of rhe Ouro
Prcro go\'ernmc nr, who wcre garhcrcd wit hin ar an eme rgc n cy
meering. Instead o f repelling rhe mutinecrs, ho wcver, F loriano's
garrison joine d rhe m, probahly aceo rd ing ro preconccived plan.
Shortlv , after 8 A.:\f. Marshal Deodoro da Fonscca arrivcd, srill u n-
dccided in his loyalrics. and infonned O uro Prero and h is m inisrers
xl Historcal Not e

rhar rhey wcre deposcd und that he would ask tite Empcror ro ap-
poim a new govcmruenr. Deodo ro rbcn rcmmcd tu his home, whcre
he was sooo joincd by Benjamn Consranr, Q uintino Bocay c va, and
Ruv Barbosa. This t rio finally succeedcd in convincing Dcodoro
that if Dom Ped ro did accede ro his req ucst ro appoint a new min-
istry, ir would almosr ccrtainly be hcadcd by Dcod oro's arch encmy
Scnator Siveira .\ 1anins o Rio Grande do Sul. This inforrnarion
pllt an cnd ro Dcodoro's w avcring and he agrccd to join t he republi-
can cause. For his concessicn, he was made nominal leader of rhe
movcmcnt and narned provisional Presidenr o f t he nc w Rep ublic.
w hich was p roclaimed formally in downrow n Rio de Janeiro rhat
afrernoon. R u y Barbosa was madc Minisrcr of Finance and Q uint ino
Bocayu va .\ l inister of Foreign Affairs. Bcnjamin Consrant receivcd
thc war porrfolio.
In rhc faee of chis virrually bloodless bur appsrcntly successful
coup, Pedro 11 showed considerably more spirir th an had been ex-
pccrcd fr om rhose who had bcen ealling him " Ped ro Banana." H e
refused ro accept the O uro Pr tc resign aeion ami. aftcr hcing pcr
suadcd rhat such refusal was irnpossible undc r thc circumstanccs,
delay cd appoinring a new Prime \ I j n i~ter un til he could explore rhc
possibiliey of including th e vacillaring Deodoro d a Fonseca in th e
new govem ment. Only whcn he was convinccd that Dcodoro was
irrevocably commincd ro the rcpublican cause d id he agree to ahdi-
cate. H e was c rde red ro leave rhc co untry wirhin t wenry -four hours.
which would have givcn him until rhc afrcrnoon of November 17.
bur for fear of popular dernonst rations of symp aehy the grace period
was subsequcn rly shorrened by sorne eight hou rs. At dawn on ;-':0-
vcm ber 1 7 [he royal family. accompanicd by a [e w close fricnds
and retaincrs, lefr for European exilc. O n December :8, 1889. rbc
[ormer Emprcss died in O po rto of a hearr arrack. \Vit hin twu ye ars
the Emperor h imsclf fo llow ed her tu rhc grave. Ir was nor unril
19 : 0 rhar the edicr of banishmenr was revokcd and the remains of
t he roy al pair werc b rought back [O Brazil from the BraRanza roy al
plot in L isbon and entomhed in t he old summer capital of P ctr{
po lis.
,\I ean while. t hings wece no r going well with the new Rep ubl ic .
As provisional President. Deod oro da Fonseca showed himself ro be
qui te de"oid of po lirical sk ill and un abl e to accept t he attacks upon
his reg ime as other th:m person al insults. Althou gh e1ected 6 rst
pennanent Presid ent o f rhe C,oostit urional Republic on F cbruary
 H storcat N ote xli

lS , 189 1. his margin ovcr [he civilinn ca ndidat e, Prudent e de .\ l or:ls.

was slim, and d uring thc ensu ing nine monrhs he was consranrly in
diffieu lties wirh a hostilc Congrcss. Finally, 0 0 Novembcr 3, dl9 1,
Dcodo m losr all patic nce and dissolved rhe lcgislarure. an arbitrar)'
acrion which provcked revolrs. some o rhcm serious, in all parts of
rhe coumry. \\'ithin rhree weeks Dcodoro had losr virtually all su p-
port and consequcnr ly rcsigncd his office in favor of his Vi ce-
Prcsidcnr .\ 1arsha l Floriano Peixoro.
Floria no was a differenr b rced of m il itary leadcr. Forccful, entirelj-
sure of himself, he was given ro hard-ncsed decisions which earned
him rhc sobriq uet o the " lron .\ 1arshal." Such decisions inevitably
led ro resisrance, nor onlv fram civilians. lnn alsc from wirhi n rhe
militar}' itscl f. Thcrc were minor armed rcbellions in Rio de j aneiro.
,\ t inas Gcrais. Mano GT(}!>..'W. Sao Pauto. Amazonas, and '\laranhao, a
serious one in Rio G rande do Su\ an doin Scprember o f 1893. a naval
revolt which lasred for six months and includcd a born ba rdment of
th e capital itsclf. Finally pm down t hrough rhc expense o pur-
chasing a ncw fleer in Europe, rhc rc vol t ended by irnpo verishing
the govemmcnr outwith Floriano in command o a consolidared
Rcpublic. W hcn in 1894 he was succeeded by rhc fi rst civilan Presi-
dcnt, Prudente de Morais. Floriano left a scarred but relanvely
ordercd narion as his legacy.! Oehcr c riscs were to cake place. but
from the rime of Floriano rhere was no quesrioning thc exsrence of
the Brazi\ian Republic as a [alt I1CC01l1p/i and an increasingly po wer-
fuI force in the poliricallife of [he \Vcstern H emisphere.

R.\V.H.

I Under ,he: Rruilian COm';tlll;on. n" Pres ident m~y socceed hmsclf.
 Historical Out/hit,
1864 - 1914

184 1: Amonio O oncslves Dias, born in 1823. dies in shipwreck

near t he shorc o his narive province of .\laran ho afrer an in-
f1uential lifc as a rcmanric lndia nist-n arion alisr pocr.
1865: T he Empire of Brazil siga s a trear)' o alliance with Argentina
for che prosccution o f the war againsr Paraguay . T his war has
political conscqucnccs not unir for [he forcign relanons o
Hrazil but also for inrcrnal soc ial developr ncnr wirhin rhc Em-
pire.
Six rhousand Crnwn slaves wio freedom by volunreering ro
figh t againsr Paraguay. Pedro 11 ema ncipares the srare-owned
blacks 00 rhe Imperial [azends of Santa Cruz and provides
cducarional facilities for eheir children.
1866: Rio de Janeiro insralls a modern sysrcm of sewage disposal.
, 869: At rhc request of Ped ro 11. P imcnra Bueno, furu re Marq uis o f
So Vi cente. prep ares an emancipat ion project p roviding
for the ema ncipation of babies born ro slave morhers. This
"Law of rhe Free \\'omb" (Le Jo V entre LM.-'Te) aims at
total abolition by 1899.
1870: T hc M<7nifesto Republicano is pu blished by [he republican
Ilewspaper A R ep blica.
,\ l achado de Assis. who is ro bccomc rhc forcmosr no velisr
o Brazl. bcgins his carccr with a volume o tales, Contos
Fluminenses. I lis fi rst novel, H etens, appears rwo years larer.
;f l i i i
xliv HistorcaiOutne, 1864- 19 14

1871 : T hc Viscoum of Rio Branco introduces a biU in t he Imperial

Chamber of Dcpurics calling for immediarc cmanciparion of
all sleves bclonging ro rhc narion, as wel l as t hosc cmploycd
by rhc Crcwn. rhose abandoncd by their masters. and rhose
to whom tidc of inhcrit ance was vague. Ir also calls fo r the
freedom of nll childrcn bom rhcrcafrer ro slavc rnorhers. The
bill. after passing rhe Scnarc, is signed by rhe Princess Rcgenr.
Ant onio Cast ro Alves. t he po pular abolitionisr poer (b.
1847), dies in Baha.
1871: Friar Viral .\ 1aria G oncal ves de Oliveira. a twcnty -nine-year-
old Capuchin boro in Pern ambuco and cd ucated in Paris, as-
sumes office as Be hop of O linda and Recifc.
1874: The bishops of Olinda an d Par are arresred. T his causes a
d ramatic narional split. wirh Masons on on e side and orthodox
Carholics on rhe orhcr.
T ransat lanric tclcgraphic ccmmu nicnrion wieh Europe is in -
augurarcd in Braz il.
1877: J os de Alencar, born in 1829, dies in Rio after brilliant and
influcr nial acrivity as polirician and author of highly popular
novcls on Hrazilian rheme s.
Great dro ugh r in Cear.
1880: Joaquim Nabuco, reprcscndng the province of Pernambuco,
unsucccssfully introd uces in rhe Chambcr a resolu rion pro-
pcsing complete cmancipa tion for 1890.
Carlos Gomes, rhc Brazilian composer and pror g of rhe
Emperor, becomes a national hero afrcr his o pe ra O Guarmi
is produccd wirh great success inlraly . T he pcpularitv of this
opera is dile as much ro irs abo lit ion ist rhemc as ro irs music.
lnstallarion of modero water sup ply system in Rio de j a-
nerro.

Lu s Cruls, a Bclgian scientist who becomcs Braxilian, is ap -

poinrcd director o f rhc Ghservarrio in Rio de J aneiro.
Dearh of L us Al ves de Lima e Silva, D ukc o f Ca.xa.s (b.
r Soa}, grear hero of the Paraguay an \\'ar ( 1865- 69) and
 Histor cal Omtne, 1864- 1914 xlv

outsranding statesman particularly during his tcrm as Prime

Minisrcr ( 187}-75) '
1881: O Multo , a sociological novel by Alusio de Azevedo. is pub.
lishcd in Rio de Janeiro.
1883: j oaquim Nabuco's rernarkahle book O A boioianismo is pub-
Iished in London.
lnauguration of clectric light in the ciry of Campos (prov-
ince of Rio de Janeiro)-che firsr Brazilian ciry te havc rhis
modern sysreOl of illumination.
1884: Slaves are cmancipatcd in rhc provincc of Ceer.
1885: Inauguration of the Corcovado cog railroad.
1887: The Empcror becomcs seriously ill and goes ro Europe for
rreatment of a liver ailmenr ccmpl icated by diabetes, leaving
Princesa Isabel in charge of the government.
1888: Passage of abolirion law (L e; Al/rea) by rhe Chamber, de-
c1aring slavery exrinct in Brazil. In the Sellare, Baron de
Corcgipe warns rhat such a radical abolition wirh no provisi n
for co mpe nsaring slaveowners cculd ovcrthrow tbe mono
archy.
T he Emperor and the Empress rcrum frorn Eu rc pe.
H istria da L teretura Brasieira, a monumental srudy by
Sylvio Romero, is publishcd in Ro de j aneiro.
1889: Proclamarion of che Brazilian Rcpublic by Gene ral Deodoro
de Fonseca with rhc suppo rt of a considerable part of che
Army, of the Republican Parry of Sao Paulo, and of some
im ellccm als, cspccially rhc sc of t he Posirivist group. Choice
of rhc po sirivistic slogan "Orden e Progresso" ro replace the
Im perial anns on rhc Brazilian flag.
Deodoro da Fonscca becomes the first Prcsidene o rh e Re-
public of the Unired Srares of Brazil.
lnnocncia, e novel by Alfredo de E. Teunay, is published in
Rio de j aneiro.
T cbias Barrero (b. 1839) dics in Recife. A nrestico o hurnble
origin, he had becomc one o rhc most influential and vio-
xh:i H istoricel Outline, 1864-H) 14

lenrly polcmical int ellecruals in Brazi l. F amous fo r his cult of

e\'eey t hing Gennan. he was inst rument al in ma king R ecife
rhe ccnrcr of a pc werful cultural movcmenr (Escola do
Recit e) to libe rar e Beazilian [urisprudcnce. p hilosophy. and
litcrature from French infl ucncc in favo r o f Germanio
models.
1891: A rcpublican Constirurion, w ritrcn by Ruy Barbosa and
modelcd afrer rhc Consrirurion of th e Unired Srates of Amer-
ic a, bccomes effectivc in February.
Presidenr Dcodoro da Fon seca d issolves Parliamenr and re-
signs. ro be succeedcd by General F loeiano Peixoto.
I ~9 1 : Edua rdo Prado's A llusio A mer icana, a violenr and sensa-
tional attack u pon rhc fo reign policy of the Brazilan Re-
public an d Brazilian fricn dsbip wirh rhe Unired Sutes. is
p ub lished and immediately prohibired by rhe policc.
An insurrecnon or revele rhar is ro lasr fo r rhrec y ears breaks
out in R io G rande do Sul.
Inauguration, in Ro de j aneiro, of rhe fi rsr regular line of
elect ric tramcars, replacng t hc earlier horse-drawn vchicles.
1893: T he revolr in Ric G rande do Sul is supported by virtually
th e entire Brazilian fl ccr. In rhc ensuing c risis, rhc Arrny fo r
rhe firsr time assumcs irs subsequcnrly rradirional (and ind is-
pensable ) role as a narional, nonparnsan, and super-regio nal
force in rhc preservanon of order.
1 H94: Prcsidcnt Floriano Peixoro is succeeded by Prudent e de
Moraes. from S:io Paulo. who statts a work o reconst rucnon
rhar is to be followc d by his immediare successors. \Vith
him, the words "Ordem e Progresso" bcgin ro rake en a con-
crete meaning in spite o a pc riod o financia! dep ression.
1896 : Cartas d e lngteterra. by Ruy Barbo sa. is published in Rio de
j aneiro.
Beginning of t he peasanr rcbe llion in Canudos led by An-
tonio Ccnselheiro, a religious mysric.
1898: C ampos Sales. also from Sao Paulo. b ecomes Presidenr of rhe
Republic and t hroug h rhe adopnon of austere measures effec -
 H stor cai O utline, 1864-1 9 14 x/di

rively re-esrablishes thc national credit. One of thcse measurcs

is the suspensin. for sume rime. of spccic payments; another
is rhc wirbdrawal and dcstrucrjon of latge quanrires of paper
money.
The boundary betwcen French Guiana and P ar is ixcd
(T rcary of Bem e) . Airead)' the roo-year-old boundary dis-
pute bcrween Argentina and Hrazil had been senlcd d uring
Prud ente de Moracs's adrninistrarion, wit h the United SUtes
act ing as arbirraro r. The Baron do Rio Branco, soc n [Q he-
come .\ l ini5ter of Forcign Rclarions. is intl ucmial in reach-
ing rhesc solutions. inaugurating his distinguishcd carce r as
diplomar and polirical inrellccrual. Perhaps Brazil's grearest
staresman during [he yca rs from 1894 unril his dcaeh in '91 2,
Rio Branco ncver ceascd ro be a mcnarchisr ar hear r.
' 899: Thc Butantan Iustitut e, subsequenrly ro be world famous fo r
irs work in rhe devclopment of anri-snakc-bite scrums, is
esrablished in Sao Paulo undcr the dircction of D r. V iral Bra-
sil.
1900: j oaquim Nabuco's aurobiograp hy, Jlinha Fonnaci o, w hich
is tu bcccme a classic and be cornparcd to T he Education o
H enry Ademe. is published in Rio de j aneiro.
E~ade Q ueiroz dics in Paris. No Pcn uguese writer had had
so muc h influcncc on Brazil as rhc aurho r of Os Maias.
191 : Euclydes da Cunha's monumental cpic Os Sertes (R ebel-
lion in ibe Rolck/.1JIdr ) appears in R io de j aneiro.
CanaJ, a novel of ideas by J. P. G raca Aranha, is publishcd
in Rio de Janeiro.
Rod rigues Alves. anorhcr Paulist a, becomes Presidcnr of rhe
Republic. Througb rhe etforts of rncmbcrs of rhc Rodrigues
Alves Cabiner. and wirh rhe viral collaborarion of Prcfect of
Police Pereira Passos and Public H ealrh Director O swa ldo
Cruz, yellow fever is eradica red in Rio de j aneiro and a great
pan of rhc ciry is pullcd down and rebuitr 00 whar are con-
sidercd ro be anracrive modero Iines.
194: The rnarble and granire ,\ Iom oe Palace, in which Brazilian
products wcre exhibircd in rhc Sr. Louis (U.S.A .) Exposirio n,
xiviii H storical Outtne, , 864- ' 9'4

is scnsarionally rransfcrrcd to R io oc Janciro ano reassem-

bled ro becornc one o f the most an ractivc buildings of rbe
newly rebuilt city . New garuens ano promenadcs are builr to
give a new aspeet to the urban cerner. A magnifi ee nt avcnue
- t he Avenida Central, tive m iles long and 140 feet widc-c-is
oponed wirh ncw buildings. A municipal rheatre and orher
public buildings. cqually magnificcnt. are begun. atong with
rhc largest ami mosr modcrn docking facilities in South
Amrica.
' 96 : The Brazilian A lberto Santos Dumonr's pioneering acronauri-
cal rruimphs in France transfonn him into rhc 1TlOSt bclovcd
naticnal hero of his rime.
Afonso Pena. from :\Iinas Gerais. is elected Presidenr of rhe
Rcpublic.
The Baron do Rio Branco, as Foreign ,\ Iin ister. opcns t he
Pan-A merican Conferenee in rhc Moncoc Palacc. j oaquiru
Nabuco presides and Elihu R oo t. Unircd States Scc rctary o
Sute, is present, along wirh Ro represcnta tivcs of 20 Amer-
. .
jcan nanons.
190]: I-I aving madc a tou r througf most of thc sra res o Brazil he-
fo re ta king office, Prcsidenr Pena cmbarks upon a program o
railwey extensi n and harbor w orks in Baha. Santos. Par .
Vir ria, Pernam buco, ami Rio G rande do Su!' He also con-
rinues rhe re habilirarion of rhc capital ano ca lls for rhe re-
vitalizarion o t he Hrazilian Navv.
llrazil's parricipation in The B ague Peacc Coufcrencc be-
comes a rnatrcr of par rioric rcjcicing fo r Brazilians as a resulr
o t hc eloquent speeches o rhc Brazilian chicf delegare. R uy
Barbosa.
G ilberto Amado hegins his activitv as a literary joum alise in
D rio de Pemsmtmco, in w hieh ficld he is soo n to be fol-
low ed by Franci sco d e Assis Chareaubria nd Bandcira de
,\ i elo.
'90S: Thc Nacional Expositinn in R o de janciro arrracts a con-
side rab le numbe r of Brazilia ns from che various stares te the
fed eral capital. The exposition is organized in comrncruo ra-
tio n o rhe firs r cem enary o rhc opening o Brazilian ports ro
 H istorcal O ut ine, 1864-19 14 xlix

in rem anon al cornmcrce. and its purpose is re show Brazilian

progress wirhin national urdcr. As an appropriare feat ure o f
rhc festival, many of the visirors from the provinces arri ve 0 0
rhe ships of rhe ncwly o rgan ized merchant marine. Lloyd
Brasilciro .
D carh of .\ 1achado de Assis. g reatesr Brazilian litera ry figure
and fi rsr prcsi dc nt of the Hrazilian Academy of Letters.
Celebrated visir of [he Unitcd Srates Xavy to Brazil. Sorne
10. 000 American sailors happily Irarem ize wit h rhc carocas
o Rio de J aneiro .
Ir is announced rhar Brazilian railway s reac h a totallength o
J r.4 P miles in comparison to 5,3) 8 miles in [889, The diffi-
culr co nstruction of thc ,\ tadeira-M amor, in the extreme
norrh of t he Rcpublic. progsesscs dcspire the loss of many
livcs from malaria.
1901): Euclyd es da C unha, cclebraeed author of O s S enes, is assas-
sinared.
1910: ,\ tarshal I1ermes da Fcnscca. a disring uishcd sold ier and a
Brazilian o f norrheasrern (Alagoas) origino is elccted P resi-
dcnt of thc Republic, defeati ng Ruy Barbo sa. His administra-
don is one of political agitaran, though improvcme nts in
saniration and harbor works go on . A revolt of sailors 00 rhe
banleship M il/OS G era s, led by a N egro. J030 Cndid o,
breaks out againsr naval offieers and rhc govem menr.
Joaquim N abuco dies in Washi ngton w herc he is servng as
rhe first Ambassador of Brazil ro the Unircd Srarcs.
1911 : The eountry is ag ieaeed by rc volts againsr rhe so-called " po-
litical o ligarehies" in favo r of their replaccmenr, through
elccrion. by militar)' meno
191 2: The Baro n do R o Branco. d ist inguished Brazilian Foreign
.\ Iinistcr, dics in R io de Janciro.
191 4: Venccslau Brs, from Minas G crais, is clecred Presider n of
t he Republic. D uring his administrarjon, Brazil ar first re-
mains neutral in t hc Europea n war bur larer rakcs t he side o f
the A llies. Prcsidenr Brs stimula tes agrieultural producrion
anJ ind usrrializarion. Thc civil cede o f Brazil is wrjttcn by
Clvis Bevilaq ua and approvcd by rhc legislature.
1

A OrglliZd(j o Nacional and O Probtenu Nacional Brasil-

eiro, two narionalisric srudics o pclirical sociology by Al-
berto Trres ( 1865- 19 17). are published in Rio de j aneiro
and exert considerable infiue nce 00 Brazilian political
thouphr.

G.F.
 A utbor's Preface l o tbe Paperback Edition

\\' IT IlO UT I\.S O WI. EI)(a: of t he book tl rder ami Progress , t h e st u -

dent of Hrazilian socia] formation will lack a thorough initiation in
thc analysis of that proccss an d of its scd ucrivety co rnplcx , o rigina l
qualit j-.
It is original bc cause t he monarchv gan ' it a singula rirv t hat
disringuished it from thc rcpublican format ions charac tcristic of
Spanish-A mcrican nations. This di stincrivc q ualit y was favorcd O ll
thc eme hand by a Hrazilian ind inat ion toward leg al polirical solu-
tions rather rhan solurions imposed by a militar)' st rong lilao and o
00 thc orher ha nd . bv th e intlucncc of a statcsr nan-c-namcly. Jos
Bonifcio-- whosc sensirivity lo t his Hraxilian trait ap proachcd
ge mus.
It lTlay he ob-ervcd th:lt in the soc ial format ion o f Hrazil , bot h
the Big Housc, completo! by their slavcs' (!uartcrs, and also the
ciry mension s wit h their ur ba n sheruies tcnded to favor t he conrin u-
ntion 01' a Cat holic ism mark cd lcss by cathcd rals than wa s tlu-
C atholicism of Sp:m ish A mcrica _ Bra ...il's was :1 Cathol icislII uf rhc
all-absorbenr farnilies with thcir dorru-stic chape ls w hich, hcing
linlc sub jcct ro the wil l of highcr ccclesiastical aurhorirics. consti-
tut ed legal ba rriers to anarchic dictator ships as wel l as ro d ecisivo
dom inarion uf Brazilian Cc tholicism by rhc C hurch. The marr iages
and baptisms cclebrarcd en [amille bc ar wit ness to this di srinc-
ren. tt'itncss also thc protesrs against rhe p racriccs pursucd by
nuncios who wcre jcalous o f thcir orthodoxics in such significant
l;lrt icu 1a rs.
Thc Hrazilinn monarc hv . havinp ou tdonc irsclf by bciug o r-
tbodoxly Catholic wirh Pnncess Isabel , failed to gi\"c furthcr sUI)..

Ii
ii Autbor's t'reface IQ tbe Paperback Rdition
port to an ccclcsiasticis m rcscmbling t hat dominara III S panish
Am erice. Thcrc wa s no such ccclesiasticism in Brazil.
In t he rnattc r of monumcnts, rh c Bralian equivalcnt of rh c
cathcd rals of Spanish Amrica was un usual: at tirst ir consis tcd of
imposing Big llouses: latcr, of statcly city mansions. al so grand
ami imposing.
\\"ith (he establishment of thc rcp ublic. so rne of the ciry mm -
sio ns he10nging to privar e cit izcns hceamc noble gon:rnmen( build-
ings. That is what happe ncd lo th e prcsidcr uial palacc in Ca tete.
formcr rcsid cncc of a titlcd mun of wealth , ami also ro the Itamarari
Palace. Thcsc monumental palaces huilr as privar e rcsidenccs borh
carne lo he importan t scats of polirical pow er. Thcy show how
pri vare iniriati vc in Bra zil urrivcd al so bold a dcg rcc of ostenr ation
as lo rcsult in architcctural grandcur approvcd by a republic of
posit ivists who wcre in man)' \\-ap aust ere di sciplcs of Auguste
Comt c and almost worshipers of Cloli lde d e Vaux . lt was thesc
snmc po sit ivists who conrrivcd to gel one nf thcir d..cn-inairc con-
l'Cp lS includcd in th c n ation's tlag, which was arbitrarilv altcred lO
ad m i! a sl'n:ilic aJly politi...-al choice .
It is curous. howevcr, that in spite o f thi s iniuallv sclf-sufficicnr
doctrtnai rism. thc republic of I K81) pro c ccdcd 10 assimilate much
of thc mcnarchv . Ir assimilatcd t hc habir s. vinucs. ami pl' r
sonalirics of crnincnt statesme n and ot hcr fi gu res from public life.
O ne of thcsc mcn, Baron de Lucena, carne lo hl' thc right arm.
"r hc brnwn cm incuce," the m entor 01' ,\ Iarshall D eodoro d a
Fon scca, ami was glorife'(1as tx: ing th c rea l foundcr of thc rcpublic.
Baron d...' Lucena wa s succu-cdcd hy Baro n d o R io Branco. a !l1;11l
highly velued for his skill in intcmarionol affai rs. Though always
a mona rch ist , Rio Hrancu was th e srrongcst , the most dominanr,
ami rhc most prcstigious figure in thc ncw rcg irnc. Ile wa s tlll' son
of V iSCOIlITt d o Hio Bralll.'ll. w ho w as eonsi defl't! by some l'xpert s
in th",' se m,lIters lo be t hl' grl'atesl man in Brazilia n publ ic life in
the d ay s of PI,.' ilro 11. T hese two men of the Siln Paranho fa mi ly,
by lhei r se n 'ice lO Bra l. enob ll'il. di gn ified , ami em he llished our
nal ion's publie scn"ice ,
Whal 1 w ish tu em phasize i ~ lhal lhe Brazili an Hepublic of ',111) ,
afl l'r t'mtMrking Ih e (lId em pl'ror ami lhe imperial fam ily for
ElIrope. did almost evcryt hing possiblc in ils atl cmpl lo fl.'('(gni ze
Ihe " alue of mell lhen in puhlie lifl'--Statesmcll. pol itie ians . ad -
m ini stralors- w ho wefl' Jill ing im po rt ant pOSIS in I'l'l.1ro Il's gO\
 Author's l'reface ro tbe PaperfJl1cR lidition hii
cmment , and to fac ilitare t hcir transfercnce 01' high public servicc
from the cmpirc In t he republtc .
Hesides t hc twc barons rucmioncd . Viscoum d e C abo Fro was
kept on in the ~ lini stry o f Forcign Rclat ion s bccausc 01' h is
thorough knowledge (JI' tbe function s (JI' that important m in istry .
Further, a ra thcr s i ~ n i fi ea nt n umhcr 01' im perial nd lu-rents wit h the
ru le consetbeirc jcincd the nanonal scrvicc of rcpubtican Hrazil, with
thci r titles prcscrved int act. It bappened so wirh Con sclhciros Rod-
r igues A lves and Anrnio Prado in Sao Pauto. witb Consclhciro
Afonso Pena in " tinas Gerais, wit h Consclhciru Rosa t' Si lva in
Pernam buco , with Conselhciros Lus Yiana ami Ruv Barbosa in
Hahia, alt of whom cuntinuc...1 tu serve the Hraxilian nation with
their cxpcricncc, rhcir profcssioua l apritudc, rhcir talcnts, and thcir
id ent ificati on with grl'a l nationa l CHl Sl'S,
It illa)' pcrb ap s bl' seid that n cver in the O cciden t ha s there lx-en
a Iransition from mona rchv to rcpublic wit h tlu- rcpublic assimila r-
ing so nun)' valuabh - mona rchic cervices n-presente...1 by eminent
persons,
Of course t here wcrc a few uuconver tcd monarc hi-a s. a mong
thcm t he profcssor am i journalist C arlos de Lact . A not her, fo r a
long time, was j oaquim Sabuco who, huweve r-, did consen t ro
serve t he republic in a d iplomatc post , with h is monarchis t convic-
tions elway s rcspcctcd . .\ 1H1 he fin;l lly lx-carne Braz il \ am ba ssador
in W ash ington , whcrc he di d conspicuous scrvice lo thc cause of
hringing rhc two grcat nations of rhc American coruiucnt closcr
ro gcthcr.
It is te he rcgrcned, howcvc r, tha r j oaqu im ;";abueo cense...l to
he a p olitician wit hin Hrazil irsclf upo n rh c proc lamation of the
rcpublic. For, in thc ficld of interna! polines. no ortho dov rc publi-
can could havc, in the slighrcst dcg rcc. substit utcd for h im in a
cause WhOSl' g rand champion he had bc c omc. T I\<,; cau se "as t hnt
of making potcnt al Braxilia n ci tizcns out u f t he S t-gnl sla vcs. frt't'd
hy t he abolirion act of 1 HHH, SO nthcr man had so p rcparcd himsclf
to serve as lcadcr of rhat irnporrant cause.
In his rcmarkablc spccchcs bcforc parl iament d llrillg t hc last
rears of the rnonarchy . J O;Hl un Sabuco shmn ... 1 h im sdf to be a
true Iransabolit ionist, so dl"Cp w as his cOllcern for the freed sla\'l's .
\rhat Ihe enw rgt'nl')' d t'lll;lI11kd \\'as Ih;lt gon'fl ll11t'lIts, C h ureh .
am i im lustrialists of a tIt' \\' Iy pe gi\' t' thei r t'arne!tt attentioll , under
trust \\'ort h y Icadership--sllch as the great aiJo lil io nist \\'ou ld have
I iv A utbor's Preface lo tbe Paperback tidition
p rovidcd-c-to thc great ncc cssit v of prcpari ng the frecd slaves for
their dutics as cirizcns. Thcre was no prcparation. ami the frced-
men. com plercly abaudoned, hccamc rnarpinal mcn whu wcrc hor-
riblv maladj usted.
Some of the slaves clcrtvd tu rcmai n wit h th cir fcr mer maste rs.
Hut t hc laucr , nor h:l\-in g: bc cn awarded a ju st indcmnity. found
rhemsclves naucially inca pable of assu m ing the responsibilit v of
maintaining their formcr slavcs .
X cvcr be forc in Hrazil had a grca t cause fo und irsclf so bcreft uf
a grcat lcadership ro serve it . j oaquim N abu co's great poliricallv
consrruct ivc efforr as an admirabl e lead cr would have con tinucd
had he nor given up in tcmal polit ics for an eth ical rcason .
In pbilosopbizing abo ur this mat rcr . onc rccognizes that sorne-
t imes un excess of cthics is countcrprod uctive. If j oaquim Nabuco
had tcmporized wit b th c ncw political rcgimc in his ami o ur uation ,
he m ight lu ye accom plishcd tbe incorporation nf th c frved slave in
the Hrazilian prolctariar, of which sorne abs rract-st ylc positivists
spokc rh ctorically wit hou t passing from verbal cbstractions 10 uuly
objcc t tvc uction..,
At rhis point it is appropriarc to add to t he eOlTl mcntary un Ordrr
and I'rf!J!, ffss a word about the hook's f ar frorn in signifi cant in nova-
tio n in r nethod. Thc hook may he characterized as bc ing ostcnsibly
J collection of close-ups rha t captu re realities scen as d ose as possi-
blc. wit h no attempt at a panoram ic apprcach.
l low did rhc aut hor givc (lrder and ProJ!,rm , in stead of a
panoram c pcrspcctive. rhc perspec tivo. sociophotograp bcall y
spcaking . of close-ups that prCSl'!1t subiects ami ohjects su close as
to givc thc readcr a f,x'ling of ha\-ing rhem alwa vs with in reach ,
not ool y of his e)'l's, but also of hi s hands? (Socicphot og raphy is a
ncologi sm invcntrd by thc author in analogv wir h socolng uisrics.)
First nf all, thc author gathercd about hi m a grollp uf pt'rs(lns w hll
agrccd ro act as am hors in thc prcparanon o f aur obiographical
ma tt.'rials ro uch ing o n ct.'ftain essl~ nt ia l IXlint s. so th;1I thcir rl'
spo n sl's to m y IJucsl ionnairc cOllld he co m pared from a sOI,:ioan-
thropol ogi cal poinr (lf view . This ab solut e innllvat ion in sc it'm ific
ll11'thod h ad nen'r. 10 m y km )\\ !t"t.!ge, ht't'n Iried in Bruil (Ir in an)'
olher eo nntrv in lIlod crn times.
The rcsu lts uf t his pioneering ex pc rimc nt \\ ere sign iticam _ Fnr
exam plc , rhe p<-'riod o f transil iol1 from t he m on a rt~h y to th t' repu h
li c, and fmm s1a\'e labor ro free lal Klr , \\'as stud it"t.l through its
prCst'n t-da)' su rvin lrs. ITlt'n am i womt.'!l o f ' -ariolls raee , dass.
 A utbor's l'reface lo tbe Paperhack h Jirirm 11.'
and regin. Ami it was found tha t thc Hrazilians of thc transi-
tional pcriod borc k,ss rcscmblancc lo their fordx.'ars than to rheir
nmtelllpora ru-s.
The assembling uf thcse auto biograp hies p rcscrucd serious
di tfi cultics; neven heless. ubout IWOhundrcd of th cm were collcctcd
by rhc aut hor of ttrdcr and ProgreK Prming lo be extrcmclv valu-
ablc, t hev scrvcd as a propt'r basis for por haps thc rnost scrious
psychological inrcrpreration uf this importaru pha sc of Hraxilian
life ever anemprcd . Thcrc werc many rcfusal s. including th at uf
(; ellio Vargas. Ir is int crcsti np that he refuscd cirbcr lo confirm
or ro d isavow the pe rson aliry protile lmilt up by this au thor . Ac-
cording to thar p rofilc, in place of rhc dcccptivelv smiling ruan of
Lourival Fontcs' propaganda, there appearcd thc Brazifian of Rio
Grand e du S ul t hat he wa s. thc H'ry ncg ation of the picturcsquc
imagc madc popular h y thc Flores da C un has, by thc O svaldo
:\ranhas, ami cvcn by thc N eves d a Fontouras. lndced . as a man
of t111,' mis sionarv ty pc , he was not onlv intro spect ivo end taciturn ,
as I had prcdictc...I, offerng in proo f his refusal to furnish me an
au tobiographica ! n 'sx lnse lo my q uc stion nairc . he could also be
sad, mclodramat ic, even tragc. Alt hough my sketch of rhis com o
plcx Hrazilian fi gure madc no im prcssion o n Brazilians, ir arou scd
rh c artention of an im clligcn t Portuguc sc gentleman , Cou nt d '
Aurora . Ile took note of it ami, wben G ctulio Varga s confirmcd
thc trut h of t (by his su icide), 111,' wrorct u me. I had spokcn as une
wh o had see n wit hin C l'u tio Vargas a G et lio different fro m t he
man madc known by thc po slers.
I ought lo mcrnion that sorne of the rcprcscn tarivc Br:lziliam
whose aurobio g rapbics I solicitcd proposcd a comprom iso. th cv
agrccd to furnish dcposit ions or ma ke confessions bUI ir wo uld
have 10 lit, d one orally . as if I had lx-en a priesr to whom Ihey
confcsscd undcr scal of Sl -c-rccv. \ \ '!l ,l l 1 W :IS afrer wa s Ihe IJh,,'k in
the whte , ami 1 rejoee in ha\'ing sl,'l.'ured il, Iha nks to Ihe mosl
eoo pl.'ra ti\"l', impartia!. and trut hfu l sUfvin lrs o f Ihe Ira nsilonal
p hase llnd er t'ollsidcralio ll. Fro m these au to biog raphies ir IJeeamc
d ear hO\,' co nlf(wers ial a fi gure Huy Barhosa was among t he sur
,ivors , A numllt.'r o f Ihem accu.scd him of impro pr ielY in his co n-
duc!. There was llnanimou s ap plallse for Sa ntos Dumon t ; Ihere
\\"efe \'a rio us re:lct ions lo ()011l Ped w 11 and lO Flo ri:lllO Pl'xoto.
Some nformaton gn 'n the au tho r was confidellliai in nature
bm 11 0 1 au w biographical: serious crit icism o f the ma nn er n w hch
the Thrteenlh of .\ Iay was fl'alill'l.l, and Ihe sallle in n -gard lO tht'
tvi Autbcr's l'reface I Q IIx Paperhack tidt on
l-iftecnt h of :"\ml'Ill IM.' r. ;\ precious document wa s haudcd ovcr for
the benctir of (mure gcncration s: rhe rnanuscr ipt d i:lry of Jos
Cavalcarn d a Rocha wa nd crfcy. Haron de Tracun ham.
X cvcr. tu m)" knowlcd gc, has a book bc en writn-n in an)' lan-
gu age on the order of tlrder and i'r{)gress, that is. nnc th at presente
ami comp ares rcac tion s to thc samc. or similar, stim uli, as, for
exarnple , lo rhc IlSC of canes by aristo c ratic gentlcmcn. or to the
cu t nf nu-n's mu stachcs or beard s.
llow lll ;lJl)' and what wcrc thc at ritudes during th is transnional
pcriod as 10 marriage of whit c with colored pc r ~ollS? Sorne re-
sp ondcnts said thcv wc rc ahove racial prcjudicc hut , whcn askcd
spc cifi callv how th l')" would fccl about a daugbtcr's marriagc 10 a
man of color. the tone of rhcir respollsl' changcd .
O nc aSM.'ct of thc interp rctm ion of thc aut obiographics, wit h
th ci r ra ndid clnsc-u ps that wcrc intcnt ionallv irum ediatc. d ircct ,
an d indiscrcer. was this: rhe facts did not pe rmit hci ng charac-
tcrizcd as PUf(' Iact, inasmuch as they involvcd con tlic rs of atti-
rudc on thc part of thc com ponents o f or participante in this one
cpoch . ' l'ltcse antt udcs wcrc pr ojcctious of psydlOslKiolcgieal q,:os,
SOI1I(' anccstrnl, w'hcn facrd wit h sccia llv ncw crcumstences pre-
scnrcd by the time, It was Ortegn's dile mm a: '" am 1 aud my
.
ctrcurnstanccs. "
Ir might he suggestl'd thar th e exrrcmely valuablc autobiogra ph ic
mat erial elk-ited ami organiz cd by thc aut hor of t his innovativc
'" IO\.; k'ml s itself ro fnr ming ;1 quantirativc statistic:l1 record . bur
only in pa n . .\ la ny o f th c aut obiograp hical rract ionv are qualitat ive
and, for th at very rcason . all t hc more sig nifican tl.\" rcvcaling as 10
the naturc of the pe r iod under considerarion .
Thc author shou td cxplain that in pcrforrning thc in nova tivc task
uf cont rasring, ccmpar ing, ami arriving at conclusions in rCSpl'l't ro
intimare. personal, and even cnnfidcnr ial aut obiographics. he had
to tr)' to aSSUllle as stro ng a feding of l'm p;lIhy as possible. 111.'
anemptl'll lO placc himsclf wit h in the mind ;lTld fcclings o f each of
t he alltohiog raphl'rs who, after all, had agreed to be a s'lCl'il'S o f
cO:lllt ho r of this all-embral'ing , com prehensivc boo k. Em path)" ,
wh en fu lly rcalizcd , is an emotion al statl' Ihat makes one a p;lrlici.
pant in the reaclion s of a hl'terog l'lll'<lll S gro llp lo the sallle slim uJi .
It ttlJkes h im a kind of Eng lish nm'dist on a g rand scale. He
hl'<:omes sens ili\'c to imi mate d etails ami also lo dl'<:e pti\T ah era-
tions of intimate react ion, il1tH l'oll\'e lltional real' lions. I'crhaps a
h it of psychoanalys is cnt ers here, ;\ b it of psychoana lysis \\'it h
 Autbor's Preface lo tbe Pap'rhJc~' Hdilirm tvi
relations 10 rcality. On tbis poinr t hcrc is agree mcnt alllong sc icn-
rifi c obscrvers of such so cia l realirics :lIno ng I11cn in an agc thar
re nds re live more hy ana !og y 111;In by ra rionalit y or logic .
Among thc aurobiog ruphies clicircd and compilcd by thc author
of (lrder 1J1Id Progrf);, werc found varicus attcmpts on thc pan of
thcir autbors lo rationalizc altit ud es, but almost alwa ys thcy fel l
into contrurlictions. It is nor to Il(' expccted of an y age thal its
rnemb e rs livc in a strietl)" log iea[ ami rationa l manne r. Thcv do
not . Thcy livc to a largc cxtcnt with no lhollghl of rurionalit v Uf
uf informcd pracricc. Thcy live illogicallj-, intuitively, according lo
insrinct s or according tu the ulrrainxt inctual modern-day cquiv-
alcnts so strongly re pudiatcd by sorne psvcholo gisrs . C an ir he
rhat thest' in stinctual cquivalcnts will h e ro utcd by rhe am i-
instinctivists ? It is dou lnful. T he qucstion is com plcx. In a \\"ay , it
relates te thc oblig.nion on the part of ccrtain mcn in puhlic lift, to
have ccnfi dcncc in, ami admit te. their {)U'1l bcnt am i dispo sition
whtch . in rhe case of public figures. appcaranct' rcnds to conccat
nr disguise. So ir was wit h G t"t lio Vargas, who. wh cn asked
by the aut hor of Urder and P,ogress lo furnish autobiogra p h ical
material, rcfuscd te do so ; let me rqx'at , refuscd absolutcly.
Pcrha ps he hopc d lo avoid rc vcaling his esscnrial sel f in say ing:, as
he did ro me, "1 am not a ma n ti) rcvcel mysclf bUI one \\"hn r nust
he dcciphcrcd by ot hcrs." Onlv by suicide did he partlv rcvcal
himsclf.
In Urder and ProgreJs spccial unent ion is givcn to ncw Eu ropc an
presences in Bra l. \\"ilh th c foundiug of tln- rcpublic. their
n u m hcr sharply increased . Bcs t likcd wcrc rhc h alians. l Iard work-
crs, said many a Brazilian of good stock. y et not avcrsc lo Iratcmiz-
ing wit h rhe pcople of the land in cclebrarion of sainrs' davs. in
pro c ession s ami mer rymakiog: hght-opcra singe rs learncd w sing
Bra/jlian dillic!>. ([alians wen' lI ~Cfll l 111 tillo' llilti" nal l ' Cllll o lll y a ~
su b~t i t ll tc s for sla\"cs in the coffee seclor. In the en's of nol a fe\\"
Brazili ans, t hey had t'm ig rat cd to t he rcp llblic as ~oc ial Illessiahs
anointt-d w ith intcl ligence; I.atin am i C alholic, lil ey st'emed id eal
ror raising the k \"d of t'lIhure in th t" n ;lI ion .
:\1though Brazili:min "l.l G t"rmans might be \'a!m'd as dcsccndan ts
o f intclligelll Europea ns wi th a capacilY fo r hard \\"1l rk, Iht" idt'a!
for tTl:l ny of us sce mt'(l lO he Brat.ilian Lalioil)' . Ru )' BarlKJSa, io
an d( KI"cnt .s lx'<."1.'h, I'KJilltt'd out that thc c \"ilil.alion that would
elOhe llish Brazi! was nol Ihat of dcscem lalll s of the ( ;uarani hut o f
continuers of Ih e l.at in s.
h:ji Autbors I'nf ace to tbe Pllper!Jack Iidition
In t he early d ays of the rcpu blc thc rc wa s sorne talk of thc
ucccssity for Arvanizng thc nar ion's popu latio n , m aking it whitc,
or sl'cm ingly so .
Ycr we wcrc not wit hout a Roq uenc Pinto, ent husiast for Bral.il's
Ind ian or igi ns , not lo rncnrion his lucid , cnrhusiasric book Rundnia,
c-hich . of coursc, tb rcw into bold rclicf (h e figu re of Genera l
Ci ndi do Ronden. T he sume pcri od , ho w-c\.....r , could lxust a b ril-
liant c_x llIment of A ryanism in thc pers( ll1 of thc ''' lCiolog ist Olivcira
Viana , who wa s also a fine writc r .
Thcrc was no one 10 give his auenrion or parusanship to thc
Afro- ;":cgro whu, aftcr all, ha d bc cn so rcspon siblc for Brazil's
dcvclopmcut us a tro pical uarion . Tropicalitv was anot hc r Brazilian
subjcct avoidcd by rhinkc rs u f thc time. T here was an u nwilling-
ncss te recognizc thc fact tha t Brazil dcfinitclv bclongcd lo the
rropcs, thnr it wa s rclluricall y tropical .
Thcrc was evcn more un willing nesv lo rccog nizc a sympat hctic
valu in thc hybrid Braxilian, cvcn whcn cugenc . In th is rcgard ,
Ro q ueu e Pinto's scholarly uncrancc s{(lod alonc hUI 'la s soon
joitll"l! hy Ihal uf Froc s Fon scce, a maste r (JI' the su bject .
Onlv littlc by littlc would t he A rvanization m vr h be dis p oscd (JI'
rhroug h rccogniriou of the hybrid Brazilian's valu. that is. ni
course, whcn h e is cugcnic-cor whcn h e is of rhc fcmininc gcndcr
and, as suc h . praiscd fo r acst hctic qualitics.
A s lo t ha t , rh c crnpcror Ped ro 11 ha d ant icipated t his valorizarion
01' IIIt' Brazilian lad y tuuc hcd with Xcgro bluod but nf superior
cducation. hy bi s choice 01' a favorit c-c-cxuuordinary term for a
mi-ccgcncrcd wo man.

Rccife Gilberto Frcvrc

19K6
 lntroduction l o tbe Paperback Edition

1"011 Mus: Go 1I0me Again

Gilberto Frevre and tbe Brazilian PaSI

Th~ 1M" aw. km, "'a"J' >t rin!" dnd ha, a I",..in: un ,h~ ; f~ " f
~a, h and c'Tr~' onc " f \1': and lIle ,wdy ..f Ihi, 1"" , m"' e Ilu "
mere ' ''''''are h . 1><I fUlllma.;;ng: in rtw an-hiw>: ir , .., . ,hcmurc
III ..." ,it i, it ~, .

From enfant terrible lo grand old man , t he carec r of Gilbcrto

Frcyrc has bccn long, prod ucrivc, ami comrovcrsial. Ile publishcd
early in life. fi rst in [ 9 2 2 , whcn his mastcr 's thesis from Colu mbia
Univcrsiry. "Social Lifc in Hrazi l in t hc .\l idd lc of the Ninetecnt h
Centurv," appcsrcd in th c Hispanc AmericlJll Hstcrcal Recieu:' I Ie
was t wcnt )'-t wo al rh c tim e. N o \\' cighty-six, he has more rhan
fi ft y books and hundrcds of shorte r works ro his credi t . In rhe
English languagc alon c his bibliography excecds six l)" item s. and
hi s wcrk has bce n widcly t ranslatcd into Frcnch . Glrma n. Italian ,
Spanish, und j apanesc. ' Al homc, tbc irnpa ct of Frcyrc's work un

Epigraph. 1"tx .HolSlm- an 1'" Sla:n, ,<1 En~li, h- la"!1U 3;! e ,...l il ioo C":e\\ York, .\ Ifrcd .\
KO'~lf, , ,/.\6), 1' , Ii,',

' ''S,.: i. 1 Lif,' in Bro,il io lhe \ Iidd lc or lhe :"il><'1<",mh Ccm ury ," I/p""it .-1",,,;,,,,,
11;<10,*,,1 nr<m ', j , 1>0. " (" o,,cm!>er, ")" ), PI" W...(; jo.
, ..\ "omprcllcn<i' c l>ihli,,!!nphy ." , r n 'Y" 1>" y'" tu h., l' " bli,ll<'d . 'file 1""'1 In d31e,
\\'I>i"I> <,d,,<I.... m.g" im- . <1<1 n""" p"I" " . rt id .-" j, (",,,,<1 in (; ilh"rl" Frcy.., ()~'" ""o/hiJa,
In
lx l ntroduction lo tbe flaperhack Edition
int cllcctuallifc is hard to cxaggcratc . 111 1t)33 rhc pu blc arion of TIx
Jlasftrs and tbe Steces (Casa grallde e senzalai, thc first volumc of the
trilog y rhat is concluded here with Order and t'rogras . carne as both
revelation ami shoc k ami quickly cstablishcd his rcputation as a
lcading intcrprctcr of t he Brazilian pas!. T he work st irrcd con-
lron'rsy from the OUIs1't . For sorne, like novclist Jorge Amado. ir
wa s Sl'1,:11 as a revolutiun in Brazil's literature , cult ural life , ami
nat ional dcvclopmcnt ;' For or hcr s, it wa s a di stortion of hi story
bascd on an cxccssively sexual ami racial int er pretatinn of so cicry.
It was bot h hailed and condcmncd bccausc " f its rncthodolog y. its
h ighly d etailed contc nt , its literarv sty!c, ami irs bia s in rreating
social ami economic d eveloprncn ts ut th e l' X lt'IlSC of polirical
chrcnolog v. Ove- time, wha t had lxcn SC1'n as cithcr pion cer ing ur
audacious in the H)jOS had bccomc cla ssic nr pa ssf by t he II) Ros.
Whe thcr inaccurarclv branded as radical or rcact ionar v. Frcyrc's
work ha s ccrtain ly bc cn unorthodox ami individualist ic.
Abroad . Frcyrc was, along wit h O sear Nicmcyer in archit cct urc,
Jo rge "1I13do in fietin n, Cndido Port inari in painung, Ileitor Vila
Lo bos in music , and C armen Xti randa in fi lm, on e of the fcw
Hr.tzjljans of his gcncraron 10 gcin rccognition in the Unitcd Su tes
ami Eurcpc. H erc, too , public accla im carne carly whcn Sranford
Univcrsity invin-d him to be a vis iting profes-or at th c age o f
thi rtv-onc. ,\ long succrssion nf prives. honorarv degrees (Colum-
biu, San Marcos, Coimbru. the Sorbonne, M nstcr. S ussex], nnd
awa rds (including rhc presrigiou s Aspcn A ward] followcd. .-\ 1 agc
sen'nt y..one Qllc.'l'n Hizaberh 11 appointcd h im an l lon orary
Knig hr Commandcr of the Ordcr of rhe Hrirish Empire. .\Iore
important , howcver-, wcrc the contacts he estahlixhcd wit h inrellec-
tuals ovcrscas ami his interese in the developing rheorctical ami
r nct hodclog ical tcudcncics in hisrorv and the soc ial sciences. Fir st
in rhc Am erican Scbool in Recife. then as an un dergraduatc at
Baylor Univcrsity. ami later as a graduare st udent ;11 Columbia he
was d rawn to American scholarsh ip ami fel! undcr Ihe influencl' o f

blJl i"gr. phy hy Ed .. ," :"cry' ,1> Fo" ...."'. (Ri.. ,k J . nci...., ~"u :\ gu;l. r , "'i7 ). PI' . " '41-
.. >lI 7. s...., . 1.., F"m cra'. ..G il1>......" Fr.yrc ,'m tin(u. in!lba, - C;~J r "/'mpin>, " . no. ,
(j ll ly_l k..:cmher , . OjII .I ). I'l" l iJ -l~ :
' Jorge .-\".. <1.., 'C. ", !1rande e >Cll1al. ' C rC\"\l~j" cuh ur.I,- in (jil/vrJ o frry rt: ""f
.,'""a, ""' fif- fia , "'~ aY/r ( ~ i" ,k J . nei.,->; J'",,; ( l lymp"" ',It .. ), p. 1' . T hc , ~ her . n id c.
in ,hi, w lk...."t~' n " ffer . uricly of " 'o...,,"'....,, of his '"!'n1ribut i"",. ",ri!len 10 ' o", n",,,,,,r>!e
lh,' l\<'cnly_ft h . oni......, ..)'" . ,f Ca" l['~ndr r srn::ala. Fnr Freyrc', re' p" " " " l<> hi, c.i, in, ,",oc
hi. - 1'Td ..c 'o t I><' S" co nr1 Engli, h-l.a"gu' g' "'J i l ~ J!l" ,,( '( b< .1I...lm_ and l b< .~l<..." 1'1'-
ni ii_n iii. h iii-I".
 lntrcduction Ir! thr: Paperbact: Rdt an /xi
such acadcmc giants as thc gcologist John Caspar Branner, the
soc iolog isr Franklin Hcnry Giddings. the historian Carlron J. 11 .
I layes, and cspeciallv t he ant hropologist Franz BOls. Thc new
history: thc epplicaticn nf the scient ific merhod 10 the slud y of
socicrv ideas uf cult u ral diffusion, racial cquality. ami accult ura-
tion- all an ractcd h im and scemcd u scful approacbcs for ;1 bettcr
undcrsta nd ing o f Brazil. T hro ugh st udy ami rravcl Frcyrc also
gaincd an abiding apprcciatio n of Europcan thought ami showcd ,1
spcc ial affinity for Frcnch anthrop ologists. likc Rog er Hasridc. ami
historian s of the Anuales school." Il e lec ame 1Il importanr dual
cond uit , chan neling new ecadcmic cur renrs into Braxi! ami spread-
ing knowlcdgc of his homelaml abroad.
D cspite bis growing int ellcctua l cos mopoliranisr n, Frcyrc has
rema incd refres hingly p rovinci al. Thc more he rravclcd, rhc more
he feh a nced ro rer u rn te his "hometo wu" Rccifc, capita l of Per-
namb uco in Brazil's northcast . Thcre he could studv ami writ e ami
draw spirima l nouri shmcm fmm the famil iar surroundi ngs of his
boyho od pasl ami fmm t he intimare h islorical past of h is familv .
city . and rt.'g ion. :\hO\"(' all, Frcyrc is a regional w riter , w ho , as life
worc on , regulad)' dcclined \i sit ing appoin nuent s at prcsrigious
uuivcrsities in orhcr pa n s of Braxi l and in othcr countries in ordcr
to live in Apipucos (a suburh of Rcc ifc) and to work at thc Insti tuto
j oaquim Nabuco tic Pesquisas Sociai s (Thc joaquim Nabuco lnsti-
tu te of Social Rcsearch), which he foundcd in 1<)-+9 . Likc many
other grear regional writers, such as Thomas \\'olfe ami \\'illiarn
Faul kncr in rhc United Sta tes. he achicvcd a national ami uni versal
t ransccndcncc. bUI , Iikc Faulk ncr and unlike Wolfe, he elways fclt
cc r npcllcd to go home agai n. In ordcr lo understa nd h is vision of
Brazil ami the b roadcr Lu so-tropical world-c-thu t unique cu lt ural
variant wbich he bclicvcd thc Portuguc-,c had crcatcd nol only in
Bra l, but also iu " art s uf Atrlca und ,\ ~ i ,--olle m ust bcgiu with
thc zona da mala (t he tropical coasia l 7.om ') of Pernambuco. For it
wa s in this seuing, as hc put it , Ihat tlt h t'gan his utl co nsciolls

, Ilio~::ral'hica l ,k toil, on heF~ .re found " FU lKlJ ~ao) ( :trl i" Ya'l:.'. C'nr.... , k- 1',....
't'JI ,"' ,. 1 ), "" m.:n. ~i(J de 11' <lilri. G mtem p..r';n... ,~ , IIr. , I. J)rcl("'~r" hJiriMhiogrJfio
"r<Milti"', '\I_I (~ '<)8J (l !tio de J an" ir,,: Ft..-en", t.: tli\'er",~ri. , [l <!l.1), ' -01. >. pp, 1; ..... , ; 71,
. ntl hl"", S '''- d. Fu" "-,,,. , "-<:" "'<>]' 'l,i i. ,1. ,'itla e d. " ]," ," in G ill>,," o Freyre. Obra
n
NOIb1Ja. pp, 4' >-1>6 . "l'h,' ".-\n" . le, "..h. w,l ,,kr<; ,,, . t""'P of Fr"nch h<I" rian' " hu
emplu,in:d .h, iml,ort an", of ,...w '",ni." .",1 ,..ca] h"' ,,-y .".1 .ri,...I ." " ",,,. 'e .h. ."' hi,""...
of .l. ;ly life in rhe 1"" " Ir. "",,,bc..hl' nd ud,'<i ,\ b rc m<>ch, I.u,icn Fd " re, . ",1 h 'm."d
Ilra l1<1d ",1 ml l<"h "f Ih" " w"r~ " "' I' uh],hed in rhe ..- ,m al "\" ""1,,,. f:"' m""" " . J""Nlh.
rit'di$"' ~"J.
lxii huroduaion tu (be Pllperhllck Ed tion
prepararion to bcc omc a historian by askin g his gram lmot hcr qll CS 4

rions abour thc "good old days."

The patt{'fll S for thc cote u f Frcyre's historical w ork grew from
rhis reg ional urientat ion to a nat ional foc us in his rnastcr's thcsis.
'1'0 ser its tone h e opened with an epigrap h Irom the French writers.
rhc Bnnhers Goncourr , lo the cffect that history was bcst wrim-n
as a son of tr uc novel , that ir shouki be the int imatc historv of a
pcoplc. Il is sclf-statcd p urpo se in w rit ing the essay wa s to makc
olea r to hirusclf whnt Hrazil was reelly like, to know how pcople
livcd . wha t thcy wore, am i what rhcy loo ked likc. Ile so ught
ncirher to prai sc nor lo bla me, but onlv to tastc the joy oCund cr-
stand ing rhc old social ordc r." "tany who rcad thc essay, including
rhc A merican critic 11. L. Mcncken , urgcd Frcy re to expa n d his
work inro a book ." T h is he did with a panora mic in rerp re rarion of
the Brazilia n pasl , an cntcrp risc that was to takc hi m more rha n
thiny-fi vc years to com p lete . In what wa s tu bccomc t hc t rilog y ,
" Im roduction to rhc History of Patriarchal Socicty in Hraxil," he
moved from ex p lorillg patria rc halisrn in it s loc alizcd fo rma tion in
t hc colonial, tro pical Ilo rtheast-l ".be .\lasters und tbe S I(l'YS ( 1933 }-
tbrough it s rural decadcnce and u rhan adaptation en a bruad er
na tiona l lcvcl in thc cl'ntu ry spanuing Bra l's indepcndcncc in
db :-TIx .\llJflJiflns ami ibe Sbansies (19 36)--10 irs ulti mat c di sin te-
gration in the fift y -year pcriod of tran sit ion from slavcry to free
labo r and from mona rchy 10 re public . the 1870S to world War
I-- Ortier and /'rogrrss (1\)5 (}) , '
Tbrc ughour. Frcyre prefers 10 stress the undc rlying contin uit ics
to he found in Hrazil ian cult ure and rhc rol e o f the norrhcast as rhc
cradlc of what emerged as a distinctivc nat ion al rcalit y. By rhc
pcnod covercd herc in Urder and l'rrJg rm . the p roccss uf h istorical
development h ad bccomc quite complex wt h the d ecline of tradi-
uona l socicry undcr thc impacl of cosmopolita n am i mod ernizing
forces . Yel fm h im . il is pred sd y rhe hcrita ge of rhe colon ial am i
impl'ri al pas!, alollg ,,-it h ils pl'rsisti ng vest igcs . w hich transccmls
Ihe e" er changing naturc of lhe nati onal scene to gi\'e BraJ.I ils
~c me nf uniq uencss. Ilere again , as in the ea rl ier \'o lumes. ,,-h ile

~So.: ial l.ifc '" llra, il,-p. ;<J1 .

ltoid .
, I:' ey ' e , "l'rdacc l" lhe S<-cor.o Fngl i , h. Ldllg ua ~., hl ; tion . ~ p. ~h ~ ,
"'''''I'f
T I>.: Ji"l l.,,Ji';on, in Engli, h, . lI l'ul,l" h.,1 b ~' Atf, ...l .\ . in :S;c"" Yo.-I.. al'pc." " ,J
in ''141\, ,<1\" . n,1 ")70, " ' l,,-cl inly'.
 t nmd nction lo tbe I'aperblltk Edirion !xiii

trying 10 sy nthcs izc and dis til l the ('sscnn' of Brazil's historical
ex pc ricncc, Frcyrc ,liso strives to valorizc" thc pa sl in tellcc tually-c-
th at is, 10 ma kc it apprcciatcd as well as underwod . ro con\'ey a
positi vo as wcll as an uccuratc picturc o f the un iquc cont ributi nn
rnadc bv Brazil ro the flo w of wcste rn civilizat ion. In rbs cfforr he
plays the dual role of nationalist and histori an ,
Id eas of cultural and racial fusion are central ro Frevrc's histori cal
analysiv. natiunalist view, ami social thcorv. \\'ilh in thc parriarchal
structurc groundcd in a planration cconomv, the Porrugucsc.
American lndian s, and Afr ican X egrocs int crminglcd scxuallv and
socially in a more in timare fashion than clscwhcrc in t hc Am rica s.
Thc rcsult , he i1 rglles , lcd l O a Catholic , Lu so- tropical cult ure more
opt.'n lo msccg cnarion, which al first dcvelopcd a softcr form of
slavery and eventually a Iy pe of socia l d emo cracv which was not
pla gucd by the rgid colo r han-icr s rhat characterizcd ra cc rcla rions
in thc U nitcd Su tes for so 1111Il)" decades. 111.' also arg l\('s rhat thc
socicty was more o pen tu non-I bc rian . Europea n elcmcnrs than
was mosr of S pan ish Americe. Unlike carlicr Hrazilian w ri({'rs whn
be moaned the mong rcl aspccr of rhcir so c ictv and advoc atcd
policics of whin-ning and Europcanizarion , Frcvrc hcld this fu sion
ro be the great strength and contribu ti.m of Brazilian cult ure. In
t his he applicd more mod er o ant hropological views of cult ural
auronomy and racial equality lo h is histori cal iuvestiga rion . At rhc
samc lime . by carryi ng thc argumcnt for Brazil's socia l dcmo c racy
lo thc point u f exaggcration , he was in effcct crcating new natjonal
myth s and Icft hi msclf n pl.'tl lo fut ure chargcs o f whitewavhing Ihe
count rv's record wirh rcspcct lo race rclations. Bc t hat as it ma y .
h is contr ibu t ion here as J nationalist has bc cn formida ble. As thc
Colu m b ia U nivcrsit y historian Frank T annenhaum has poinrcd
out , onc major sign ifi cance of Frcvrc's work has been it s SI ll'CC SS in
ch;lIlgi ng Brazil's imagc o f it w lf. 1le hcl p.......1 tu d avh \\ hat w as once
a national inferioriry com plcx ; he ha s giH'1l Hrazilians J pndc in
w hat Ihc)" are ami a n ew h asis for con fi dcncl' in Ihe fu lu rc . '"
In Ihis \"Olu mc. Order and /'rogrm , mYlh making" y iclds to h isto r-

, T I.... term ,. I"ri." or ".I..r;1.a ti"" i. ..h e" "",tl 1>)' FrcJIl: . ud < ~ he r IIr31 ili. " \\ riter, ;"
the ;"nerol "'''''' .. f "nh."cin; l he ,. l" e ..f ",",ething. lt, ",.~ ,tem, fr"", the ,'.r,..",
" '~ Jril-"I i,," 1'1. " . ;"'1'' '''-..1 by Ihe II r i!i. " .:< " ,..-mm<nl <ince the early nH' nticth centll r~
lo ' "1'1''''' hihcr cnff"" prin., .
,. #lm" KI" cti,," ro ( ;IIJ.m .. Fre) re-' Tbe ,1/dJl$JQJlS ,;IIJ be 5b.mlm l'\c\\ Y..rk, .\ lfr<-..J .\ ,
n

l<:. n" I'f, ' <I.M), 1'. x;.

ls n : l nmduction 10 tbe Papt'rback Edition
ical analysis . :\ vari ct y uf sourccs in th e ch ap rers "Polines ami
Raci al Problems" ami "Misccgcnariou , " cspc cially in (he latrcr ,
rcvcal the coruradictory racial views hdd hy many Hrazilia ns who
livcd during t hc perio d undcr considcration . ,\ h ny felt that blacks
\H'rC inferior , ar lcast sociallv if not racially. O thers claimcd tha t
w h ile thcv wcrc wirhout prcjudicc pcrsonally, sorne degrcc o f social
st igma was linkcd 10 racial mixing. ami th at they would not lx-
pleascd if a closc fumily mcmber wcrc to marry a pcrso n of color.
Certa inly. th e fi n al abolition o f xlavcrv had oponed wider 0 pror~
tuniries for cthnic dcmocracy. ami cxa mplc s are g in:n u f black s and
mula ttoc s \\ ho achi cved high pusitions in socictv. Thc prime exam-
ph-, alt houg b hc himvclf miglu 1101 ha vc apprccia tcd hi s rccognit ion
in rhis reganl , was th e rcnowned writc r xl achado de Assis. w ho
servcd a ~ fou nd ing prcsidcnt of the Bra lian Aca demv uf 1.cncrs.
Xonethcless. problcms of discrimination rem ained . and polirica l
powcr cominucd in the harnls of whires in n-publican Bra l as it
had undcr the ernpire .
.\Iore broadly, Frcyre pai nt s ;1 vivid picturc of Brazitian so c iety
in its ever incrcasmg complcxit v around thc rum of thc ccn turv .
I Icre he has hud lo confront a widcr arrar of topics than in ea rlicr
volumes. l Ic rrcats ncw cronomc torces. like indu srrv : tbc changc
o f polit ical svste m; ~ h ifti ng regional balances, from northcasrc m to
sout hcm predominance: and ncw p att erns of demography ami cdu-
canon. The pa no rama i~ vastcr, yct Frcyrc's love of detai t rcmain s.
Lisrs of forcign words in daily use have repla ccd rhose of ludian
ami A frican o rigin; rhc Iavtcr p ace of lifc on the avcnuc, in cafs,
shops. and the arcrs, is dcscri bed instead of more staric rnutincs of
rh c plantation ; ami the tri uruph of Frcnch styles in architccrurc
over rhe t radiri onal Pcrt uguesc appcarance uf th e colonial Big
I louse is made cleur. .vlerc hams, professionals , politicians . milita r)"
officcrs. ami intcllcctuals, nor t hc plantcrs ami lheir sla\"Cs. fo rm
Ihe ne w d ramat is lX'rsonae , Even mure kakid{l.~cnp ic (ha n in lhe
carlicr \"( )lu mc~, Frey re giws a marwlou s fccl ing for tifc of the
tim l'S ami , d espite his grealer maturity as a w riter ami h i...torian ,
mlintains an l'tlllal1y high k vcl of entlm siasm for h i ~ ~ lI hjl'Ct.
Order Iwd Pmgresr is a l~o morc cOlllp lex in il.'> llleth()(lology as \\'e lt
as more personal in it s appm;lch. In addi tion lo the \\'ea h h of
d oculTlelHary sources of the Iy pl.:s lIsed t'arlit'r, Frer rl' ha ~ crea ll'tl
addilional pc r~ulla l t e~ lall1cn l~ by gat hering 1.]1Icstionnaires fmm
[RJ Bralian s who li\"l't1 d uring Ih l~ pc rit)(1. The ~ample was drawn
lO re pre .~ent diff('rent gl'og raph ic regions, ~t'.\l'S , a ge~ , l'I.llIcaliol1a[
 t ntrod nction to tbe /'aper/Jadt tcdition /.\1.-'

levcls , and occuparions." In rhis w ay he cnuld rCllucsl answers lo

spc cifi c historical or socioam hropological qucstions-c-suc h as vicws
on msccgcnation-cof aJI rcspondcnts. This dircct personal interne-
tion bct wccn the aurhor ami his sou rces was, of co urxc, not po ssiblc
in th e ca rlicr volurncs . On another lcvcl. too, th is wor k \\3 S in-
tenscly personal fo r Frcyre . Il c is dea ling with the pcriod in which
he was IM)m ami about w h ich he had hcard stories all his life, fmm
his parenl s, grand mcrhcr, fri cnds, ot hcr rclati ves, and scrvnn t s.
For him , thesc werc indced thc "goo d old days ." Thus . addcd lo
h is in cli natlon for hislorieal nostalgia wa s a personal in volvem cnr
ami capabilitv th at made the attainment of his id eal of int imare
bistory all t hc more possiblc. In nuny reslI..'Cl s this person al con-
cem hclps lo makc Order and I'rogn rs Frcyrc's fines l work ami
certainl y a strong ami fitt ing conclusion lo hi s Irilog )' on pat riar-
chalism in the Brazilian pasr. including h is id eas o n it s ext ension
into thc p re Sl' nt and rh c futuro.
Reg io nal in its inspirmion. nat ionalistic in int cm , int imatc in
sclcct ion and trcaunc nt of dctail, artfullv crafrcd, lIlelluH.lo l()gkally
bold, ami invit iugly per sonal. rhc hisrorical \\ork of Freyre. e spe~
ciallv rhe volumes of bis Iriolog y , sta nd s as hi s greatcst conn-iburion
lo Brazili an scholarship ami lcttcrs . l Iespirc formal tra ining in
sociology ami ant hropotogv, his works in thesc ticld s, as profcssion-
allv delimitcd . are less signi cant . .\ toreO\"t'f, Frcyrc- is hard lo
classify in a disciplinarv scnsc: his " esl wor k is mult idisciplinarv.
The Frenc h h istorian l .ucicn Fcbvrc unce mused ubout TIx ,\Justen
and tbe Staoo: \Vas ir rhc I,M M)k of a historian or the IM)ok of a
sociologist? Hi s conci usion was thar it did not rua trcr: it wa s t he
book uf a man about man o' 1 Frank Ta nncnbaum ndded Iatcr that jt
was rhc work of a major creativo scholar, thi nkcr , and lirerarv
artist. ' Pcrhaps Freyre's (1\ \ n descripticn of himsctf as a "scicntific
h urnan ivt' is r uoxt ap propriarc ; ' fo r il im pl i ~' s t he merg ing of the
sciemific lllelh()(.1 ne\\" ly applil'tl to soc ioh islorical analpis wth Ih e
older hclktrisl ic ap proJ.ch o f th(' trad itiOll;JI pensador, Ihe type of

" Th~ 1,."Unll"ms " ...re h.... ,,;ly ,'l.litN fu.. ;nd u,.,,, in IOC En~I; ,hI. ,,:u':'" <~I l " '" 1,,,1...
1" I" od 1>)' " "" pf, . nd 111<: OO"'l'kl'" 1.>;"I;' .l'h....1 I,,n: ,,{ lh~ , ~ .. ~' I. " I<l ...n" " .. o",iuN
cm;,dy. F.., fh...", " ..... t;, lheno F",)" re, (),drm P"1-lT"tm!, H ~ . , ( 1(" .1... J.,,,.;.....: Jo'"
O J)", p;" . ' 9591, PI' lnwi-ewi;.
" "l: n sr.nd li" ", >u , le lI,t s;l." .i n"uln; t:,.,nom;n, " /s, rrc'i/i...;",,,. ~ , no, ,I IJ ul\"
S';I''''",I,,'r, "15 l, PI'. ..,........ "'.
" " IOlr,. I" <',;" ,,," "l"ht , 1I~n"'m' ""d IIv SM'l/ln, p, ""
lO "I'n:la."" 1" Ih.' Engli,h, Lans". .:-e Ftlifion, " Ord" ",, I'm!:rro C"" " Y"r k: .\ lfr<s l .\ .
Kllop!". "no), p, H";;,
 t ntroduction ro tbe Papt'rback Hdit irm
nonprufessional thinkcr ami s ocia l critic who had prcvailcd in Bra zil
until Freyrc's gcn eration. In t his scnse, Frcyre was borh ;1 cont in uer
o f thc old ami a harbi nger of t hc ncw, a p ivota! and t ra n sitiunal
figu re wh ose work wil l havc enduring importan ce ami appea l." Il is
hisrorical studics are of valu, then , not onlv for t hcir inr crprcration
and descr iprion of thc pa,q, bUI alsc for their rcvelation s about
cOllIl'mporary inrcllcctua l life in Brazil.
Than ks to th e long-tcrm interest of Alfrcd ami Hlanchc Knopf
who fi rst l.rough t TIJe Masu r; and tbe Slaoes, FIJe ,uIJIlJOflS and tbe
Sbanties. ami tlrder 11111/ t'rogress to thc English-rcading publie, and
to the Univcrsitv of C alifornia l'ress which h as now rcp ublished
all thrcc volumcs in th is uniform papcrback cdition , Frcvrc's major
historical wo rk is again availablc to rcadcrs who would likc to share
th e author's joy of unde rstandi ng thc old soci al ordcr. In so doi ng
thcy wil l come to ha vo a dccper app reciation of p rcsen t-day Hrazil,
to SlT sorne o f wha t lics bchind it s dvnamism , it s p ositivo sdf-
image, its problcms , ami it s confi dence in rhc fur ure. The forcign
rcadcr ma)" also broadcn his perspectivo of Bra l wirh othcr works
nuw av a llablc in Fng lish . Classcs suc h :lS Ret ettion i n tbc HdCklllrlds
(Os srrtocs) by Euclid es d a Cunha" am i th e ocvels of .\ I:Kll;Id o de
Assis, for cxa m ple, h clp ro give balance tu Freyre's view of Hra-
xilian devclo pmcnt at t he un-n of the cl'lltu ry. Fo rrunarclv , a g row-
iug ourput by Hrazjlian authors appears in Engti sh eH'ry )'l'ar. th us
bringing lo a widcr aud icncc works rhar carlier might ha vc re-
maincd "buried" in thc Portu gucsc languagc. Hccausc of cxrensive
sourcc cira rion in notes ami sup plemcntery h ibliog raphics, the
Frcyre volumes also serve as a gui dc lo further srudy on Hrazl."
Gilb c rto Frcyrc contines to stud y, write , lec t urc, travel occa-
sionally . ami ('n joy life at hom e in Apipucos o n th e outskirts o f
Recite. l l s last book , in fact , is a sketch on thal sulJll rh. Thl'fl' he
lin 's wirh h is w ife iu t he Big I fou sc, sur wu nd ed hy l)1M )ks, mCIlll"n-
tos, ami Olt'tllories, by his cau e coltect ion aud fami ly I'M Jrl ra its. I le
is plcascd {hat Apipu('os has be('n ahle lo resist the mo st di saslrou s
iuro,lds of uri u tlizat ion aud t hat pl'' Opk th Cfl' can st ill turn lo t he

" ,\ l uch (lf Frey"" , " (lrl i, r<li"larly ....;" " ,..1 in Ilronl . n,1 . lIr",,'! Ca", l:rtmJ, , :(m ;;;/"
. l,," c h"s g< "'c Ih ruugh mure Ih. " l\O enry.;"c edi rinns . nd l'ri nl;ngs, m. l inll ;1 Ulle uf IOC
. !l-li"", 1l.."1 fI"fI"h, II, ,,- ili. ,, Iww.k. F... ehild....1l ir h.. n C1l "p \,eu<~l In a pil'rlJ' i. 1
' -<'" i,"', Ca", g,.a.nd, , fNfO<1 Ia. m1 qu.uinnhm (R.., lk J anci,,,, EJ , R,,,si!-"\ m ril'. , ,'K, l.
.. F,.. d " l,', da <:ul1l1., R,bd lk", '" Ibr na."k/ilnd< (Chicag", e ni","i,,- uf Ch;,: >!!" f'rc",
' w-+ )' 11,is " " , l , lih ' rbr .11"'1'" nd IIx Slat'a , " as lramlatl...J b\' Sanllld Pllfnallf , "hu
ca ll s fJ, <nl ks ll,..,il\ wea ll"ll I:o:"k" (p. iii).
l ' T he R..7ili." <..lil i"", al"\> ,'' '''' (" 11,,, .nd " " " l' 11 ,,-,(,,1 In ,h, re' I""'I,
 t ntrodncuon lo tbe PaptT!ltlck Edition
goo d thi ng s in life-c-rnusic. rhe festival of San Joao as it is cele-
bran-d in rh e interior . C hrisnnas. N cw Ycar's, ra ising ch ickrns .
and plant tng jasmine . Thc typical ltrazlian houscs rcman. rhcrc
is no violcnr cr imc. no mansion of a nouvcau tichc, no drugstorc.
ami no mise-y. Thcrc {he older townspcoplc likc hi mself of more
thn n eig hty )TarS , ca n spcnd thcir tim e ndmiring 1l00H'rs am i tas t-
ing th c mnngoes and cashcws frum thci r orchard s;" as if wa it ing
lo bccomc a par! of thc Brazilian pasl which Frcvrc h as 100 l and
undcrsroo d so wcll .

l o s Angeles Ludwig: La uc rb ass. Jr.

Scpre mber Il)K6
Order and Progress
 :<:
"'" "
"a AMA ... o N

""-
~

",."" I

8""'711 Mn~

T' ' '''EII

."'".II
)
''''..u

z
' -\:':':';':";";1
""(, 7 ,"'U II
R I L

.. ,.....c.

J1ain products of BraziJ

in tbe earlv
twentietb century
 A T I . A S TI C O CEAN

.\lik r ~_C=:-_C=:-""!
"

,,, ..."","~
:
I

,
o"
~i'~ ,
"
/. 'l....
.., <>
.-' T O GROS SO '1'" .
"'.~.,,

O
.l.
".}
( " 1. , '
"

., l '. ,

BR A ZI L
r wr iall~ poli l

mo GR A N es
...... U'A"'... I in tbc early nsentetb centur y ,
DO S U L including .veas considcred territo nes.
' _'.
'.
"~
furlO "It'grt '"
}'''' ' ' . ;4lcl lll>s
Tb e ctes are tbose tbat tonrisbvd

II IUJ,U,,(y !
,
~,Viti . ~
;11 tbat periodo
 The Fifteentlt rif Nooember

I s 18 8 9 AS narncd Ed ward Frcderick Knig ht

E'SGU SIL\l AS
found himsclf in th e tropical wa rers of thc Arlant ic. involvcd
in a Robcrr Louis Srcvcnsoni an ad venture : that of scarching rhe
Brazilian island of Trindadc' for rhc vast trcasure of ccclesiasrical
gold and silvcr t har had rcpuredly bcen buricd t here by a
mys tcrio us band of mm in 18 1 1. Accordi ng ro rhc lcgcnd- w hich
is at certain points con fi rmcd by history-at t hc bcginning of the
nincreenrh cenrury pirares had rnade a pracrice of sacking Spanish
ships rhar we rc rransporting colonial rrcasure ro Spain to avoid ies
falling joto rhc hands of rhe republic ans during rhe wars of inde -
pcndcncc. T hc buriel of th is t rcasure was chus probebly pirares'
doing.
.\tr. Knighr was no ordinary En glishman. but rarher a cultivatcd
man whosc descript ion of his Hrazilian advcntu re is onc o f rhc more
interesring narrativos in rhe exranr lireratu re uf buried rreasurc. Bis
descriprion of rhe event is min ute: t he painsraking descriprion of a
failu re. Hut t he book, althoug h almosr cntircly about t his dcserrcd
and mysrcrious island, makes occasional referencc to contine ntal
Hrazil .
Salvador da Babia scrve d as a contin enta l bcachhead for rhe ad-
vcnturers of rhcse o\'ergrown and pcrhaps none too bc nevclenr
childrcn bound for the island of T rmdade. Seen for the firsr rime
[ r um t he bey o n a moonlir n ight. Salvado r p rcscnred a bcauriful

1 1'rinda.le is a Bru ilian i,land off the coa, f of Riu de jarwiro, nor IU be (on_
fused wirh the British "Iand uf T rinidad (al,,, called Trndade in Portug ucse), ~l r .
"' night's . hip was the Alerte. (1' un,b'or. )
6 a rder and Progress

picrure for thc adrniration o rhc Brit ish visirors. T hc chu rchcs and
houses o rbe u ppcr c ity sccrncd to glisten Iike marble, palm trces
and ot hcr tropical forms of \'cgctaton broke into the cvcning sky ,
forming a charming backdrop fo r the vasr patrern uf houses and
wcll-lighrcd srrcers. In rhc lower city rhc buildings sccmed to rhc
men of rhc A lert e ro he cmcrging majcstically dircctly from thc
glistening moonlir warers.
But mu ch o rhis sup poscd magnifi cencc was drasrically modified
rhe nexr moroiog whcn thc English mcn saw t he l-iry by rhc lighr of
day . Romantics only at night, rhcse dayrimc realisrs of the A lerre
saw that rhe old "Portcgucse city," w hile undoubt edly picrurcsque.
cou ld with difficulty be considcrcd "magnificcnr." 2 Filrhy streets
. .. A confusion of screaming co lors-of peoplc, anim als. 1'ar-
ro ts, t he tur bans of N egro womcn, rhe strange fruits . . . An
cq ual confusin of strange smclls in g reat va riety. thc srnclls of pov-
en )' and diseasc, possibly cvcn rhat of rhe drcaded ycllcw fever.
A ciry of noise as wcll: uf church bells consrant ly rolling an d
fircworks r-onrinuallv exploding in midair in w hat K nig he desc rib es
as t he Bahian obsession wit h a constant cele bration of hol)' days.
T he ciry is callcd rhc Ciry of Al! Saines prcciscly bccause every da)'
of t he year is marked as rhe festival of one of the bcarified the
parron of one of the guarrers of thc city, or of sorne strccr, or sim-
pI)' of sorne individual f amily. If rhc racket of thesc barbarous rcli-
gious cclebrarions ever ceased, J\ 1r. Knig hr fclt , the inhabirants of
Salvador would be rcrrifi ed. ce rt ain thar sorne g rcat misfortune had
suddenly descended upon thc city: carthquakc o r re volu tion.
From Salvador, t he Englishmen of rhc A lerte co nrinucd ro rhe
island of T rin dade, inrcodin g to ret urn to the capital of Bnhin after
a few mom hs of persistcnt search for a pe rhaps rnyrhic al rreasure."
T his rcrurn, thc firsr of two, took place in january. 1890, on which
occ asion rhc explorcrs norcd thar a strangc flag Hoared ovcr rhc
forrs and puhlic build ings. as we ll as frolll Ihe masts of the small
BraziJian boa ts in t he bay oT his fl ag was unli ke an)' banner Ihey h;ld
seen bcfore. \Vhat had happened in Brazil? \Vhat kind of rcvolu-
~Edward r, Kni~ tlf : T br Cmiif uf ,be A lerte. Tb r S JTTJfit.r of J SeQTcb fo,
T , r"su, r on fbc Derert 11llm J uf T ,i" iJ"J (London, 1!lQo), p, 140.
3 1t is I"""ibk that K n igh l' ~ expcdid on un T , ind. dc conu ibuted lO the Britsh
uccupat iun of the i~t and a fc", yn rs lat~r. The ca<.e "'as s.et'l lcd Ihrough Ihe media.
tion uf Po"ug~ l s lC1lueslcd by the Brazilian F o re i~n .\ l ini, tcr. Counsclor Carlos
de Car, . lho. T he incidem h~, been ttcaled rccendy by J. de C:l.~ ro :-Ouncs in
Algulls lfomrm do Mnl T rmpo (Rio de Janeiro. ' 957 ) , p, ~6.
 T be Fiteentb of N ocember 7
t ion could have taken place? Thc Eng lishmen wcre mysrified until
'\Ir, Knighr, upon cnrcring [he small boar rhar was ro rakc him
ashore, questioned thc oarsrnan. in bad Portugu esc. as ro rhe mean-
ing o f rhe chango. The Negro replicd wit h an inditferent air, "Ah,
rhc Repu hlic ." T he answcr was so <.'001, so matter-of-facr, so
much like thar o f rhc E ng lishman in a thousand Brazilian jokes, rhar
\ 1r. Kn ig ht was convinced that thc Hrazilians were a people " al-
mosr oriental" in thcir aparhy: an indolenr racc. ~
An E nglishman residcnt in Baha," a ship's ch andlcr named \ \'il-
son, larer oflercd a mo re derailed cxplanation: rhere had bcen a
Rcvolution thar had drivcn "rhc bcloved Empe ror" from rhe
throne. Ir had heen a rhird-rate Rcvolut ion, ro be sure, without a
single casu ahy to lend ir dignity o r respec eabihry. Thc people, said
Mr . t v ilson. secmcd to be ashamcd of thc cvcnt and fcw cven
ment ioncd ir in rhe city.
Pcrhaps :\lr. \Vl son undcrestimared t he local apat hy. Pcrheps he
didn'r realize rhar thc City Council of Salvador hall officia lly raken
a proud stand againsr rhc Republic. proresting its solidariry wirh t he
Ernpcror. Or thae this anirudc, in lcss ostensible form, had bccn
voiced by many ind ividual Bahians who, like most Brazilians of
rhcir t ime, werc luk ewa rm adhcrcnrs of rcpublicanism and rolcrared
rhe idea of a ncw rcgime (01)' so long as ir guarantecd them the
same order and unir)' rhcy had enjoycd for so many years under rhc
Empire,"
t Knighr, op. cir., p. ' -f0' T hc national l1.ag had m,t yet hu n cho,en at the rime
of "Ir. Kniglu 's arr ival in Baha afeer his t", " isil 10 lhe isJ and of T rindade lhe
one he saw flri og o ver rhe fo rts. public buildings . and hart><Jt eraft was mercly that
u f th c oew srate of Bahia.
S Ibid. p. JO~.
6 lt is c u'tom ary in Hrazil lo cmploy rhe seare name in refeuing 10 rhe capilal
city of Bahia. T hu" the names Saha d"r and Hahia are uscd interc hancably.
(T renstaror.)
f Th i ~ au itudc extended n en lO the fo rmer nobtuy. T he Baron do Rio Branco,
a me mber of the Paranholl family and SO " uf a Bahian vir.cu unt, cuntinued loyal ro
rhe uId regime ah hough condcscending ro lhe exisrenc e of rhe new in rhe inrer_
esrs of dome'tic o rder and econornic pr"gre"~. Rio Branco w roee ro Ruy Barbo, a
(acc<Jtding 10 the hi,w rian Luis Vana ) t hat rhe <u""tion was 1l<Jl une of
choice " between lllona rehy and repu blic. hur l..::rw een repuhlie and anarchy.' .\ l ay
rhe new regme ,ucceed in " rn aintaining nrde r, a' , uring . like rhe fomler. the in-
tegriey. rbc pt<! pricry, and thc glury of our great and belo\"ed Btazil and at rhe
saruc time in eo nsolidating th e liben ies l..::qucathed us hy ou r fordarhers. llberti..
rardy found in SO man y so-c alled rcpublics of Sourh Am enca." T his, cond udcd
Rio Bronco, was his "mo' t sincere desire" (jo", Carlas Rodrigues: Religits
ANI/icQS (Rio de janciro, lYOO ), p. 11 9/ .
8 arder and Progress
Ir is certain rhar among Brazilians in gen eral th ere wcrc many
who conformed immcd iarely and casily ro thc victo ry o rhc Re-
public Mee rhc monarchy: a monarchy which. largely rhrough rhc
weakness o rhc Emp erne. had shown irsclf incapable o otfcring
armed resisrancc ro rhc dcclaration o f thc fifreemh o Novcmbcr.-,
rhar surp risc mo vc befare which even thc harons o rhe Empi rc had
momenr arily bccn srruc k durnb. Thc almosr suicidal way in w hich
thc old regimc had marchcd row ard its downfall had caused cvcn its
natu ral allies ro fee! indirfercm ro the fare of the Crown. H ow then
cou ld rhe simple folk-ceven those Negree s and mesriros whose
gratitude ro Princcss Isabel should have bccn strong cnough (oc
thcm ro oppose an)' republ ican movemenr-e-bc expccrcd ruiracu-
lously to become sud dcnly unired in the facc of rhc new regime?
Still, there had becn sorne token opposirion ro rhc new Rcp ublic
on thc parr of the rcccntly cmancpared blacks. T he ne wspaper Ita-
tiaia in t he provincc of Rio de Janciro stared rhat ex-slaves had t e-
fused ro w or k "on the plantanons w hose owners had jo ined rhc
rcpuhlican party.~ ::Ill('ging rh:u rhey would nnr serve pcrso ns rebel-
ling against rhe Princess R egenr who had fr eed them. There were
othcr manifcsrarions of rhis so rr as wc ll." 9 And "rhc g eneral public
would d ispense itsclf Hr)' willingly o this bencfit [the Republic ]
that tbe spiteful and sclfish had accordcd rhcm wirhour consult ing
rheir wishes o r c cnsidcring their t radirions," said the Era No ca in
an editorial of J anuary 27, 1902. " l oe Irccdrncn saw t he Prineess as
rheir rcdeem er and idolizcd her. . . . AII Hrazilia ns except a small
number of rcpublicans wc re ovcrcomc with asronishmenr when
th cy lcarned t har thc Republic had be en proc1aimed in R io de j a-
. "
ncrro.
There was rhu s among rhc colored peoplc a dccp-seatcd spirit of
g ranrude to thc parcrnalisric monarcby for having given rhem rhe
prorecnon necessary for thcir dcv elopment in a democracy that
was rruly social. j oaquirn Xabucc remembercd (bis whcn he cired
thcse g cnuinc ly expressive srarcrnenrs by rhe fine ReboUt;as,t a pu re
Negro, on tbe attitude o f the Brazilian monarchy toward bis peo.
pIe: the Porr ugu ese court, from its carliest days, had tried " tb rou gh
its w ise pronounccment s, incorporatcd im o la\\', to comb at and ex-
~
A Pr<x :incu (July , o, IRIl9).
9 According ro oral ' ''''im"ny gh'en in H}4 1 b y vari"us p"f>OIlS who r..calk d ,he
event, of the p<' riod. amon g ,h..m , he Bam o..ss (lf Bonfi m.
1 Aodr Rehou". , (J S,!i- l i'tl)/l ), d"'e fri.."d .nd . dvi,e r of Pedro 11, ..,nies as
one of ma"y ..umpl... " f ,h e f.c' lh a, ca"ial c h' '''''leri., ks "'ere nol in th..msehes
bar ro adnnc..mem under ' he Empre. (Tran.ln or.l
 T be Fiteentb of N ovember 9
tingu ish entirely :m y prejudice aga insr rhc acciden r o f race in all
colon ial territories." T hus, according ro Reboucas, "all men of
mixed blood should particularly dc fcnd rhc consrirutional mon-
archy, an insrirution which mig br not be so vital to orher Hrazilian
cirizens." 2 C onsequendy, thc so-callcd " Imperial Black Guard"-
formed out of gratimdc by hu mble N egrees and mestiros- rose to
rhc dcfensc of t hc monarchial cause which had rraditionally pro-
rccted such people againse rhc wealt hy.
Perhaps rhc reaction of ,\ Ir. K night tu t he rcpu blican Revolurion
of lSR9 had nct bcen bis alonc or that of his corup anions in adven-
ture, bur also t har of numerous Europeans in contacr wirh P orru-
gucse A merice and symparhctic ro t he rctent ion of rhc r nonarchist
fonn of govcmment wh ich still formeJ. a sort of bridge ro the cul-
ture of t he O IJ. World. In al! other parts of Latin America, rhe
predominating rcpublicanism had become nororous for its turbu-
Icnce, for rhe frcqucncy of irs rcvolurons, for rh e cndless pa rado of
its leaders. generally mcssianic gcnerals who bccarne Prcsidenrs by
decrce. O nlv, arisrocraric Chile and ,\ I exieo were free from rhis state'
o f things, rhc lan er because of t he somewhar bcnevclenr Posirivisr
dictarorship of Don Porfri o . Brazil was the on ly nation thar for
y ears had avoided the com mon uproar known as Larin republican -
ism, which ma)' have been t he real reason for thc political "apat hy"
that Mr. Knig hr regarded as a racial c haractcrisric.' Or ber short-
sighrcd Eu rope ans shared :\Ir. K nigtu's attitude, and it was thus
that the s!<lry has beco tcld and rcpeatcd in the orficial hisrory
bcoks. Bur ir was nor in [act so. "With rhe proclamation of the
Hrazilian Republic, hlood was shed in Sao Lu is (de :\1aran hao ) by
severa! Negrees who were convi nced rhar they owed their Iibcny
ro rhc rhronc," records a Positivist and republican sympat hizer,
Jos Luso T rrc.s (b. Maranho, IS79)' "Thc bullers which killed
them wcre fi red by a plateen of thc Fifth Battalion and after thar I
respecred ,\ t ajor T avares T rres [commander of rhe plateen ] more
rhan ever."
T hus Luso Trres's dcposition was aetua lly in favo r of the re-

2 ]oaquim Sabuco: O D t'I-"CT dos .\fon0J7quiJtas- Carta ao A l miTanu ]a Cff{uay

(Rio de Janciro, ' 8<)5), pp. S--9.
~ Knighr: op. d r.. p. J05.
t Major T ann: s Torr~ ({\llore engineer and fr equemer of lhe lect\l n:s of
T eixeira .\ 1endes of che Po,irivist Aposrolare in R;o de j aneiro ) , ",hen <cill a small
bay in Maranhi o had becn 50 envious of lhe gold braid and the sen..: uf impo rtance
of maior milif3 ry offi ccr'l rhat he cnrollcd, u 3n adulesecnt. in thc militilry college
u Praia Vermelha and "'ent hum fhere lo Ro Pu do.
'0 arder and Progrcss
publican soldier in .\Iaranh ao who had nor hesitared ro a rder rhe
shooting o unarmcd Negrees fa ithfu l ro rhc monarchy. If in rer-
cospcct such loyaley is value d above orhcr virtues. we alsc have ro
recognize that there was considerable confusion in thc conscence
of Hrazilians o 1889. to rced as rhey wcrc ro choosc betwcen rhc
rhrone and t hc Republic. Bur we muse 3150 recognzc those heroes
ami martyrs ignorcd by official histo ries, texts which, in rheir direct
and narrow way, have a rcndency ro support rhe w inn iog side. T he
N egre es who {el! vicnrn to Major Tavares in Sao Luis de
'\Iaran hio. fc rmer slavcs who sponraneously came ro the support
of rhc rhron c rhar had givcn thcrn thcir Irccdorn......crc among rhose
over lookcd by hisrory. It s hard indccd 10 understand why (he
readi ness o f loya l I\'cg roes and ex-slaves to fight for rhe monarchy
should cver have bcen dcnied . In Maran ho, severa! fcU at thc hands
o f t he co ward ly sold iers of "bjnr T avarcs. A nd in Rio de j anciro.
orhers wcrc shor down by rcpublican yourhs arm ed likc rhe soldiers
with rifles ag ainsr a so-callcd "Black Guard" carrying simple ta.zors
or clubs bearing rhe lcg end "Perrpolis." ~ The seccnd story is
vo uchcd for incontcstably by Medeiros e Albuquerque, who was
{lile o f t he rcpublican agiraro rs ar rhc time. H e confesscs ro having
lcfe his hom c carrying an exccllcnt Smit h and \Vesson and I WO ca r-
tons of bullers in open dc fi ance o f the monarchy in order ro face
rhc mons rc hist fo rces-c-thc R1ack Guard. Thus armed, rhe bravos
of thc Republican Club, amon g w horn rhere wc re certain!y sorne
mestifos, ser out ro rcpel what seemed to th cm ro he " aggression"
nn t he pan of the l':cgroes o f a Hlack Guard arrned on1y, Medciros
srates. wir h clubs and razors. Ir is nor surprising rhat rhe volleys of
rhc Club prod uced many vicnms amo ng rhe hcroic blacks, whose
bodics, accordiog ro "1 edeiros, "were hidden by rhe pollee." s
"Thc Travessa da Harrcira was Iiterally jammed wirh a bloody and
panick y mulrimde," thar is, of the mass of N eg roes from rhe Bbck
G uard, aB of w hom had re1 ied ooly on th eir skill in cIlpoeirll1 or
upon the said clubs and rawtS. ,\ 1edeiros adds aoorher derail aoom

~ The refer~ncc i. 10 {he c;ly uf PClrl'''lis. sile of {he Imperial sumrncr palace.
(T f;lnslal"r.)
8 Medciros e Alhu' lu" rquc , M inhll Vid~ dll ln fancw Q M oeidllde-Memrws
( 1867- 1891 ) (, nd ed n., Rin de j ancjro, 19H ), pp. IJ ~, " 5.
7 Capoeirll , once a lighrnjng h '1 met hod " f figh{ ing wilh Ihe feel, which were
" f{en . rmcd w;lh knjves ~ ji has no w h"c ol11" s{y ll1.cd m" the C'n rcmcly pie_
tu resquc ,]ow- mm iun co mhinalinn uf wrestling and acrohu jcs display~d [ur Ihe
tnu ri,{ {l";Ide ;n (he cily " f S.l vador. ~e G l<....' .ry . l'\<). (T f;l nslall>r. )
 T bc Fiiteentb of N ovembcr tt

t he w a)' rhc rcpublica ns confrcnred rhae moh of bla cks. "We

loadcd our revolvers and, opcning rhc windows a crack, extended
one arm ou twa rd, discbarg ing the fivc bullers in rhc c harnbcr. T hen
we rcloaded and repcarcd the prccess." Ir was a sort of Ku Klux
K lan affair. sim ilar to incidcnts in the A merican Sourh, a racial wa r
bctwcen blacks and whircs. This white- o c near-w hite-hourgeois
mino rity organized [he re publica n rnovemcnt on thc basis o the
rechn ica l superiority of armcd force, and em plcyed it against col-
orcd peoplc w hose onlv crime was one t hat coul d never be an rib-
urcd to rhe rcpublicans an cxccss ive and act ive fecl ing o lov ah y
and grarircde.
T he [rarcrnizarion bct wecn blacks and whir cs achieved J uring
rhe campaigns of rhc Paraguay an \\'ar~ was scriously compromised
as a rcsult. As rhc historian :-.;'lson \Verncck Sodr has noted in his
Panorama of tbe Sccond Empire,Drhe Paraguaya n \ Va r rnade ir
necessar)' for man)' !"egro sold iers m live side by side w it h w hites
and had givcn :\'cgrO(_'S, and cspccially mcsticos, excc llcnt new op
porruniries for soc ial adva nccmenr. Hut ir had also c rcatcd arnong
Army oili cers a profound aversin ro rhc id ea of "cmploving t heir
arms. dcsrined [or the dcfc nsc of the counrry. in rhc rcprcssion of
mem bcrs o f a race which. in time of c risis, had givcn so lJIany of its
sons to rhc count r-y's Armcd Forces." I
A norher negativo effccr of the rcpublican movcmcnr on rhc
growing social intcrcourse hctwccn blacks and whires afrcr the Par-
aguay an cam paign w as to promote an incrcasing ly scornful anirudc
toward elcrnenrs o f Afro-Brazilian culture which had bcgun t O be
assirnilared by Braailian socicty in general. Thus, H or c io P ires
Galvo starcs t hat he and orher mcmbcrs of the lire learned aspects
o f t he capoeira from Negro soldicrs d uring the war.! This Afro-
Brazilian art bccame high ly prized b y sorne upper-c lass whitcs, not
only for sclf-dcfensc hut also as an exp ressicn of physical clegancc.
\" ith rhe rcpublican move rncnr, howcvcr, capoeira carne to he con-

8 T he Paraguap n \Var ( . U 5- 70l - in ", hich Rrazil, in alliance ", ilh Uru!!uay anJ
Argentina , fuughl ag.in" Ihe ,mhborn force, u f lhe Paraguayan dietar"r FranciM: o
Solano l." l'cz--cru ted a oum!>e r "f natioo.l he me, hut 00 Jcc i.in Oliliu ry vic_
torK.-s. T hc b"u nJ ary Jilference'S w hich were " ne uf Ihe caU\CS of the ",.r "'ere
fi n.lIr \.ettk d br IrUIYnn :\laf>:'h : 7. ,Kr: . (T e. o, lalOr.)
~ :-;hon \ \'ern.ck Sude: " 'lIlOTa"''> d o S" condo lmpirio (Sao P. uln, " '> )9) .
R. .\I . galhiiC5 Jn ior: lJ codorQ,.> Ei pa, cOIma o Im prio (Sao Paulo. 1957). l.
J IO,
2 O ral l~ imo o y gh'en lhe '11l hor b~" ,le\.ee ndant' u f H oc cio Pires Gah'io,
12 O rder and Progrese
sidercd shameful and degrading. Coelho Neto rcca lls associatmg
wit h colorcd laborcrs-shortly afr cr the Paraguayan \ Var-in
a rder ro "lcarn rhc sccrc ts of capoeiragem, so useful for rhosc in
politice, in tcaching. or in rhc Army and Xavy." Later, w hile a
rncmber o f rhc federal lcgislat ure as a dele gare From \laranhiio, he
had considcrcd sponsoring a proiccr ro make rhc rcaching of ca-
poeira obligatorv in rhc Armcd Forr es as bcing a truly national
Sport . Thc attcmpt, nccdless ro say o was nnsuccessful." T he
F rcnch man milc Allain classified capoera as " a gymnasric exercise
or spccial dance . . ." ' - any thing but t he "blor on Hrazilian civi-
lizarion" alleged by rhe rcpublican yourh. who could nor bring
t hernselves ro pardon rhe X cgrocs for rhc skill and courage wirh
which thcy had cmploycd rhese art s in rhcir lasr-dirch mar tyrdotu
ro dcfcnd a regime that was to rhem, in the rendcrcst sense of rhc
word, the I' tris, Al though admning t he exisrence of diso rd ers
among the pracnrioncrs of capoeira, Allain S3 v.: no lack o f safery in
Imperial Rio de J aneiro; o n rhc cOntrarr, he c laimed, rhere were
few cines whcrc borh rhc cen rer ami the sub ur bs we re cq ually tran-
qu il da)' and nighr.
\ Vhen rhc Alerte anc horcd in Hahia for the rhird time, ir was no
longer a banner o f thc starc o f Bahia whieh fl oared provisionally
from th e mastheads, but rarh er on e similar to rhar of th e now-
defuncr Empirc." K night w as moved to nsk hrmseif if t here had n't
bcen still anorbcr Rcvolution in his ahsencc, aO(I if sorne "srrangc
Iorm of gc vemrncnt-ccornmunisr, ohgarchy. or what y ou will"
was being rr icd in Hrazil." Nor. nccdless to say, as a resulr of the
wi ll of the "apatheric race which dwcle rhcre" (so the Bri risher
musr have rhcughr ) hur forced upon incrr masses by uneasy im cl-
lecruals and bookish militar)' t)'pes who too k advan ragc of the pas-
siviry of the pcoplc ro conduct thcir political experimcnts. The ncw

a Among Ol hcn, D uque Estrada Tci ~ ci ra , C31'm n Au lib, S ogucira, l.ieutena nts
Lopo ond Lelc Rihciro. ,\ lidshiprn1n Antr) ni" Sompaio, ood "J uco Paronh"., who
gloried in Ihe tide " f Ro Bu nco in his grear work in rhe ltamaraty and who, in
his YOUl h, wss 3 de,""tee, 3 hCI in which he to ok great pri.le and te which he
referl"C'd o flen in C011\c...,ati" n." C"dho S eto : 8 ~z.lr (O po no, ' '1 ,S ), p. J I O .
' lO:mile Allo in: Ro de lanero, Quelqllu Donn es rur la Ca ptale et sur I'Ad ~
mnislr:lfion d I' Rrh il (, nd edn., Rio de Joneiro, , Sfl6) , p. '7%. See 01.0 J. C. Alves
Lima; RecordJf6es de Homem e C OUJa l do Me.. T em po ( Rio de Jmeitl>, 19 , 6 ) ,
~ T he illl po.'rial tlog was the me color and general compo<ilion os thu " f Ihe
p resen( Brazilian Rcpublic. bur lhe cenler diamond cont3ined , he Imperial C03t of
arrns imtead uf t ite lil"ll<' . nd Republican mono "O rJem e !'rogu sJo," (T u ns-
loror.)
6 Knight : op. cit., p. J 11.
 T he Fiteentb of N ovember 1]

fl ag, of eourse, was rhat of the Republ ic. wir h its Positivisr slogan:
"Ordcr nnd Progrcss." To sorne rhis mono might have bcen inter-
p rcred as a confcssion rha t rhc Rcvolut ion was cssenr ially a conscrv-
ativc onc-c-r har as a prcrcquisire tu the dcsircd progress, rhcy would
rcquire thc mainrcnance of civic and social ordcr. Ir scemcd ro in di-
cate that rhc new ordcr. howcver progrcssivc, would ncvcr lose
sight o f the tradirion of ordcr which had bccn ene o the cou nrry's
srron gcst and mosr unique c haracreristics, differenriating ir fr om
rhc Boliv arian rendcncics o f Spanish Am rica. L ike rhe Anglo-
Saxons of the Ncw \\'o rld , thcsc rcpublicans were progrcssives. Bur
like the Anglo-Saxons of Eu rope over [he past [ WO centurics, rhcy
werc indi ned to effccr their rechnical and social prog ress wirhin rhc
framcwork o f a strong p ublic order. Bcsidcs, rhe Brazilian Posiriv-
ists suspcceed rhc violenrly libertaran merhods of t he French Revo-
lunon which, since the heginning o f th e ninereem h ccntury, had
been repudiared in France by rhc radic als rhcmsclves: by Saint-
Simon and Fou rier and, mosr cmphatically. by Augusre COlme.
F rom rhcse radicals carne new ideas which had far grcater rcpercus-
sions in rhe Brazilian Ernpire and in th e Unir cd Sutes rhan in the
Spanish-Amcrican counnies. where a dccp and lasring comminnent
to rhc spirir o 1789 prevented receprivity ro rhc new revoluriona ry
ideas which supcrscded thc mystique of the rcpublican guillotine.
Such crccds. cmanaring fro m thc "goddess of rcason," had been
eonspicuous for their violem and even macabre revolutionary
rnethods. From thc id eas of philosophers such as Comte, Brazilians
u ndcrsrood t hat the desire for progress wenr hand in han d wir h thar
for a harmony among men. alllong classes, narions, races. an d sexes:
and that t bis harmony could be repr esenecd only by a true sense of
order, borh narional and internarional, evcn ro rhe point o f adrnit-
ting t he exisrence of dictarorships as powerful as th e mosr vgorous
rnonarchica l govemmenrs. O n this subjcct, th e no tes o f a Frcnch
eng ineer, H enriquc Augusto " h let, who arri ved in Brazil in 18.p ,
had recently been published in Portu gucse. This Olan (if nOt truly
Positivist, at least para-Positivist ) w as the d isciple of another French
cngineer. Louis U ger V authier, who had been perhaps the fi rsr
European ro arte mpt ro introd uce systematica lly im o t he Brazilian
Empire the socialist and, in a sense, pre-Posit ivist ideas o f Fourier.
Mi let_ 1 who hccaOle a Brazilian, ma rried a Brazilian woman. and
1 Among .\ Iilet's sociologcal works the an id e "O Quebn-Quilos e a Cri:se da
Lavoura," pu bli~hed in !he Jo rn~1 do R ecife in 1876 and lafer in the same year in
A Prod ncia, is of especial in!erest. H ere .\ liIet points out, in antcip ation of Eu .
 Order al1d Progress

abandoned cngincering to bccomc a sugar planter- modified rhe

possiblc cxcesscs o ( Vaurhier 's) Four icrisr progr essivism with
ideas of order and down-to-carth cornm on sensc.
lr is not su rprising to thosc w ho have read ,\ h ler and other polem -
icisrs o t he prc-revolutiona ry era t har rhc rcpublican movcmcnt
was inspired by Posirivisr t bonght and w as characrerized by a
g reater scnsc o progrcssivc rcform and mainrenancc o f pub lic
ordcr rhan was rhc monarc hy . I Iowcver, rhis scnse o aurhorirarian-
iSITl musr nor be con uscd wirh the messianic caudilb nno of rhe
uneas), Holivarian counrrics of Spanish America-,-a principlc o
Icadership suggesred hy thc Frcnch rcvolurionary idcals of liben )'
and cq ualiry. bur subscquendy pervcrred b), t hc dcspotism of cer-
rain milirary dicrarors who, more or less ou t o ncccssiry, had to
adopt suc h mensures ro sriAe anarc hy.
N erher in 1890 nor in rhe rern aining years of rhe ninereenth cen-
tu ry did an)' visitor comparable ro ,\ fr. K nighr in eerprct t he ncw
Hrazilian Aag with irs mon o " O rder and Progress" as represenring a
rcpim e more aut horitarjan than libc rtarian . Alrnosr all Fnropeans in
contacr wirh Brazil ar t he rime fc arcd rhe new siruarion and la-
menrcd the collapsc o f [he rnonarchy , cvcn while hailing rhc bcgin-
n ing of a possiblc ncw progrcssivc cconomic policy which cou ld
regard Europc en exporrs ro Brazil mo re Iavorably than had bcen
rhc case uude r rhe mo narchy . Bur rarely was ir understood t hat [he
ideas o f the founJers o f t he Republic we re substanrively aut horirar-
ian, in ce nt rase ro t he ex treme liberal beliefs o f rhc staresmc n of rhc
Empire, many o f whom wc rc only nomin ally monarc hisrs in rhcir
ideas and proccdures. Dorn Ped ro 11 hiruself preved ro be a lcader
who, in spire o f his posiron as hcad of a monarc hist stare, had be-
come too bourgeois in his ~ ay s. [l e failcd ro inspire rhc proper
spirit o f dcdi carion in conxervati ve circles ro [he c ause o f p rescrving
a monarc hy o f rhc rrad itional authorira rian and pare rnalistic pat -
rern felr by man)' Europeans and sorne Brazilians ro be necessary in
a nation as undcrdcvclopcd and un certain as Brazil. The starements
of several conrelllporaries, nora!;l)' J oaquim Nabuco,8 bear our this
d r de. da Cuoh. in 0 $ Se,"jes (Rebeilion in liJe B~ ckl,J1Ids ) , tha! rusaot re!>eHions
such as tha! u f lhe sucalled " Qllebr~ -Q lIjlos " r f ough G uys ) cuu!.l ont be an tia-
meo w r urely pnljtical '" purelr religiou. causes.
8 ]oa'lu im :-;a'ucu. who ruppu rs a gre.t deal in th e cou rse uf Ihis o. rrative,
"'as .....ri!...r . nd a ~ ar ...,mao f rom Recife .nd a lu de r uf rhe .b/,Jilionisl gruu p
do ring Ihe final d ar s uf rhe muo . rch r. !l is 1"" 1 )"u n unril his du th in 19 10 .....e r...
'pcnr as Bralili. n Amba!>S.dor lo , he Un ircd Sratcs. (T ran, laor.)
 T he Fiitcemb of N ovember 1,
convicrion rba r Hmzil in 1889 was not rea dy fo r a Republic rhar
would weake n. ra rhc r than rei n force, thc ce nt ral or nario nal au-
rhoriry o f rhe chicf o f srarc and reduce thar office to the ad ministra-
non of rhc provinccs.
Evidcntly, c nly the cxrcrnal trappings of monarchy had bccomc
archaic to rhc Positivisrs-c-noe t he aurhorirarian forro of govern-
rncnr. Indeed, in rising te power this group rried, through Benj amin
Consra ne and Demtrio Ri beiro," ro srrc ngr he n the aurhorny of rhe
executive and rhc cffcctive power of t he govcmng [orces so thar
rhc cause of progrcss-wirbin-order would n c r be losr as a resulr of
uncoordinated and irresponsiblc starcmcnrs or acrions. A t thc time,
ne ne of t hese r nen sccmed ro have a clear, scienrific, black and whirc
idea o f rh e disrincricn berwecn subsrancc and form in the political
regime. Bur scvcral d iscipl es o f Omite d id participare in thc rcpubl-
can Revolution in Brazil, nc r for rhe sak c of absolute principlcs, bur
rarhcr as revolurionaries moved by rhe spirir of autborirarianism
and [he feding t har rhcy-c-rarhcr than rhe dcposcd m onarchisrs-
represcnred thc rcsponsible fo rce neccssary ro combar rhe rising
ridc of liberal individualism. T he progress desired by Posirivsrs like
Demtrio Ribeiro falls under t he heading of socially responsiblc au-
rhorirarianism. no r that of a liberalism which, on the enticing pre ~
text of bcing democraric. would only serve to cncourage [he risc of
a go vemmcnt as socially irrcsponsibl c as rhar of rh c lasr years of rh c
Empirc.
This Empire, so dcficicnr in both t he form and subsrance o f au-
t hor iry. w as rcferrcd ro as t he "crowned Rcpu blic." The Emperor,
w ith his ofrcn sterile liberalism and his pose o f u lrra-republican sim-
pliciry. gave credcnce ro rhe sneer. " Ioreo\'er, rherc w as a fear o f
large-scalc. purely material progress. This fear, though hcalthy ro a
ccrtain poinr. suggesrs less an cnligheencd conscrvatism rhan an irra-
tiona] or insrincrive tradiri onalism, or cven t he reacrionary hiding
bcnearh rhe cloak o f libcralism.
A Frenchman, M ax Lcclcrc. w ho bccame known for his corn-
rncnrs on rhe fal1 of t he monarchy and t he proclamarion of t he Bra~
zilian R epublic, w rote ( in one of his articles fro m Rio d e J aneiro
berween 1889 an d 1890 pub lished in rhe Jour71al des Dbats) 1 rha t

D Demtrio Ril"" iru w~s a repu hlican P"Sil v i~t frum Rio Gran de do Su!' I le was
.\ Iinisrer uf Agric ulture in lhe pro\" i~ i"nal g(l\'ernment. hUI e\"entually jnined the
provincial opposition group headed by J1io de Ca~til h,,~. (T ra n<l ator.)
1 Mal{ Leclerc, CilTfa, J o Bra,. Innslated fro m Ihe French, "",ilh prdace and
16 arder and Progress
D om Pedro II com bincd with "affability and simpliciry in dress and
man ncrs a reluctancc ro cake sirles," ro ta kc acrions w hich would
make him in Eu ropcan e)'es a " mor e paternal. liberal. and unprcju-
diced sovercign." Alrhough he was skillful in unobt rusively nnpos-
ing his will upo n his ministe rs, "an instin ctive lack o confidence in
thc youngcr elcmenr ga"c his policics, if nor his ideas, a reacrionary
tinge." Thus Dom Pedro dcvelopc d a " po wer o inertia" to opposc
his ministers and adviscrs who callcd for civil marriage laws, and fo r
a naturalizarion codeolle had neve r raken a favorable view o Eu-
ropean immig ration 0 0 a large scale, fcan ng tbat "the Brazilian
elemenr would Le submerged and tha t Brazilian customs would ds-
ap pear or be alrered. "
From whar Lccerc wro re o f Pedro 11 and orher E u ropeans oh-
serve d at fi rsr hand, it would seem t har rhc lasr Empcror of Brazil
had a m ore liberal cffccr on Europe and the Unired Srares rhan he
achieved locally or nation ally . Brazil, as a Spaniard once poinrcd
out, required a go\'ernrnent w hich wo uld conserve rhe pun irive
w eighr of rhc Luso-Carholic tradirion, a government which kncw
how t cope wirh rbese parernalist ic and burdensomc attirudes and
even ro pcrform rhc more di ffic ulr rask of tu rning rhem to advan -
tage in effecting c hanges for rhe bener. It developed, howc ver, rhar
ir wss difficu lt for D om Ped ro 11 t live the double life necessary
fo r t he role in w hic h he casr himself piously attending mass and
making t he sigo o f rhe Cross before cro wds o Brazilians ami , on
other occesions, adop ting a Volt airian pose for the Europcans. The
upshot was th at thc European-c-and probsblj- more aut hcntic-c-sidc
o f his nature evenrually triumphcd ovcr rhe anri-Europcan and ant i-
progressive rcndcncics. Thus in rhc c riscs w irh the hishops ami wi t h
rhe Anny he behaved cxactly like any republica n liberal (even anti-
cl erical) po liticiao, ma king no p romscs eit her to rhe Chu rch, whch
w as upbclding rhc princi pie of legit imare aurhoriry cver that o in-
subo rdin atio n, o r t t he milirary, equally concerned in ma intain ing
irs dig nity againsr the ultra-republican d emagoguery o an irre-
sponsible press rolerared by t he liberals o thc Empire an d cven by
t he Emperor himself.

n<;lll:'5 , by Srgio ,\l illiel (Sio Paulo, 19.P ), p. l H . Accurding te th e Bn zilian

pre face, rhis Frcnch writer reflectcd "rhe poin r of "icw of a gc od pan of Europe,
if not of rhe enrire world.' concerning the newly estahlisbed Brazitian Republic.
Pan o f this anitude , howed a "lac\, of complete confidence in the wo rd of R uy
M
Barb<Jsa.
 T be Fiteentb of November '7
T his Imper ial conduct was politic al suicide. as t he fifrccnth of
N ovembcr clearly preved. Pcrhaps rhc Ernpcror rcgrcrted t his in
rhe final momcnrs. bur ir was roo lat e. 11 1.' was alrcady doomed by
the po isons he had voluntarily consumcd, not all of which werc
subtle and SOl11e crudo in the ext reme.
Years afrer the cxilc and dcar h of Pedro 11. his grandson. in a
sign ificant book, acknowlcdgcd thar it was nat ural thar rhe Imperial
Anny should havc rum cd rcpublican. Sincc his early manb ood
D om Ped ro had rreatcd rhc Army casuallv. Hcrwccn the Crown
- the feminine clemcnt of rhc r eg imc- and rh c Army-c-the mascu-
line, protecrive elemenr needed by rhat fragile insrirurion-c-rhere
had ncver dcvclopcd t he reciprocity nece~~a r)' ro consrirure rhc po.
hrical equivalenr of a succcssful marriapc. H ad rhis r:l.pporr cxisrcd.
ir would perhaps havc gi\'en the Brazilian Empire the psycholog icel
and sociologicat aspecrs o f a monogamous association in the midsr
of republics ncarly all promiscuous in t heir liasons wirh milir ary
strong mcn. only one of whom, Porf rio D iaz of .'I lexico, secmed ro
havo more inhercnr Imper ial qualities rhan bis contemporary Dom
Pedro d e Alc ntara. descendam o kin gs and cmperors.
lnsrcad of t ryi ng ro work wit h rhc r nilirary, Dom Ped ro dis-
dained rhc Armed Forccs ro t hc po inr of abando ning t hem ro t hc
fu ry of the d emagog ic pres.<, w hich thirsted for roy al blood . N or
only "-fax Lcclerc b ut lTl:ln)' of his ccr uemporarics. borh narional
and foreig n, referred ro Dom Pedro's "misdrected liberalism,"
pointing Out rhat rhe "prcrcxr of a free press" allowcd " no hon ur
and no reputarion re remain intact." And o one o the worsc abuses
o rhs unconscionable libcralism, Lcclcrc added : "The paid anony -
mo us artacks acceprcd by rhe ncwspape rs are che mosr ccrrain
source o f political disaffccrion, rhe d iscipline of bot h Ar uiy and
govem r ncnt otficials is profoundly weakcned rhercby." ~
Th us one o f t he IIlOSt pcrsistent criricisms o f rhe Positivists
againsr rhe Hrazilian monarchy was rhar rhe Emperor, ag ing and ill,
w as lackng in " energy " and "spirit." in rhc Imperial spirit thar Hra-
ziIian d isciples o Comte wished ro sce replaced. n or by thar o pa r-
lialllcm ary or dcmocratic republican ism, bu t uther by thar o f a dic -
tato rship. In its annual circular o f 1888 the Brazilian Posirivist
C hurch, spcaking o the so-called "Lei A urea," 3 dec ried rhe old
~ Ibid., P. ,p . Ot hl'r Eu rop<: am ",ho .-i,ited BrlZil al Ihe lime were ~imilarly
scand alize d bX Ihe eX '~"o:cra\ cd Iil.>cn:y of Ihe 1'1"e'" durin!: Ihe reign of Ped ro 11.
3 The Lti A urCl w~ the .el whkh cmane ipated the sln 'es io , llllS. ( T ranslalor.)
18 O rder and Progrese

Empcror's " political incpritude'' and bis "narural lack of cncrgy,' f

co nrrasring rhese with thc finnncss and purpcsefulncss of Pn ncess
Isabel.
T his was rhc ]ogical anirudc follo wcd by ~t igu d Lemas and Rai-
mundo T cixcira ,\l endes, t wo orrhodox Posirivisrs w ho spoke
rhrough rhe Brazilian Posirivisr Church. T hcsc two meo WCfC still
hurn ing [rum rhe srrong rcac rion in Pars against Comre's SU C C CSSO f ,
.\ 1. Latine- a sort o pope or high priese o the "Rcligion of H u-
manity." ~ \\'hile in France in IHSo, Lemos had receivcd rhc dcgrcc
o "aspirant ro rhc pr icsthood' ami ir was rhus, duly co nsecrated
ami anointed, rhat he had rerumcd to Brazil ccrtain o bcing able ro
induce Brazil ian socicry re acccpt a Posirivist triumph in bor h poli-
rics and socia l customs. In his bock Resumo H istrico do Mooi-
mento 'osticisu 1/0 Brsil [Hstorical Rsum of tbe Postvst
Mot'('1l1ent in Br.lzi/)," Lemas rcc alls that Comre h imself had pre-
dicred the rap id success of his doct rines in Larin Amcrica, whcre
rhcre wcre " no powcrful pnests. no basic traditions, no po w crfu l
industrialism." Bcsides which. "the c hildrcn of Icrvene idolators of
rhc Virgin'' should "respond w ith st rongcst sym parhy" ro a reli-
gion which would "esrablish rhe c ult u f rhe woman and p roclaim
t he supremacy of love." .\ la riolatry was strongly evident in Hrazil,
wherc l11an)' womcn soug ht the maternal image of rhc Virgin as a
rcfugc-and symhol o f revolt-c-againsr t he cxccssive parcmaliseic
aur horirarian ism of t he Hrazilian family systcm . Ir was cxprcssly be-
cause of rhis Xlariology, according ro rhc apostolic Lcmos, that
"Brazil, amcng all narions of Iberian nrigin, is besr prcpared for rhc
triump h of rhc new doctrine." And th crc is no doubr t har t he re-
publ ican mvseiqoe q uickly assumed a messiamc characrer through
irs idennficarion with rhc concept uf rhc Perfect W om an, saintly
and su ering.
A g ood exarnplc of rhc sentimental vigor attaincd by this political
~ Cjrcul~r Anual (of the Bralilim Po,iti,-i,t O turch ) ( Rio de j aneiro, l ~tl8 ) ,
p. I l.
~ A fter the dc.th uf A Ul(u"C Conu e in '1157, Ihe P,>\;it i,"i,! mo\"eml'nt splie into
two fact;ons. The orlhodox gmul'. which uphcld th" s"..callcd "Religion of H u-
manitr," with il $ churcht"S and its p .nopl~ uf ..im, drawn fro", Ihe "be nefactors
of mankind:' wa, hcadcd hy Pcr re l.afinc ( , 1l1}- I<)O}), w hmn COlllte had
named a, hi, literar\" uccuwr. The di",iJem Iaction. which rejcctcd Ihe "Reli-
gion of ll unanny" as being incompatible with ral ional Ihought, was headed
by f::mile Lirtr . (Trandator.)
8 ,\ ligu cl L" mos: R esu >llv lf jlt/ri co do l .f m jm enl Q l'osir'(.'jst~ 110 B r~sjJ (R io
de ]an"w, lllll) , pp. }!l--<}.
 Tb e Fiiteentb of N ovember 19
mysriquc is fo und in thc ve rses of rh c a rdent propagandisr and irin-
cran t jcurnalisr R icardo G uimarcs. who collaborated in Recife
wit h .\ t artins J nio r, hur who was assassina tcd befo re rhc trium ph
of rhe Rcpublic. The verses are cnt irled "The Rcpublic'' and rhey
a ppcorcd in the rwen ricrh numbcr ( N ovcmbr 30, 1887) o f A mi-
R ebate, Senunro A bolicionista e Ret mbucano (Counter-Alarm,
all Aboliuonin and Republicsn Semillar)' ), published at rhat time
in t he Pcrnam Lucan capital uf Rec ife unde r thc "political ccllabora-
non" o f ,\ iarrins J nio r, Pa rdal .\ tallet, and " tonreiro Filho.t T hc
poem exa lted the R cpublic in thc im age o f rhe Blessed V irgi n.
"M ot hcr-protccror of pcoplcs":
. , . in her rubv lips
T he pure nccrar o rhe hcavens,
.\ Iot her. prorecror of peo ples,
Beauti ful dauphrcr of G od.
Staruc fashio ned of bronze
T har repuhl:'d Louis XI
Embrace and kiss Sainr-jusn
Lady of seducnve glance,
In whosc benevoh -nr shadow
Flourish rbc fi lr nnd thc rose.
Funher.
In vour rnarcmal bosom
Slcep those cf great ideas
T he sublime Promcrhcus
The imrnortal Briarcus,
T hrough your blond t resscs
The 50 ft brcezes
\Vaft their gratefu l {reshncss.
The hir ds sing )"ou rheir rhrenodies
As, smiling. )"0\1 gathe r t hc peoplcs
In the warrnt h of r o ur comfort ing love.
Lare r, in a c resccmlo o f m vstical e xaltation o the feminine ima ce of
the ideal R epub lic :
1 .' lartins Jnior, Pardal ,\ h ll,'r, and ,\f" m~ i m Filho were repuhlican imd1cefllal,
"hu. d uring the ea rlr Repllhhc. "PI"",,'d Ihe le.dcI"Ship of Flnriano PeixHl o. ,\ 1>r_
tins J nio r w. , lcade r uf a short -livc d l itc r.r~ Ill" vemcnr ro co<;our'le rhe wririos
of "sdemific" p''''lr,.., Pa rdal ,\ !aHef was rhc puhlisher o f the . mi-Flori.nn " ews_
paper O Combate. (T ran, latof.)
20 Order and I'rogress
Shc-thc co nsranr vicrim
O barred and perversin,
H as for rhe sed-c-a smile.
Has for t he blind- a light.
Evcr grend, gracicos. and gocd.
Shc suffers, suffers bu r pardons
The j udases. as did j esus.
Shc too was bctrayed.
She too w as sold,
She too has her Calvary. her Cross.

A nd fi nally, in th c same tone o fc rvenr myst icism :

Le t us in o ut hcarts
Build an altar [O rh s goddess.
\ \'ith out gift of Rcason
,\ ta ke secure her throne.
t v hcn from t he heights o moun rains
Thc g uiding ig ht spa r klcs
0 0 rhe pur e spring water-e-
.\Iay we in t he public s{juare
Shout : Long live [he Rcp ublic
In r he [an d o rhe Hlcsscd Cross!

Verses such as thcse wcrc not rare during t he dccade which

precceded [he fi fte ent h o Novcmber. From rhcm [h e bc1ief o
Miguel Lemos rhar the appcal ro rhc Marian cult was highly cffec-
tive for p ropaganda, borh repu blican and Posit ivisr, can indccd he
confi rmed.
In irs fi rsr stage, the Posirivisrs belicvcd. rhs propaganda ought ro
be d irecrcd ar rhc " liberal classcs, w hose convcrsion would ncccssar-
ily at tracr popular acceptance of Posirivism." In rhc libe ra l classes
were ro he fc und t hose ,\ Iariolato rs most likely ro oppose forms o
patcmalism: rhc feudal dcspo risrn o the planrario n loros, rhc eccl e-
siastical nurhorirarianism o the bishops ano pricsts, rhc academ ic
rigidity o f t he pre-Posidvist docrors. all o which were so re pug
n ant ro the Posirivisrs. In rheir place, t hey would subsitute a neo-
fratcrnalism builr arou nd a new priesrhood dedicared to " scie nrif ic''
leadcrs hip and " scie nrific" solurions t o rhc problem o govcrnment.
Posirivisr propagand a te rh is effecr, inrensified afrer 1880, had a
considerable impacr in Braz lian milir ary circ les. A good deal o f rhis
 T be Fiteentb of November

impacr w as inrensificd by t he srudy of mathematics, as in t he case of

Benjamn Consrant Horelho de J\ 1ag alhacs, a soldier who bccame a
great dcvotce of the doctrine and who, as tutor and tcachcr, cxcr-
ciscd a considerable infi uenee upo n rhc young people of his rime."
Bur it is also truc thar thc culr of rhe Vi rgin ,\ 1ary-or of \ Voman
-c-servcd sorne military fi gures as rhc impcrus for casnng thernselves
in t he roma ntie role of ma n ly p roleetors of a cause. Th c exjstence
of such an anitud c lIlay be sccn as a reacrion ro the E rnpcror's j]J4
concealed d isdain of the military and to his pclicy of separati ng ir as
m uch as possiblc from the " femini nc mysnque'' of the Crown .
Benjamin C onsrant. wri ring te his wifc fro rn P araguay in 1867,
significanrly placcd her "abovc G od end counery ." 9 while in an-
orher lerrer he st atcd : " You are Ior me more, much more, th an C lo-
tilde de Vaux cvcr was for the wisc and honored Augusto Comte.'
H ere t he cult of \ Voman is ca rricd ro the extreme, instllng in a
wa rtime soldier the primary devorion o ne would expcct him ro feel
for his narion's cau se, for thc r nonarchy, and thc Crown. T his is
particularly curious when one considcrs rhar t he cncmy's passionate
idenrificarion with t he conceprion of "t he IIomeland" was also
Marian in nature; for Francisco Solano L pcz it w as "the Narion";'
and " La G uairs" for the inrrepid Paraguayan peasants, who thr cw
rhemselves against the Imperial soldiers wit h the same psyc bological
incentive-a loving id enrifi carion w ith a fem in ine cause in necd of
their masculine protecron.
Ycars after rhc Paragu ay an \ Var, Benjamin Consranr, in dissemi-
nating republican propaganda among his y ounger comparriors. at-
remprcd re rransfer to rhis idealced .\ larian image- the R epub lic-
a Posirivisr spinr that would ourdo Comre himself in his dediceron
ro a fem inine cause. Pcr haps his attempt was more suggcsrive of
thar of ~1. L atin e, against whom ;\ ligucl Lemos and R aimund o
Teixeira .\ 1cndcs had rcbclled, and who was himself ra ther femininc

~ 8enjamin Con,u nl BoteJ ho de ,\hgalhAe" generally rt'ferred 10 as Benjamin

Ccnstan r, Wa5 a mathrma rlcian, teacher, and miliu ry en~iflt'e r who eH ntually be -
e ame .\ l ini' ler o f \ \ 'ar afte r the proclamanon of tbe Rep uhlic. 1'\amed afler the
Fren e h polili....al philosopher Ben jamin COnSl3nr, Borelho de ,\ lagalh:es wa' rhe
luding propagandi..c for Po, iri\" i!'11l in hi, time. (T n n, lalO r.)
9 R. T eixcira .\ Iemk s : B en.",tin COnJtan! (R io de Janeiro, 1!l<,1-4) , pp. ,,~... u .
1 Fra ncisco Solano Lpez ....u Presidenl o( Paraguay frum , Iltil unlil his dcath
ar rhc banl e of Ce rro Corda on .\ la r....h " ' 870. B i, death bruught an end to lhe
Paraguay an \ Var, perhaps the bloodic-;r con Ai....1 ever fought in th e :se.... \\'orld;
du ring in , ix ytan. the pop ulaliun of PaJ'~g uay was redu....ed by hall. (Tnnslator .)
 G rder lid l'rogress

in his cotuplex and subrlc pcrsonalit y. In a rnannc r which reflccred

no dsc rcdit on rhcir moral stature, bot h Constant and Lafi tte ga\'c
cvidcncc o f thar "femininc d clicacy " which sorne c rirics have al-
wavs fou nd characrerstic of rhe Frenen and whic h Hrazilian Fran-
cophobcs idcnritied, prohahly unjustly. wirh "cxccssivc vanity, ex-
trao rdina ry pusilla nimirv. and an alrnosr toral lack of rhe dignity
ncccssary ro rhc cxcrcisc of impo rta nt func rions." ~ Pcrhaps this at-
rirudc stcmmed [rom Benjam in Cons rane's necd for protection by
dcvoted disciples and rcpuhlican co-relipionar ics r at her than from
his own capaciry ro proreer t hc changing: nation by means of rhe
rc ugh vriliry of the sratcsruan . O r pcrhaps he rhoug hr of himsclf as
rhe intcllccrual. whose rraining had becn more that o f learned doc -
rrinairc than practirioncr of rhc so-called "manly scicnc c" nf poli-
rics. Ir is cvcn m ore likcly thar horh l .afitt e and Benjam in l ..onsranr
shared a brcadrh and dcprh (Jf spirrr w hich, while cnhancing rheir
stat urc as iutcllcctuals, prcjudiccd rhem as mcn of acrion in rhar ir
Ilude rhcrn avcrse to sim plifications and ro cxccssivcly sccraria n
Jogma. Thus we sec rhar in rhc rifr bcewccn rhc two Hrazilian Posi-
rvsr leaders and rhc suprcme chief in Pars, rhe symparbies of Ben -
jamin Consranr werc more wirh Latine rhan with rhc insurgen rs nf
R io, who cvcntuatly cn ded by rc pu diarng rhe "R eligin of H u-
. ."
mal1lry
T he p rincipa l accusation againsr Lafin c on rhe pan of Brazilian
insurgenrs was t har he favorcd "a free intcrprcrarion of the work of
rbe master " A ugusre Comrc, rhereby subordinaring cveryt hi ng to
intellec rual considerarions and effecring a "monstruus" disrorrion
of Posirivisr do ctrine. Lomos and Teixcira ~ I endes, for rhe ir parr,
ser themsclves up as rhe propag:uors o f rhc "regenerarcd doct rine,
wirhout prejudice or passion . .." 3 A hn osr evangelically, rhese
t wo orr hodox Comrians prcclaimcd whar they considcrcd to be rhe
pure docr r ine-c-thc doctrine as left by Comrc himsclf in irs imeg -
rity , irrevocable anl! not subjeet ro revision.
Ir was rreci~cly this lireralism t hat caused rhe Brirish Posiri\'ist
H arrison ro criricize his rwo Brazilian co-religion isrs an J ro asscrr
rhar it \Vas not jusrified dr her by rhe Icner or rhe spirir of Comre j
on rhe contrary. ir remindcd him more of rhe biblical liberalism of
cerr ain Protesrants. 1'0 ra ise rhe \...rirings o f Augusre Omite ro rhe
levcl o f (101)' Scriprure dicrareJ by inspirarion. or ro rrear a1l rhe
2 Lemos: " p. ci t. Al", sec R,,<lr;~ue" "~ po cil ., p. I l(>.
3 u mo>: op. cil.. pp. 7?- ' ''. Aho Rndr igul'S: "l" cil ., p. 1' 9.
 Tb e Fireemb of Nooember 2]

srricrurcs and uropias of pohrical Positivism as absoluto prcscrip-

rions (Ha rrison claimcd) is linlc more rban rigid Prorcstanrism.
Such pucrile fanar icism wou ld reduce Posirivism ro "a stcrilc repeti-
rion of Forms, a P harasaic Iisr of negarions."
Among those who had a pan in rhc (ounding of rhc Braxilian
Repcblic, ncirher Ben jam in Consra nr, nor .\ Iarrins J nior. nor Pe-
rcira Barrero." no r an)' (l { rhc o rhcrs among rhe rruly sc icnrific po li-
ricians allowcd rhernsclves ro h it in with rhis type of extremism.
cvcn rhough rhey wcre nea rly all men handicapped by "feminine
delicacy " in t heir intellect ual approach ro rhe making o r infl uen c-
ing o f polirical policy. Alrhongh rhcir inrcllecrualism k cpr rhem
from sorne of rhe cruder aspecrs of polirical ecriviry, ir had consid -
erable moral irnpact on the public life of rhc rimes. Benjam in Con-
stanr and ,\ 1artins. alo ng w irh J oaquim Nabuco and ehe Baron do
Rio Branco, bclicved rhar rhc A rmy should foliow rhc Positivisr
line in setting itself up as a non parrisan, apolitical rrustcc of rhe
Crown in al! faceicnal srrugglcs. whilc thc more sccrarian Posirvsrs
wis hed ro make rhc A rrny into an organ of pan)' doctrine.
This was rhc clcar-cur but d ifficu lr situation at rhc c ru cial point
of Fl oriano Pcixoto's still-m fan r R epublic. Peixoto w as of re11lpe ra -
mene exacrly opposcd ro rhar of Ben jamin Consranr or Marrins [ n-
ior. a man more insri nctive than rhcorcrical. who had absorbed jusr
enough Positivist doctri ne ro jllsrify rhc rudc exccsses of his dicraro-
rial ecrio ns in rhc almosr r ncssianic tcrms w irh which rhe Com rian
system was rhen repardcd by Illany mcmbcrs of rhc Brazilian lire.
In capable of allowing such sub rlcrics as intcllecrualism or "fcrnininc
delicacy" ro gcr in rhe way of direcr acric n, rhis "rcgcnerator and
protccror'' o f rhe Repubhc was rhe hard, ruggcd. strongly masco-
line leader thc Brazilian Positivisr C hurch considered ideal fo r rhar
R epublic D O w hose banncr they had succecdcd in inscribing rhcir
o wn orr hodcx m orro.
Roughly su ppressing al! attemprs ro bring abour a resrorarion o{
rhe monarchy , Fl oriano beeame rhe "consolidaror o f rhc Republic"
in renns o{ a ruling Brazilian principie csrablished by rhe Empire :
rhar o f national order inseparable {rom rhe Brazilian mysrique of
uniry. In rhis sense rhe Flo rian o go\'ernlllent rep resenrcJ a changc
of forOl rarher rhan a c ha nge of poliey , and it was rhus thar n umc r-
R (> , , rlgues
. , . p. '9.
op_Cit.
~ Lu ' P creira Burcto, ke Ben amin Co n. u nt and ;\lan irn J nior, Wa. 1leading
P.,.itivist intd lect ud o . hc per ind. (T ra nsh ro r.)
 arder and Progress

o us su pporters o f t he old regi me werc w illing to accommodare thc

ncw R cpublic. Certainly ir was rh c sincere dcsirc of numero us bar-
ons, viscou nts, und counsclors of t hc old Empre-cas many of rhem
protcstcd in lcn crs ro thc nc w sp,pers- to acccpr t he pronounce-
ment of rhc fifreemh o f Ncvcmbcr in thc hope that rhe ncw regimc
would solid ify and, " Iike rhe former," guarantee thc virtues of rhc
old order. T hc Viscounr do Hum Consclbo, for example, hastened
ro di rcct a tener to t he .' Iioister of the Interior of rhc provisio na l
govcrnmcnr, assuring the new government of his "maximum mp
port and obedience'' and wisbing t har "gentlc winds" would waft
rhe exiled ro yal family ro irs ncw dcstiny and, abovc all, that rhe
fed eral govc m rncnr w culd be successful " in irs impo nanr rask o f
prcserving interna] and externa! ordcr and in cver srrcngthcning rhc
honds o f brotherhood among a11 Hraxilians." 6
T hc V iscounr do A branrcs also losr no rime in expressing his sem i-
mcnrs in rhe press, dcc laring ro his "fricnds and fel low citizcns'' tha t
"in rhc face of the polirical cvcnrs which have juse broughr abou r
changes in t hc count rv's form o f govcrnmcnr w ithou t c reating ei-
rhcr vicrors or dccatcd'' he considered ir his dury. "aftcr having
consulred wirh my fr icnds in rhc starc of "tin as Gcrais," ro urge
e"eryone ro "accc pr rhc eonsequenccs of those cvcms'' and ro lend
rhcir "opcn Sll pport ro rhc provisiona l governmem and cspecially ro
rhe governor dcsig narcd for that srare." A design arion that A ranrcs
considcrcd a "happy onc," convinced as he was rhar the no mi nee
could and would o f nccessiry pcrform a " very good servicc, guar-
anrecinp t he peace and tranquilit v o f che srare and st riving for its
continucd prog ress and prospcrity." T
Anothcr dcclar arion by a fo rm er mcmbcr of thc nob ility was rhar
of the Coum of Araruarna, which appcarcd on Novcmber 19.
shorely afte r che proclamanon o f the Republic. D irecred espe-
cially ro his fri ends of the mu nicipalities of ,\ laca and Barra d e Sao
joo in che former province of R io de j anciro, che letrer avowed.
" w irh all rhe (r:lllkness and loyalty" w ith w hich he had always
spoken, his rcsolmiol1 and thar of his family and fr iends ro "supporr
[he provisional governmenr." " In fact, " added rhe good Counr,
"afrer rhe noto rious an d g ravc ev enrs, follow in g rhe retirement of
rhe Im perial famil)'. I am convinccd thar rhc grearesr sen'ice I can
E. de Campos Porto, .1 ponw llemos p.rr~ ~ HistriJ
6 ;\1. d~ Repblic~ dos
EsuJos Un jJo s do RrJsi/ ( R i" de J an eiro, l&,lo) , p. 8)8 .
7 Ibid ., p. 839.
 T he Fiteentb of N ovember '5
do for ro)' cnu nrry is t aid rhc provisional govemmcnt in [ he main-
rcnance of public arder and tranquility. thc 0( 1)' guaranrec of Iib-
erty." " The fina l decision as ro rhe forrn o govcmmcnr," he
conrinucd. " will be in thc hands o rhe Consnrurional Asscmbly,
which wil l soon convcnc in rhc O;lI11e o the so vcreign pcople . lo rhe
meamimc, ie is in rhc counery's besr intercsts rha t we refrain frorn
hindering rhc governrnent ; rat her, w e sho uld all come ro its sup port
wirh a view ro establishing rhe general good o all." ( lis appeal was
made ro " all true pat riots and lovcrs o order. wirh our disnnction as
ro polirical affiliation."
Counselor" Ant nic Prado-c''Cirizen" Anr nio Prado, as he
stylcd h imscl- was anorbcr who appcarcd promptly in the press-
rhe Correo I'eulstano o Sao Pauto-e-ro gi,"e a clcar dcfinirion o
his anirude : " lo all conscience and in rhc light o the march o
cvenrs, a monarchi cal resroration rhroug h counrer revolurion bcing
impossiblc" and, on rhc orher hand. rhc "cxisrcnce o a public
power be ing indispensable te the ma inrcnancc o ordcr and o civil
and polirical righrs," it is impcranve ro "recognize the ncccssiry of
accepting the present su te of rbin gs as thcy are , withour quesrion-
ing their origin ." v
In addiricn. in rcply tu an inquiry from his friend Almcida No-
gu eira (ed ito r of rhe C orrea I'eu lstano v as ro how lirazilians
should procccd in rhe preseor pclirical situarion, thc fo rmer scnaror
'\fanue1 A nHinJo D uane de Azcvedo-c-another illusrri ous fi gu re o
rhc Im perial period-held thar "in view o thc definrely accom-
plished changes in our basic situation, ir would be seriously inap-
prop riare ro prolllore a rcsroranon o rhe mo narchy in Brazil" und
Braailians should, "in rhe inrercsrs o patriorsm, accepr the accom-
plishcd facr s. , .." H e po int ed out, morcovcr, thar at the momcnt
o bidding farewell ro his lcy al [ric nds. rhe old ami distingu ished ex-
Emperor Pedro 11 had said resolutel y, bur not wrhout emonon.
thar "Whae's done is done; ir is now up ro rhc Hrazilians ro ma kc
every efforr ro draw IIp a goo d Constinnion." 1
Fmnlie Spirita, the spiritualisr organzanon of Sio Paulo," also
RThe B r::lZili~ n (id e o Conselb eiro was an hnnorific one granrcd Ior <J ursun J_
ing sen'ice lo rhe "nont l)' , Ir w~s nur inherileJ. T heo rel ically-~ o d " h en in b cr-
holders o {his lide serve d~, members of the Empe ror" aJ "i"oI'Y c()undl. (T rans-
b lOr, )
9 ' bid" p. RQ.
1 COrteio P.zuJi$r~ no ( /'.' o \' ,- D , " 181lQ ) .
2 Sp iritu a]i<m o f rhc ", hile ProlC\!anl variel}' has been exranr in Brazil Ior "'en
26 arder and I'rogress

pledged irs allegiancc ro t hc Rcpublic, stanng its convienen rhat,

whilc ir was rhc "enlighrened landscapc o thc empire o t hc spirit"
that ir primarily dcsircd, ir rccognized tite nced for a " profane RC 4

public. procccding corrcc rly along th e paths o jusrcc. ordcr, and

progresa." a Acknowlcdging th ar rhe narion had changcd its gov-
crnment "in a rder ro mainrain rhe spine of arder," ir judgcd tha t ir
should nor permit the cxisrcnce o ncwspapcrs w hich advanced
"anachronisric ideas," that is, ideas o monarchy . Nevcnhclcss. ir
did not agrc c with rhc " provisional flag raiscd by rhc Republic,"
bccausc this fl ag did nor r especr "thc glorious rradirions o rhc na-
tion, wirb its Icg cndary greco and gold insignia. defended hcroic elly
by the Army and rhc Navy in sangu inary engagements in order ro
mainrain t he honor o th e nation." Even t he Hrazilian spi ritualisrs.
then, were conccmcd with thc prcscrvation o o rder and narional
inregriry incumbenr upon a " pro fane Rcpublic", rcspc nsibiliry for
progress of rhe spirirs could presumably be Icft ro rhe cmpire o rhc
occult.
\ Ve have sccn rhar rhe wa)' in w hich Hrnxilians acccpted and sup-
poned rhe Republic had appearcd ro ~ lr . Knighr a manifestation of
"oricnral apat hy." Bur in trut h, thc readin css with w hic h sorne of
rhc rnost clca rheadcd conservaeves or dedicar cd irn pcrialisrs
adapted the id ea of a new polirical regime ro their ow n moral sys-
rem of basic Brazilian valu cs-c-namcly. a sysrcmaric na cional order
encompassing seability and intcgrity as wdl as progrcs s-c-rcveals o n
rheir pan lcss " oriental spathy" than the dcsirc nnd abilny ro he
realisric ; a Hrirannic virru c almost frig hteningly dcvelopcd in rhc
American rropics by rhosc plianr Brazilian conservar ivcs we ll aware
of rhc necds of the furure. Ir is undcrsrandable that, to a Spaniard or
a Russian, Brazilian bchavior might have sccrn cd apaehctic or pusil-
lanimous; bu r ir should not havc appcared so ro an E nglishman. .\ Ir.
K nigh t was quite u ruy pically Brit ish in noting wirh disgusr rhar the

moer a ceotury. I~ foll" " crs have bccn inc rca~ing in rcccne re~ rs and probably
now uumbc r wcll ovcr I million, aldwugh thcr e is eonsiderahle divcrsiey in rhe
eypt:s of spiritualism practiced. fru m sancc,. ahlc rapl'ingo;, and e xt r~,'cm.o ry
I'e rceplioo ro ritual, invol\-iog dem"o. aod spirits d",dy akio 1<' Afr ic an or Amer-
ican Indian n liginn,_ Bru ilia", group thcse di\-ergencies unde r rhe headings of
"higher" or "lowcr" ' piriTU alism. Spiriru alisrs of all levels howe\'C r, are a...wci~t ed
wifh a cenTral federal i"o whkh maimams places nf wo""hip in larger eifies. For
0" " 1 dn(ll ee.. sp ifiTU alsm i, a uHgion in il'il'lf, bUT snme of enUT'\ e rema in nnm-
inall)" C' lholie on the grounds Thaf ".,ne cao nen,r TeH:' (T ra nslator.)
3 Camp.,s Porto : op. c it., p.Il]6.
 T be Fiteentb of N O'1.J e1J1bC'r
transformation o Brazil from a monarchy inro a Rcpublic roo k
place wirhoue a single faraliry.
T o somc Hrazilians, bowever, t his scnsc of acccmrnod arion was
not suffi cicntly evident, cven afrer t hc dearh of Ped ro 11, ro make
rhem admit rhat the Rcp ublic w as cirhcr neccssary or inevitab le.
Anglicizcd sratcsmcn like Ruy Barbosa' nr Joaquim X abuco saw
rhc Empire as cvcnrually adapring irsclf ro rhc c hallenge of th e fu-
turc and bccomin g a mod ern monarchical sysrem-c-deccnrrslizcd,
Ameri canized, federal, hut still a monarchy. " Iore widcly scparared
from the inucnce of rhe Church and rhc propcrtied than had hce n
rbc monarchy of Ped ro 11. ir could be come, thcy hopcd, mo re
dosel)' idenn fied wir h thc Anncd l-c rces and wirh rhc civilian rnid-
dlc class.
In one of his memorable anid es aga inst che policcs of rhe Vis-
count of Ou ro Pr ro," Huy Barbosa was particularly cr irical of thc
latter's anti-federalism, of his placing t he Crown against rhc federal
cause, and o f isolaring the Fmpcror from thc so-called "armed
classes" by replacing tllany for mcr Army functions wirh clcmcnts
from the N ational G uard . This was a tremendous error, said Ruy,
bccause in a country like Brazil t hc Armed Forces scrved as a sta-
biJizing force againsr "disordcrs, cxaggeration. ami utopianism."
This criricism o rhe moderare polic ies o f O uro Pr to was made, not
as an anti-monarchist , bu r rarher as a simple fcdcralse and cnemy of
che mcssianic rcndcncies Ru v liarbosa perccived in rhc mo re radical
repu blicans.
In a society suc h as that o f Brazl, where rhere was a lack of
"poinrs of rcsisrancc." Ruy conrinucd, rhe Armed Forces wcrc "rhc
grear palladium of peacc, of liben )', and of the Co nstirurion.' H ow
t hen could the ap parem champicns of monarchism rcplacc rhis rra-
diriona lly narional ho dy, rhcsc non parrisan defcndcrs o "i nstitu-
tions and order" with a "guard" cntirled naricnal but really a pam-
san rnilitia whosc funcrion it w as to guard t hc royal family "against
rhc narion"? e Ilow could rbis milicia bc givcn "exccllcnr anos su-
perior ro rhose of t hc line forccs"> H ow could o ne justify its being
Ruy RJt bosa, one o[ lhe gre JI Buzilians of Jll time , was a BahiJn SUlcsman
and ontot who, though no rad ical, heeJme a ]uding rcp ublican Ihrough ({m,"k-
tion thJt the Empire had omlived ils lime. lI i, name will tcoceur fre quent ly.
(T rano;l atnr.)
~ Ou to Prel(> W:l.S the laSI Prime .' linisler uf the Brazilian Emp ile. (Tran:Jatot .)
8 Anide : "O Plano eo ntra a P:lria" from the newspapcr Di.irio d~ ....' OIi/u, in
Campos Pono: op. cit., p. llXV.
z8 arder and PTogTesr
rnade inro a son o super. arrny? lf we can't have confi dence in [he
Army, he wc nt on, thcn we can't have confidcnce in the narion
irscl f.
In taking rhis stand, however, Ruy was pcrbaps overlooking the
fact thar thc siruarion the Viscounr o O uro Pr ro was atrempring
ro corrcer by reorganixing rhar militia had becn developing for
years and stem med frorn t he p<ltenr, sysremat ic disdain of Pedro 11
for rhc Arrncd Forccs an d the militar)' leaders. Under rhc shadow
o rhs disdain, a considerable portien o rhe Armcd Forces had
inc reesingiy allowcd itsclf ro be seduccd by rc publican-Positivist
ideologics. Con sequently. ir had bccorne quesrionablc w hether the
Army and N avy were any lcngcr willing ro gi"c rbe supporr ncces -
sary ro rhc survival of t he Cro wn . W ere nor rhese insritur ions de -
veloping into a nar ion al force superior ro rhar of (he monarchy ir-
sclf? A nd if so, was no t rhe V iscounr of O uro Pr ro ecring wiscly,
fro m a lirerally conscrvarive and monarc hist po inr of view, in organ-
izing thc N ario nal G uard into a body which could d efend rbe
C ro wn in t he crirical days that followed (he precipita re aholirion o f
slavcry on .\ lay 13. IBSB? Ami since rhis rniliria was d rawn from
rhe work ing class, was ir nor, consequcntly, quite as narion al----or
even more national- rh an if it had bcen fonned solcly from rh e
middlc class?
From rhc viewpoinr of t he conservative clemcnrs, whose weak -
ness R uy Barbosa had lamenred, t he abolirion of slavcry w as a he-
rrayal of the agrarian inrercsts. T rue, t hese intereses were disorgan-
izcd and wiehour a political spokcsrnan; rhc planrcrs and "ugar
barons had ro sorne degree losr their po litical power ro their collcge-
t rained sons-in-law, as was the case wirh j oo Alfredo and the
Baron o f G ciana.t Bur even so, they stil l rcpresentcd a su bsran nal
g roup whosc di recr- -or indircct-c-support of the re publican cause
could nor help bur re presetl( a loss of srability on rhc pan of the
C rown . Furthermore, rhis loss of srab iliry wa s nor mer ely regional
but na rionwide, since ar rhe cnd of rhe nineteenth ecnru ry the
Brazilian agra rian and p astoral system extended from thc n orth
ro rhe sout h. from rhe coast ro t he int erio r. as a po werful civilizing.
rhough feuda l, presenc e in the vast rropical landscape.
T he reaction of imporran r Bra li:l.n newspapers, incl uding rhose
connccred most directl y wirh consen'at\'e ag rarian inrerests, ro the
7 Juan Alf redu ( Curre i~ de O li\"eira ) w a~ Prime .\ ti nter during he l:l~t years
of he Republie. H e wa~ he Baron uf G oian so.min-Ja w. (T n mJalO r.)
 T be Fteentb o N ovember '9
Revolut ion of Xovember 15 i~ as significanr as that of rhc nobles
already cired. T hc Rio de J aneiro Gezeu da T arde notcd in an edi-
torial of N ovember 16 ; "One could 5ay rbar thc ncw form of gov-
ernmem w as acceprcd almosr unanimously, for in the lase years of
the mcnarchy evcn the mosr dcdic ared royelisrs clcarlv placcd the
narion aboye all ot her considerarions." This acceptance was sharcd,
lec me emphasizc onc e more, not onlv by militar)' meo cool ro rhe
rnonarc hical cause and by srannch Car holics disatlcc red by the con -
rinued royal opprcssion of the bishops, bur also by rhe great planta-
rion lords who fclt bctraycd by rhc suddcn abolition o f slavc labo r,
lr was natu ral t har, for al l rhese solidly conservativo grou ps, t hc
monarchisr c ause had crumbled intn insignificancc ami no longer
aroused in thcm rhc slighrcsr feeling of solid ariry . A lt hough d isin-
clined after N ovcmcr ' 5 ro go abour shouting "Down wit h che
Em pire; long live the Republic!" rhcy ncvenhcless concurred
wirh t hc arrirudc of newspapers such as thc Gazeta da Tarde in
saluring t he narion irsclf and , along wi th their 'lin.Ja for Brazil and
rhc fat hcrland, indu ded a few disc reet chccrs for "libeny" and " de
mocracy." In good conservaeive rnanncr. the Gazeta da Tarde ex-
pressed the wish rhar the ncw rcgimc would "leed tbe nation to-
war d irs g reat destiny'' and rhar the victors wo uld legicimize rheir
assumption of power w it h rhc seal of mc dcrarion, " prevcnting an)'
violence w harever roward the vanqnished." Discnchanrrncnr with
rhe monarchy did not succced in making al l of t he disenchanted
inro republicans or even inro willing fellow trevelcrs, but nearly all,
if not wilhng to sup po rt, wcre at least ablc to accept t he new order.
This was also rhc artirudc o f thc newspaper N ocidades, wh ich on
N ovember ' 5 noted t hat t hc populace of t he capital had been sur-
prised rhar mo rning by "thc ncws of even ts which wcnr bcyond al1
predicric n." An emptiog ro spcak "in rhe name of rhc narion and in
the natiooul int ercst," NO'L'dad es emphasized t hc neccssity o f " p re
serving t his g rand emit)' callcd Brazil along with aH the forcign and
nat ional int erests ir reprcsents." It was through the cooperat ioll o f
" all living {orces" t hat Brazil would " decide ou r destiny " and the
nation's future. A l! of t hese forces shou!d bccoll1e, aho ve e\'ery.
t hing, " defende rs of t he social o rder." T hc new po lit ical sim:l.tint\
could have no oth er bases t han thnse of "order, libeny. and na
tona! integ rit y." ,\ fay w e, ;thove aH orher int erests, share " t he id ea!
o( a strong, unitcd , well-dircctcd bnd," which will " mainrain irs
staru re as a grcat natioo," The militar)', w hich had [aken pan in t he
30 O rder m d Progress

polirical change. was and should remain "our principal bulwark."

T his instirurion well knew how ro "rcsist all forms of excess and
maiutuin the puruv of rhc narional Rcvolution" which, thanks 10 its
"firmness" ir had broughr abour "wit hout hloodshcd" and (no ta
benev "wirhout attacking thc indust rial intcrests." lnsrcad o shout -
ing "Down wieh rhe Empire; long livc rhc Republic!'' this conscrv-
ativc R o jaurnal also end cd irs editorial wirh an all-but apolitical
scnriment. "Order and libeny ! This is O UT obligarion!"
Even rhe virtually rcpublican O D a couldn'r bring itsclf ro the
poinr o damning the Empire and chcering rhc Rcpublic. In irs edi-
torial o Novcmbcr 15. ir mcrcly srarcd rbar rhc dcarh o rhc Em-
pire would cause few regrets. T his statement, howc ver, would
probably havc been ccnrcsted by many Brazilians, if not for the
regime itself ar leasr for thc deposcd Emperor, rhe "Old ,\ 13n"
w hcrn evcryone, wirhour rhe slighrest degrce of animosity, had for
so long ridiculed as " Pedro Banana."
T here had been general disconrenr within che co untry since t he
Paraguayan W ar. bur nor to the cxrenr of causing hatred or rancor,
As early as Xovembcr Ij. , RSj . rhc R io V :mguM dll, in a serious
editorial, had sccn Brazi! as "rhrowing itsclf inro thc abyss of rev
olurion . . wo rking roward pclirical dcmoralizarion, religicus in-
difference and charlaranism in public educarion." Madc prccse ly
four years befare che Revolurion. rhis sratcment rcccrs a general.
ized social rather rhan a specificallj- polircal dsconrenr and is ce r-
rainly nor direcrcd nr cirhcr the Fmpcror or the Fm pirc in particu -
lar.
The Story of rhc fi freenr h of N o vember rhar appcared in Ruy
Barbosa's [)i.rio de N oticias on rhc day follo win g t he coup is also .
ncteworrhy : "Thc Army and the ;":avy, invoking rhc righ rs
granted t hem by t hc Imperial governmcm, ycsrerday dcposcd rhc
[entire J Cabincr, wir h rhc genera l asscnt of the pcople o the ciry ."
And, noting a nor insignificanr derail of rhis "cvc movernent o
nacional characrer, which wil l esrablish rhe future of the nation on a
fi rmly Americ an hasis": "Called yesrerday afternoon by ,\ Iarshal
;\ 1anucl Deodoro da Fonseca and invired to collabo rate wirh the
new gon rn mcnt as ,\ l inister of the T reasury, th e editor-in-chief of
chis ournal. Sr. Ruy Barbosa, considered himself obliged nor to r e-
fuse his sen 'ices in a siruario n w here the imerests of social order and
rhe pu blic good of his country rcqui re the support and scl f~sacrifice
(o f al! true Brazilians)." N ot a word of support for the Republic,
 Tb e Fiteentb of Nouember ,1
mercly rhc st atcment that rhc ncw go\'crmn cllt "proposes to in au-
fru rare the federal Rcpublic" and ro cndcavor ar rhc same t ime ro
"guaran tec propert), rig hrs and the nariona l crcdir" in t hc hands of
rhose funcriooa ries who "continu to serve rhc nation wel l" and ro
effecr "rhe absolure and impla cable rcp ressicn of deordcr."
From rhis, and fro m th e rcactions of orher journ als 0 0 N ovcmbcr
15 and 16, ene can scnse rhe largcl y conservarivc artirudc of rhe
Hrazilian press, cven those papers w hich had rnosr incisively at-
racked t he Ouro Pr ro guvcmmcnr. T hcir rendcncy was to presem
the cvcn t in mo derare terms, to softcn rhe shock ro narion nls and
forcig ners alike of so complete and uncxpectcd a polincal change.
Ruy Barbosa's Dro de No tciss had significandy srrcssed rhc facr
rhat the change would "csrablish rhc nation 0 0 an Amcria n bssis,"
implying thar rhc cld regime had had res ro Europe which had now
bcen dcstrcyed. T he Dirio de N oticias also pointed out thc na-
tional aspee ts o f rhc Rcvolution: rhe nece.ssiry of Brazilian progrcss
as an American narion. rhc necd for t hc mainrenancc of social a rder,
incIuding t he o rganizaricn of the Brazilian cconomy and thc sus-
taining of the national crcdir. lr was thus a Rcvolurion essenri ally
and paradoxically conservarive.
N or only rhc Dirio de N otci<1s, hut also N ooidades and other
papers give rhe imprcssion thar ir had bcen rhe arbi trar)' creation of
rhc Hlac k G ua rd rhar had broken the Brazilian ru le of order rhar
rhis arbit rary action 0 0 rhe part o f t he mc narchy had bcen dirccrcd
against rhc regular Army which, acco rding ro th e conservarive Dj-
ro de Connnerc o (R io de J aneiro ) of November 16, had devel-
oped inro "the sole correcrive againsr rhe arbirrary use of execurivc
power." Thc trurh is, rh is arricle con tinuos, rhar "in proportion ro
thc weakening of civic elcmenrs in our society, the militar)' class has
inc reased in education. puhlic spirit, ami civic cou ragc.' It further
exp ressed rhe hope that lhe ne\\' po litical situ arioo wou ld not be
raken over by part isan politicians bU[ rather by the nonpartisan mil *
itary. " T he civilian elemenr was inelfectu al and Ilseless and emerged
on ly aEter t he coup har.! been realized , probably with the view ro
taking O\'er the oR1c ial positions. Ir is most impo rtant that t he mili-
tary should be considered as the un ly force presently ablc ro derer-
mi ne the succcss or failure o f lhe Revo lurion," The Armed Forces
shou ld takc th c in iriative in dirccting t hemselves to competem rep-
rcsem ativcs of t he people, th e Dirio de C01mllerc;o concluded , in
order to determine rhe Eorm of go\'ernmenr ro be adopted to render
J2 Order md Progre$!

[he Rcvolution o Novembcr 15 rhe legal and effective means o

guara ntecing thc righrs o all cirizens.
As a commerc ial o rgan, [he D rio o Novembe r 16 called upon
rhe new go vcrnmenr ro c alm [he imruensely disturbcd bus iness
world. Thesc disrurbanccs wil l be srudicd in a subsequenr chaptcr.
Sufficicnt ro note here rhar in 1889 rherc werc Hrazilians who Iclt
rhae rhc national course ro be followcd assiduously by [he revolu -
rionary govcrnmcm should be marked out not so r nuch in terms o
Spanish-American progress as o an assurcd furure for rhe fi nancia]
mrercsrs.
The mo vemenr of November 15 was rhus d osel)' link ed [ O a
concepr o [he future, but rarely in rhc history o rhe Brazilian na-
rion do we fi nd so roany diversificd int erpretations o rhar future,
sorne hypot hctical. sorne sociologically dangerous. Yct, w hile rhc
sudden republ ican triumph confronred Brazilians wir h rhe fururc, ir
also caused rhem ro examine rhc Iinle-cxplored acrs of rheir pasc.
O ne pro blem of rhis rwo-way quesr was rhe su rvival (or no ) of t hc
mona rchy , a fo r rn o f g(l\"c rnlllc nt rcpuhl i<.."a n demagogues and ide-
ologisrs had scorned as heing shameful1y archaic. T hc nor ion t hat
rhis anachronistic monarchy was placi ng Hrazil in a bad posirion
among rhc progrcssive nations of Americe was fully propagared in
discourscs and parnphlees favorable to the new regime. Bue such
at tacks did nor pass w it hout provoking a counrcrhlast. which reprc-
scnted rhc fi rsr vigorous attempr ro re-evaluare rhe specifi calty Bra-
zilian characteristics of the monarchy ami of t he colon ial d ays.
Such wrirings 0 11 the Brazilian expc rience ge nera11y concl ud ed on
t he note thar t he narion, temporarilv rep ublica n, would evenru ally
seek irs futu re in a reversion ro mo narc hy. Of thcse apologisrs for
thc mo narc hical pasr, neme was more pro vocativo, from rhc soci-
ological peine of vicw, t han Eduardo Prado of Sao Pa ulo, whose
series o f articles wrirren after rhc p roclamarion o f rhc R epublic
combine che talenrs of an admirable scciolog ist-sreresman wir h the
remarkable eru dirion o f a social h isto rian.
In renrerprering rhe Brazilian pasr, Edu ardo Prado was e ne of
thc fi rst to point ou t t hc impon ancc o f tbe Luso-Carholic influence
in tr opical Am rica. In a polemic exchange wir h rhc Posirivisr Lus
Pereira Barrero. he stared thar ir " redou nde d ro rhc glory of our
race that we werc ablc ro adapt ou rsclves, chough nor wirhour
srrugg lc an sutfer ing, ro rhe natu ra l co nd it ions w irh w hich dcsriny
has surrounded uso . .. O ( a11 rhe civilized groups in che rropical
 Th e Fiteentb of November 33
zone, we can st are wir hour ho:asting rhat we are t he mosr p rosper -
ous." ~ And, "rhis rriumph was d ue [Q rhe efforts of an immig rant
race't-c-r he Porrugucsc-c-whom his lcarncd Posirivisr opponcnt had
c haracrerized as "harrowed and drugged by Carholicism." 9 This
tri umph had come abour in large pan rhrou gh rhc action of Catho-
Ic kings in collaborarion wirh those religious clements-among
othcrs, t he j esuirs-cdcncunced by rhc Positivist Barrero as being
srerilc and insgnficanr.
T hc writings of Eduardo Prado exa lting and calling fo r grcarcr
recognition o f tite work of this rcligious clement are among rhc
most vigorous cver wrirren in t ite Portugu csc language. H is lccturc
on "Carholicism, the Company o f j csus, and rhc C olonizati on of the
New \ Vorld" cvokcd the admi ration of Ruy Barbosa himsclf, who
wrcre to a mutual fr iend requcsring rha r he congratulare rhe lec-
turer for a work he foun d notable for its "majesty, dcpt h, breadr h,
and vigor." 1

~ Ed uar do Prad o : "0 D r. Rar reto e Ciencia: ' a polernlc article agains[ Pere ira
Barre tc puhli,hed in [he jour nal C011"nerdo Je 5.io l' arJ o (19011. Fou nd in
CoJeti lleaJ (Sao Pa ulo, I'}O ) , IV, 169-7.
v l bid.. p. '7S.
l ln no! scn di ng [hl'se cong ratu lalion. OVer hi, own signature. jt ls pos'ible that
Ruy Barbosa was r<:act ing te anorher series of Pra do", ctilicisms of [he Bra zilian
republic an regime , as well as 10 his rncmorsblc obsc rvatioes 00 [he period of th e
rnonarchy , publishcd in [he Ret'ista Je 'om,!?a) undc r Ihe pseudonym "Fredericc
de S." In th cse ameles. Pra do had more than o nce r efcned unfavcrably lo Ru.y
Ramosa, eallins: him "l he garrulous Ru y Har bcsa" and accusing him o f a iack of
scruples in accepting prl'SC nn f mm ~en ain pernllls he f:l.\'on:d fUf th e p"''l of
.\ln;"ler of S[ale. T hc "preseOl'" concerned ",ere no simple hust ur 'lal ue, port raic
" r medal, bUI "notbing lcss th an a Iarge and beaul iful palaee in t hc pielUlesque
quarter c f Laranjeiras" ( Ed uardo Prado, "Pra l icas e T eoras d a Diladura Repub-
llcana no Bra, il," Re-.iJtll de Portugal IO port o, ,ll<;o 1, lll , 9) .
T o Eduardo Prado [his gifl was a sean dal; rhe memory uf the passing of Ruy
Barbo.a ,n' o fhc rellUhlican canop o hc ...tcd, wtl"ld he fore\' er Illu kcd "by [he
seoaes of Ihe palaee he had gained w hile adminisrering the puhlic fund, ," A nd,
in 1 uurst of demasogic bad lasre unworthy of his inlel liSence, Pra do speculated
[hat "per haps .ome day po pular indignal ion Iwoul d ] desrroy Ihi. housc of 's-
nominy."
T he [ttllh ls [ha[ Ruy BUU<.l$a h ad nOl rcceived t he hou", as a pTcsent. As PI&-
fessor Lus Viana Filho uplaios in his life uf Ru y Ih rbosa (A Vida J I' Ruy Rn _
borll (Si o Paulo , 'w ' , p. ' 74). Ruy had acquircd ir Ihrough rwo mcrtga ge lu ons
coverin g t he purc bacc price. " 'hi le Profc. "..,r Viana admits [ha[ in [he spccd ",ilh
which [his de.l Was made Ruy was gui lry of ''.;e rious imprudence"- and I'erhaps
c\"en woese_ he rnnsocl ion was not t he crude open \.Candal denounced by
Eduardo Pra do and mirtore d io l he cu rre nt sellliments of Bra zilian people, who
saw Ruy Bar bosa as an unscru pul ous man suddenly enrich ed Ih rough public of-
ce.
34 a rder and Progress
In his apologics for [he monarchy and for Luso-Carholic dce ds.
Prado did nor always unleash bis polirical passions against the ot her
side. B is snll- farnous book A l usdo A mericana was, o course,
markcd by an exaggerarcd anri-republicanism and Yankccphobia.
Still, he was nor lacking in hisrorical and soc iological pe rspective in
cr itieing Hraxilian Pan-Ar ncricanisrs who ingcnuollsly saw t hc
ncw Republic inrcgraring itsclf, as if by magic. in a continental
brorherhood of nations similar to thosc cst ablishcd by govc rnmcnts
of Anglo-Saxon originoIn American rclationships with rhe majoriry
of rhcsc repu blics. which had adoprcd a caricature o rhe Unircd
Srares examplc, only the naivc failcd ro pcrccive rh e disdain o rhc
strong for rhc weak, rhc scorn of an ordcr ly people for a ser of
rowdics who, hy mere accidcm, happcncd to be rheir ncigh bors.
And only rhos e ignorant of thc psycholopy of the U nircd Srarcs
and of rhc hisrory of irs rclarions with Latn Amrica could be un-
awarc of irs rclativc csrcem for Brazil-in spitc of its mixtu re of
races-in conrrasr ro ehc disdain exhibired for ncarly all other Latin-
A merican count rics. T his rc l.n ivc cstccm w as bascd upon [he con-
sidcrsrion tha t Imperial Bra l rcpr escntcd a Iorrn of governmcnr
favorable ro unit y and stabilty and thar the Luso-American Em-
pire, rhrough t he involvcmen r of its arisrocracy in the puhlic scrv -
ice, had managed ro preserve a Europcan scnse of dign ity an d
rcspcctabiliry in irs polirical behavior. Such vales we re rcvered by
Arncricans; rhcir nwn rcpublic was in somc respeets an electivo
monarchy crcarcd on somerhing bcrwcc n an Imperial and a federal
partern. Amc rican s werc also scnsirive ro t he mystique of arisro-
eratie rirles, even when t hese rieles wcrc not carricd hy pcoplc of
A ryan origin. Thus Thomas Ewbank, visiting Rio de janciro in the
days of Pedro 11, had obscrved t har in spirc of being a tropical
counrry. in which many of the first famil ies had an adrnixrure o
Negro blcod. t he Bra lian Fmpire ran ked next ro France among
rhe Larin naricns in irs achicvemcnr of progress. Und ersranding
thar rhe tropical siruarion of Bra l ohliged ir to develop irs own
particular systelll of ci\'ilization, he wrore " . . . it is for rhem to
dctermine how far science anJ t hc arrs w ithin the rro pies can com-
pete with their progress in t he tempcrare "'.(lnes." 2 T his was a tre
mendous task, hc aJdcJ , and to con front it the nar ion w as retaining
its monarchical fon u of govcrnment ami its aristocraric soeier)',
wh ilc dc vcloping ;ln ethnic democ rae)'.
2 T h"", 1~ Ewbank: Life in HT~ :iJ OT rhe Land of tbe Co c o~ and rbe Pa/m (Lon.
don, 18f 6) , p. 46.
 T be Fiiteentb of N ovember 15
In spi re o f be ing an An g lo-American, Ewha nk significanrly
avoided rhe simplicism o f \\'ehh and orhers o f his comparriors and
was clearly ablc ro undcrsran d rhc Hrazilian parsdo x in w hich a
demoerat ie fo rr nof govcmmcnr, an arisrocra ric soc ict y, and an eth-
n ic cqualiev formed a unique corubination o f clcmcn ts o f tremen-
do us p rom ise and im pcrrancc ro rhc furure of Hrazil's modern civi-
Iization-c-a fut ure whic h p romised ro arrain rhc high c ultural leve!
found in t he most civiliz cd nat ions o f I he temperate zone.
Ir wa s prccisely bccause of the Braxilian cape citv to stand out, ar
k m among the t ro pical countr jes of t hc N cw World, rhar Ed uardo
Prado was con vinccd. rhro ugh his stud y o f rhe Luso-A me rican
pasr, rhar " of alI rhc tropical rransplantaticns o f Eu ropcan races and
civilizarions. thar of rhc Porrugucsc in Brazil has had rhc mosr com-
plete, comprehensivc, ami lasting succcss. \\'e enjoy advanrages
over our Spanish- America n neigh bo rs w ho, in rransform ing rhern-
selves inro ma ny nations, havc fragmenrcd rhe rommon origin
which leJ rhem thrcug h rhcir t erritorial conquesrs in rhc A mc ri,:an
rropics." 3
To sorn e srudc nrs of Brazilian socicry , rhis was exactly what thc
countr)' had done in separating itsclf polirically from Portugal; in
continuing rhe monarehy ir had had (he clcar advan ragc of preserv-
ing a social fo rm wirh all t he clernen rs of Eu ro pcan race and civili-
za ricn and, simulrancously . undcr rhc infiucnce o f tropical A m r ica.
of dcvelcping a !lCW racc and a ncw civilizarion. Ir was rhc mon-
arc hy which hall prevcntcd-c-and thc Repu blic which Iavorcd-c-rhe
romant ie ami scmcwhar ana rchic republican exper imenratiun rhat
had so fragmcnted Span ish Americe. In his epologics for rhc mon-
archy, Edua rdo Prado in dic ated that t hc R epublic had ccased to he
rhe sociological conr muarion o f Imperial unity and that it hall
rar her Tended ro favor an open con icr bcrwecn ordcr and p rogress,
which had beco conraincd d urin g rhc Empire by rhe alrnosr ex-
cl usive maintenancc of rhe former at thc expense o f rhc lat te r. Since
d eda ring its indcpcndence in Etl n , Brazil, following rhe rimely
w arnings of J os Booif cio,i had c ominued the form o f govem-

'1 !:duardo Prad o ; "Pdr ie.s e T eori., .. . , 111. 74 - 1' 0.

4 j os /l.oo if:ieio de And"d. " ""Nime' rcfcrred to .s ~t he Benj. min Fr. nklin
of Brui l: ' w", n.ti'e <Jf Sao Poul" .nd fo rrner I' rofe;,;or or (he Uni"ersir)' uf
Combra. He w"' perh. f" !he prioeip.1 p" lit ie.! b. oio behiod Dom Ped ro r s
ded , ion ro ded e jndependenee, .nd . s I) "m Ped ro's eh id miniSler pl'red mos!
impon . n! role in Bnzili.n .Ihi n bOf h hcfurc .od . fter ndel>c ndence. l. . rer, du r-
ing Ihe regelley. J""': Ih nif:e;" .eted . s poli! ie.! tutor to the young D" m Pedro II .
H is broth el'l, Antni" Corl..s ..le Ao dn do .oJ ~lanim Frone&o de Andrad o, were
 a rder and Progress

menr w hic h ncr only rcpresen red a rder bur w hic h-c-in a w ay
unique in Sourh Amrica. exeepr perhaps fo r rhc Paraguay of Fran -
cia an d the fi rsr Lpez-had de velop ed a socio-polirica l mysrique of
te rritorial unity in a land exrendi ng from rhc Amazon ro the Ro de
la Piara.
Ir is clcar from rhc newspaper accounrs of rhc fi rsr years of
Hrazilian indcpcnd encc thar t he monarc hica l regimc was regarded
by most journalists as being the most suirable for rhe Fururc of rhe
ccuntry: hut t he colon ial past was nor dcspised. execpr by a Iew
extreme national ists.
On J uly 30, 18 30. O Cnaeiro, a "polirical, litcrary , and mercan-
rile journal," pubhshed a long arriclc 0 0 the qucsrion o thc hest
form of gcvernment. Ir adoprcd rhc conrradicrory linc of viewing
rhe current siruation as "one of rcforru of forme r monarchical
abuses wit hour rhe nccessity o desrroving or impcding the pri vileges
of ro yalty: ' ami . ar rhe sume time, wirhou r denying rhe rig hts of
rhc royal subjecrs. T hc rcgime had distinguishcd irsclf by its moder-
ariou, and was consequendv thc bes r availahlc fo r che well-bcing of
Brazil and for rhc "dcvelopruenr of its future prosper uy" wirhin the
panern o roy al ordcr and political and social progress, a pau een no
country o f Spanlsh Amrica had bccn ahlc ro realizo in ma ny r ears
o f terrible-often sanguinury-c-uphcaval.
Such thoughrs also occurred ro Edua rdo P rado sixry y ears later.
In his essay "Thcory and Pracrices o f Republican Dic tatorship,"
publishcd in rhe Reiism de Portugal in 1890. Prado exprcsscd rhe
fcar t har rhc Repu blic wou ld bring ro Brazil the dangerous espanb-
olnno o rhc South Amer ican rc publics. Nor without reason, he
showed that th e Repu blic of 1889 had already inrroducc d a few o
ehese cspanbotinuos iota Bcazil in crearing t he t itle of "Ge nerals-
mo," and in cmployinp the tcc hnique of the pronunc emento, or
milita r)' promotions "m ade by acclamarion." These innovanons
Prado artribured ro O uinrino Bocayuva. "that admire r of Argen-
rinc ami G u atarnalan civilization." Bur he also suspecrcd rhc hand o f
Bcnjamin Consranr, w ho is reponed [O have told G en eral D eodoro
t har "[he Ilrazilian mon archy was an obsracle ro rhc union o f rhe
A merican peoplcs." an opinion Prado shows to have been unsound
by reviewing t he amicable rclationships o f Brazil with the Spanish

also highly impo nanr political ligu r.... duri ng rhe early fun of Brazi\ian nde-
pendencr. (T ran, laror.)
 T be Fiteentb of N ooember 37
republics and with rbe United Stares. Funhermore. Prado cites [oa-
quim Nabuco's remark thar, paradoxically, the Brazilian Ernpire
was che only true "Rcpublic " in rhe scnse of baving continucd rhc
righr of t he Jarg e rns joriry o f irs c itize ns 10 inf1uence the direction
of go vernmenr affai rs. ,\ Im t of thc so-calle d "republics'' were sm-
r ious; as onc-man governmcnts, rhcy wc rc monarchics in rhe worst
sensc o f the word. For insrancc. wasn'r Rosas, a type of despot
more Asian than European. "inimical ro Wesrem civilization'?
And wercn't Sanr'Anna. Guzmn Blanco, Daza, i\ lclgarejo, and
Pierola of rhc samc st ripc> Or rhe picturesque Santos of U ruguay,
who had indulgcd in rhe oricnralluxury of owning " a parasol en-
crusrcd with d iamonds"? A lon gsidc rhese. Prado continued, Pedro
II made a st riking contrasto in rhe lack of Imperial majcsty in his
d ress and acrions. Ir was in rhc spirit o f this ascedcism, more repub-
lican rhan t he rcpublicans, rhar he had agrecd suicidally ro rhc ac-
tion of rhc fi frecnrh of Novcrnbcr.
Various fo reign obscrvcrs pointcd out Pradc's exccssive simplifi-
carien of the case , H owever , none hcrter srrcsscd rhe impo n ancc o
this Imperi al suicide morif than the Po rt ugucsc w rircr R amalho
O rtigo, in his almosr sociologcal analysis of "The Social Aspccrs
o f rhe Brazilian Revolurion." ~ Omgo was astonishcd at rhe sur-
roundi ngs in which rhc Imperial family lived. in rbc palace of Sao
Cristvo. with its sad air of a " pe or linlc convenr," its plain, un-
decorared sraircase, irs rooms "without carpers, wirhour owcrs.
wirhc ur srat ues," adorncd onl y by furnirurc "uncharacrcristically
modero in modc." In chis ascctic palacc, che Emperor lived the arid
life of a burcaucrar. H e didn'r cvcn havc a military staff; he was
repelled by marrial airs, and [he "sound of sabers ' rnade him un-
coruforrable. Even the Emprcss w as not surroundcd by w cll-
drcssed and wcll -coiffeurcd baroncsses and viscounresscs. Tberc
was no longer a Haroness of Esrrla ro ser hersel f up as a modcl for
her tim e and social position (thc Haroness was self-exiled in P aris) .
Ped ro II was as suspiciou s of exccssively elegant baronesscs as he
was of cxcessivcly progrcssive harons like \b u. 6 This aversion to
~ Ramalho On igao: "O Q uadro Social da Re" olu~ ao Bu "ileira," Re'dlla de
Portugal (Opono , 180,10), JI, 79'""" ' 01,
<l lrineu Evangeli'la de Sou<a, Baron (Jaler \' iscoum) of .\ laua ( 1 ~ l l - I 8Q<,) , i.
oflen spoken of a. Ihe BraTiliao J. P. .\ Iorgan , A nath'e of Rio Grande do Sul,
"!au, Ihro ugh hi, po werf ul banking orga nizolion, wa, lhe lnding force be hind
lhe denlo pmem of BUlilian u an"po ruli nn s)"Slems. H e huih {he Rio-Petri'polis
n ilw ay and Ihe {nlous Rio de Jan eiro lfeCleu systent. A pubJic l'lJ uare anJ one
8 arder and Progress

splendor ano ro all rhc trappingli of mo narch y natu rally commu ni-
cated itself ro rhe diplcmanc corps, wh ich adopted rhe practico o
going ro the royal rcccprons by srrecrcar, th us avoidt ng che trials
of fd iog in a ca rriage over hu mpy roads. En rout e ro rhis plain and
dismal palacc, rhc d iplomats W O Te prosaic lincn dusrers ami simple
dcrby hats; rheir carriages, hcaring unir their diplcmatic hats and
ot hcr f incry. werc scnt on ahead, ano their owners madc rhe neccs-
sary changcs of dress ar rhe palace itsclf.
Ar Pcrr polis. ir was rhe same story. Arnid "che lively colors of
rhe countryside," rhe srraw hars, fans. and whire parasols. B is
:'\1ajesty. when he appearcd at all, was an ausrcre black blor 011 rhc
scenc. D rcsscd in a frock coar and high har ar eighe in rhc mom ing,
he carried under his arm a plain umb rella testifying to rhc philo-
sopher- Empcror's contcmpt for (he militar)' sword he had thc right
to wear. " 'ith rhis artitudc, ir was on ly natural thar l) O I11 Ped ro also
considered th e annu al open ing of Parl iament on j anuary 2 a son of
burlcsque. O bligcd ro carry a sce ptcr and ro wcar rhe cro wn and
rhc famous cape adomed with parror Iearhers. rhe E mperor did his
du ty in rhe rnanner of one force d against bis will ro d rcss fo r a
masqueradc. Ir was pan o f rhc lirurgy of monarchy, classical as
well as modern, bur it hcld no interese whatever ro a spirit so puri-
tanically ausrere and ph ilosophically middlc class as t hat of Ped ro 11,
Thus Ped ro 11 was rhc very reverso of rhc chicf of state d e-
manded in rhe circumsranccs. \ Vhat was nceded, wrotc O rtigo,
was "a your hfu l King, nor in age l nn in tem perament, a person in
whom the immaturity o f judgment and impetuosity of acticn char-
acterisric of the X ew \ Vorld might havc joined e ffccrivcly with t he
European scnse o f discip line ami the digniry o f cornmand" ; one
who could have bccn " a bulwark of arder and an agent of prog-
ress, as well as an erfcctivc inu cnce on future civilizarion." Orrigo

-
felr, howevcr, t hat although Pedro 11 was not a marrial ruler, his
go vernmcnt co uld have led ro rhe order and progress of Brazil had
he on ly developed the suppOrt of a " disciplined , b rilliant, well-
trained A rmy: ' one "capable of ser\'ing as an example ro t he nation
in its physical perfect ion, its st rcngt h, and its sk ill, a practical dem-
onst ration of discipline and rcspect." 7
If there was any defici ency which smod out during the reign o f
Pedro JI, it \Vas the lack o f the tYIle o{ educarion {or which Ortigo
of the prioc ipal railway Slalium io Rio de Janciro were oamed in hb honor.
(T ranslalor.)
' O" . p. "".
n ,gao: 01" CIt., _,,-
 '[be F iteentb of N ovember 39
was a spo kcsman in Portugal. Efforrs roward the complete educa-
rio n of y oung pcoplc. wirh artenrion gi ven ro physical as well as
intellecrual traning , ano in which discplined practica] know ledge
was supe rim posed upo n rhe mere devclopmcnt of memory, of ora-
rorical skill, and of the po wers o f absrracnon. wcrc almosr rotally
lacking un dcr [he rule of Pedro I l. (l is chief pleasure was re attend
the c1egant compcritions for teaching po sirions in the Im perial h igh
sc hools ano univcrsirics, ap plauding dcmonsrrario ns of erudition, of
m emo r)', and of Iacilc orato ry .
" A n old and ailing empero r cannot maintain rhe complete cohe-
sien o f a tro pical o r sem i-tropical counrry almosr as vasr as Eu rope,
having onl y ten m illion inhabitanrs and struggling w it h che prob-
ler ns o f a most dcficicnt sys tem of communication,' said Tb e T imes
(Londcn} , w hich dcvotcd irs N ovem bcr 11 , 111 119, issuc to a discus-
sion of thc Brazilian situ anon, though ir ncglccrcd to observe that
the rccenr ly dcposcd Empc ror, in his horro r of the active lifc, of
militar)' martc rs, ami of "morbid' physical exerc ise, had been old
since edolcsccncc. In fu rther cditorials t hc great E nglish paper
pointcd out, w ith characrcrisric British honcsty an d a ra rc [ou m alis-
tic hutn ility , t har to evala te the furure of rhc new R epublic wirh
any degree of confidcnce, one w ould nccd a "minute knowledge of
al1 rhe circumst anccs and condirions'' behind rhc rransformarion of
Brazil from mcnarc hy to Republic, a knowledge "which no one
possesses herc und few possess in Brazil." T he only in formarion
made available ro Europc by rhe provisional govern meTlt had been
merely " rhe supcrfluous tclcgrams so casily cxpcditcd by the T reas-
ury Mi nisrcr," rhe exn beranr (cven in telcgrams) Counselor Ru y
Barbos.
A t much rhc sarne da re as rhc Times editorial, anothcr English
joumalisr, a ,\ 1r, Comcly , wrotc a scnrenrious am ele on rhe Hrazil-
ian siruation, rcaching ccnclusions Iar more drasric tha n rhosc of
rhe more expcricnccd pa per. .\ Ir. C omcly was rarher cruel ro Ped ro
11. \V hy , he asked, <lid t he Ernpcror ha vc ro spend so m uch tim e in
Euro pe? W asn'r he needed in Hrazil? (T his w as unjusr, fo r Ped ro
ac tu ally rnadc very few tri ps ro Europc.)
,\ Ir. Corncly's crit icism carne inro [ he category of rhose rhat con-
sidercd rhe de rhroncd Er uperor to ha ve qual ieies cxccllenr in a pri-
vare cit izen bur unsuirahlc in a ruling monarch .8 A chief of starc in
a monarchical regim e is the ship's pilor, said \ Ir. Corndy, and
8The s~me point uf ,-iew w1' nprt's..cd, more direetly, by O rt igio 10d, indi-
R edy, by E~ 1 de Q U..irol. in "A lJl tim1 C1rt1 d ~ Fu .\ Iendes."
 O rder and Progress

ought ro pass his days and nights at rhc helm. Or, ro change t he
mctaphor. he is a soldcr, and as a sold ier should ncver abandon t hc
crown and sword.
"His legs were not made tu resr in t hc velver of some insrirurional
c hair, but ra ther ro be ad jusred vigorously ro t he saddle of a bartle
srecd." So far as rhis somew hat Ccrly lean E ng lishman was con-
ce rn ed, D Ol1l Ped ro 11 would bave done bcner " if insrcad of bcing a
sovereign o t he academics, he had bcc n a militarv man from head
te Icor, a soldicr's snldier, rcady to receive wirh bullets all discon -
tented slave-owncrs, republcan conspirarors, and [ournalisrs low
in funds" , and he would still hnvc continucd ro be Em pcror of rhe
Brazil ians."
There were many orher Europeans who rcecrcd to rhe fifteenth
o f November by lamenting the lack o f spirit o f the derhroned Em-
r eror and by regrcmng t hat Brazil had ceascd ro be an Em pire. But
rhere wcre no fewc r who fo resaw in rhe vicrorious Re pu blic a con-
nnuation of the monarchy in a d ifferent contexto A considera ble
number of Europea obscr vers. man)' of whom were wel l vcrsed in
li razilian affairs, wcrc ho pcful rhat the new leaders would be ablc to
avoid thc excesscs of pu re rcpublicanism and ro give greater ernpha-
sis ro che social aspects of gove rnment.
The London corrc spondcm for thc [ornal do Commercio o Rio
de j anciro reponed thar, a few davs aftcr rhe fi freenrh of X ovem-
ber, the Brdsh Undersccretary of Sute for Foreign A ffairs, Sir
James Fcrgusson, had recommendcd nor only prudence and firm-
ncss. bur also "fid eliry ro the promiscs of rhc pase' in rhe difficu lt
rask o f Brazilian rcconsrrucrion. T his sent irnenr w as cchocd by Tb e
T imes of Xovcmber 18, in irs staremenr rhar the "new a rd er o
t hings" in Brazil would probably be as srable as the old. Attriburing
rhc fal l of Dom Ped ro 11 ro (he fac t rhar his go\"crnmcnt had becn
"mo re liberal t han t he m;lSSCS o f its subjccrs," T be T imes felt rhat
rhere was no rcason wby th c Republic "should nor be as hon esr in
paying its debes as a r nonarchy." T hc Dily N eun o f rh e same dale
pointed ou t rhar since " 100 million pounds ste rling of rhe Brirish
pcople'' depended ufxm rhe order and progrcs,,> of the ncw Brazilian
rcgimc, it was concomed o\"er lhe Republic 's abi lity to remain es ~
sentially che same tyre of government as rhe monarchy. Ir was nec-
essary to dete rmine w har the fmu re o f the country would be u nder
th is more popular regime. " Is it preparing Brazil for self-go vern-
9 T hc Corncly anicle i~ ci!cd in Campos " ",rto; 01'. cit., p. 8'9. (Thc origini
"'urce uf the an icle <; not ghcn. (T rn<lalor.))
 T be Fiiteentb of N ovember

mcnt>" Would thc ncw Rcpublic "mainrain rhe uniey and inrcg riry
w hich has bcen characrerisric o f monarchical Brazil amidsr rhe con-
sranr tu rmoil and repcatcd d ismcmbcrrnenrs of the S outh American
rcpublics! "
T hc words of these and orhcr noted Europcan [ournals formcd a
son of judgme nt of rhe Iurure, a "con remporary Iuturc," as sorne,
e ne has callcd it , in rhc scnse rhar such responsible foreign analysis is
borh dispassionate and well inforrncd. Ccrtainly. sorne mernbcrs of
rhe provisional govcmmcnr cou ld appreciate such criticistn: con-
scious of having to sorne exrcnr broken with the national pasto and
pledged ro continu in rhcir cuurse, rhcy undoubred ly found much
ro salve rhcir conscicnccs in t hese jour nahsric prcviews of rhc fu -
t urc. T he more lucid and intelligent members of the ncw regime
rried ro adapr their course ro rhc prcdicrions, ar leasr in mat tcrs
which would be visible ro fo reipn eyes. T hey srrove te ccnvince
oursiders that rhc gove mrucnt was conccrncd with the scrupulous
maintenance o f public order, with naricnal unty. wirh territoria l
intcgriry, and wit h rhc respecrful rrearmcnr o f t he vanquishcd fac-
tion. Indeed, such rrcarmcnt Frcqucnrly extended so far as ro in-
el ude r nernbcrs of t har faction in thc ncw govern ment. The Baron
of Lu cena rcplaccd Ru y Harb osa as poltica ! and ju ridical ndviscr ro
General D codorc. and soon many orher rirled members of che old
regime werc called ro the scrvice o f rhe R epu blic. Thc facr that
sueh persons wc re allowcd ro rcrai n and use their tides m ust have
caused satisfacrion in Bri tish circles.
O ne Hrirish pronoun eement which could no r fail ro carry weight
was rhat o f t he great G ladstone. In a spccch gvcn in M anchesrcr a
few days afr cr the proclarnarion of the R epub lic, tbis most liberal o f
Brirish staresmen was cmphaeic in his ad mirar ion fo r the dcrhroned
Emperor: "No monarch has cver bccn more dcdicat cd ro rhe happi.
ncss o f his pcople." 1 Bur at the same time he comrncndcd rhe Bra-
zilian revolutionaries for thc way in which they had rcplaccd t hc
monarchy with thc Republic, "without the slig hlcst anempr at vio-
lence, w it hout disrurbancc, so to speak. of the social arder. wi thotlt
interrupting t he coursc of business for more Ihan [wenty-four ro
forry . eight hou rs. w ithout firing a shot. without arrests, and with-
OUt bloodshed- t hollgh I bdievc t hat one accidental in ju r)' is the
sote exccption 10 my statement-and all [his in a distant soc iery
whie h could be considcred a b:l.ckward ei\'ilization, a socicty whieh
u ntil a few days ago struggled, if it is not st ill slruggling, again::;r the
I bi d., p. Il. 8.
 a rder md Progrese
pcm icous curse o f slavcry , and where [he morality of rhc enrire
cou nrry r nusr hace been considerably rcrardcd in its developmcnr
by rhe exisrence o f thar deplora ble institurion."
W as there not somcthing Brirannic in rhe w ay in w hich rhe Bra-
zilians, srruggling againsr al1 rhcse d isadvanrages, nevertb elcss re-
placed rhc monarc hy wit h the Republic in a manncr so pcaccful, so
sobcr, so und isturbin g ro the course of business? From Gladsrone's
words wc would conchr de that thcrc was, that Brazil had shown
that ir was a less backward sociery than t he Knig hrs and t he \Vilsons
believed, in t heir confusin of sobriety wir h public aparhy. The
fi freenrh of November had doubrless show n up rhc apathy o f Era-
zilians tuward t heir trad icional sysrem o f government but ir had
also dernonstrared t he c ivil rcsponsibility of rhe revolurionarics,
panicularly those in t he militar)' torces.
In rhe Unircd Starcs, rhe fi rsr ncws o f t he proclamaricn of t hc
Brazjlian R cpublic b rough t joy ro th c hcen s of thosc interesred in
Latin-Amer ic an affairs; Brazil now sccmed ro have idcnnficd itsclf
more closely wirb the continental sYStelIl of govcmmcnr. "T hc
Unired Srares of Brazil is now a natural ally o rhe Unired St nres of
Ar ncrica. " clairncd rhe N eui Y ork T rbune, a lirrle rherorically,
th oug h ir cxplained rhar its eonfidence in th e Iut ure o f Brazil was
based upon irs fespccr for thc former monarchy. "The Rcpublic
will make good progress, bccausc it is prcpared ro do so thro ugh rhc
free insriru rion s alrcady en joycd thcrc." 2
For rhc New York JI'orld rhe Braxilians, in adopting rhe rcpubli-
can sptem o f go vernmcnt, had fr eed rhcmselvcs o f rh c burden of
" med ieval and hcredit ary t raditions"; a King, on rhe America n con-
tinenr, was " rhc rnost absu rd of al l anac hronisms." One should
neverrhelcss recognizc rhar Dom Pedro had bccn a "good man." 3
In rhc opinion of rh e H crald, howc ver. ir was rhis facr of heing
mc rcly a " good man" rhat "had lcd ro his own downfall ." T be
N e'W Y ork T im es did not agrcc ar all; Dom P edro was dct hroncd
by violcnce. fn a scriou s editoria l of N overnbcr 17 thc Tim es. w hile
syruparhcric toward Brazil, exprcsscd its apprchension ar a R cvo-
lution which represenred thc violcnr fa lI o a liberal monarehy Icd
by a man [Dom Pedro ] sincercly dcdicared ro prosperity o f his
eo um ry.~

2 Ibi,J., p. 6 j).
3 N e-w Y ork IVorld, :";'ovcmbcr '0, l flR9.
4 "[be N e-w Y ork T imes, ;-';o\cm bcr ' 7, 1!lll9.
 Tb e Piteentb of N ovember 43
T hus from rhe Unircd Srarcs too thc new Brazilian lcaders heard
words of advicc which, instcad of acccntuanng their revolutionury
rad icalism or mcssianic rcndencics, mus r havc scrved ro make thcm
evcn more aware of their debr ro che mo narc hical past, an aware-
nCSS that (according t the besr Anglo-American authcriries) would
constiture the strongcsr gu arantec of rhc counery's repub lican fu-
ture.
Ir was not only rhc Unircd Statcs rhar felt this way; fro m Chile
and A rgenrina carne opinions only parrly fa vorable te t he Brazilian
innovation. From t he Buenos Aires corrcspondcnt of rhc R io Jornal
do Connnerc o on D ecem ber 7 ca rne rhe news rhar " for the rnasscs.
which knew only rwo rhings ahout Brazil -y eltow fever and the
narne of D om P edro," rhc R cvolurion of Novcmber 15 had bec n
"likc the fall of rhc Eiffcl Tower." ~ To neig hboring Argentina,
thc llame of th c Empcror and t he polieical st are o the rnonarchy
im parred ro Brazil, dcspirc rhc ycllow fever, a11 appearancc o f solid,
almosr monumental organizarion confirmcd by rhc "monetary su-
premacy" o f rhe Empire. Argenrine busincssmen, rhe correspon
denr conrinucd. "som cwhar cnvious of rhc financia] and moncra r)'
siruarion of mcnarchical Brazil," wcre qui te pleascd with the mili-
t ar)' pronuncismento in Rio de j ancirc, wh ich would pcrhaps be
"r hc source o f disorder and intern a! warfare" in the ncw Rcpublic
and would lead tu the end o f Brazilian lTlonerary suprcmacy. This
anirudc on rhc pan of Bucnos Aires businessmen musr aga in have
scrvcd ro make rhc new Brazilian leaders aware of their responsibili-
rics to thcir monarchical past : a past w hich could not be under-
rarcd, bur must rat hcr he conrinued in order ro preset\'e thosc
vales rbat could go on lending presrige to t he new republican
order. The actions of rhc A rmy during t hc proclamarion o f the
Republic had causcd wonder among rhe Argcntincs. rhc sanie cor-
responde nt ccntinucd, becausc lhe soldicrs liad bccn coutcnt t o cr)"
" 'd ,t'a' ro rhc Republic and ro ,\ larshal D eodoro, w irhout cven
rhnki ng of rhe pleasures o f sacking stores ami warehouscs." 6
T he rrurh is rhar rh e more rhe Brazilian Arm)' remO\'cd irsc1f
from rhe exce~si\'cl y provincial Pedro 11, and rhe more irs off1cers.
afrer rhe Paraguayan \ \'ar, bccame repub licanized (t hro ugh rhe in-
Rucnce o Positi\'ism and or her "isms" ), rhe g rearer rhe distincrion
grew berween the Brazilian milita r)' trad irion and rhat of the armics
s Campos Pii rt o o(J p. cir., p. 6H,.
e b id., p, 68,.
44 Order and 'rogress
of Bolivarian Americe. Through a conjun crion o circumsta nces
peculiar ro Brazil, rhc Army did nor dcvelop inro a fo nn o militar)"
arisrocracy , ir nccepred young men of a1l faces and from al] walks
o life ami. unlikc the Nevy, became a rruly democraric bo dy.
Moreover, ir did chis wirhour allow ing irsclf ro he scduccd by [he
dcmagogucs w hn so ofren unleashcd rheir arracks against rhc majar
political, militar}', and cccles iasrical figures of (he periodo
In his A ponumem os P.m1 J llirtri.1 d<l R epblica dos Estados
Unidos do Brasil (Notes for tb e H istory 01 tb e R epublic of the
Unired States o Rrazil) , ,\ 1. E. de Campos P rrc t ranscribes an in-
reresring editorial from [he ardcndy rcpu blican Corre o do 'ovo
of Ro de Janciro. A fe w days aftcr the prod amation of thc R epub-
lic, rhis editorial tr ied 10 attribute th c " reserve of thc European
press'' ro the facr thae rhis press was "pardal ro rhc old insritunons"
and consequcnrly incapable of undcrsrandmg anyrhing new or dis-
tinctively Amer ican. More specificay, ir w as ig no rant of condi-
rions in Brazil, " bcrh of the polincal and social aspects of rhc sirua-
t ion and of t he rare qualincs of the Hrazilian pcople." The extcnt of
European inforrnarion. the Correio do Povo indicared, was thae rhc
eountry was governed by a fricnd of the arts and scicnccs so
superior to his subjccts that the European mind could hardly g rasp
thc anorualy of a ruler of ' 4 million Tups and Negrees being a
mcmbcr of the Aea demy of Sciencc.
Bm ir was in rcfcrnng ro rhc "milirary characrerisrics of thc
movemen r" rhat thc Correio do 1'01.'0 got to rhc hearr of t hc allegcd
reserve e n [he part of che Old world press, In irs apologv. more
Posnivisr and soeiological than pclitical, rhc cdirorial mad e a point
well wo rt h bringi ng ro rhe atten rion of European ne wspapers. Ac -
cusror ned tu South American military pronuncumemos, tbesc
papees, wit h [he possiblc excepron of T he T imes, had madc t he
mistake of seeing the inrervcnrion of the Brazilian Armcd Fo rces in
t he political scenc as just another crudc, purely military cou p,
"Given rhc siruaron of a ruodc rn cirizcn body in which t he o ld-
linc conven rien of an arisrocraric Arm y in th e scrvice o the King
has trans formed itself into rhar of a popula r miliria in t he sen"ice of
t he eount rr, ir is not possible ro have w hat co uld truly be ca lled a
narional revolmion againsr t he will of rhe armed forces," said t he
Correio do 1'0,,'0 (antieiparing rhe revo lutions of the rw enrieth cen-
tilry ) . " One might add rhar. w ith rhe perfeetion of t he seience of
taerics anJ di~eipline and of w eapons of moJern v.'arfue. t he vic-
 T be Fiteentb af N ovember 45

rory of a purely civil insurrccrion has bccome rotally impossiblc.

The SUpPO(( o f a popular rcvolunonarv Army is ncccs sa ry. and
wirh such suppon givcn. rhc victory bccomcs lcgirimatc." And.
focusing on rhc specifially Brazilian :l.sp ccr of rhc prcblem: "Onc
mu sr note rhar in Brazil no class bcncr re presents rhc high qualitics
of rhc cirizcn body tha n the Arrny ami thc Navy. If t he rare sensc
of loyaley and rcspecr o f rhc raccs which compose rhc mass o f our
proletariat mercases in rhe hcarts of sim ple solJ iers and sailors, rhc
officers, in t hcir tu rn, rhroug h t he cxccllcnr scicnrific cd uca tion im -
partcd by ou r militar-y sehools, represem rhe h ig h~r and rnost se-
leer qualicics of rhc Brazilian spirit . T o rhcsc wc miglu aJJ rhc fo r-
tunare moral sirua rion of rhe miljtarj- class in Brazil, free as ir is
fro m all t houghrs o f ind ustrial sc!fi shness, res igned In a dgnificd
po"erty, and passionatclv dcvorcd ro rbe cause of patriorism and
honor,"
As fo r t he fi freenth of Novcrnbcr itself, rhc Correio do 1' 0 '1) 0 , in
con rronnng' I hce " reserve o r rhe E',uro pean press." askrs: " 1s rhi\5
mlH"emem an egoeistic militar), pronoimcumcn roi , . . Abso-
lurely n o. The military leadcrs w ho. wirh rhe effecr ivc hclp of civil-
ian rcpublicans, led rhe Revolurion cf thc fifteenrh o f Nover nbcr
awaired the assurance of puhlic opinin in rhc capital bcforc
p roclaiming thc dcposirion of thc dynesry . O nce this opinin was
Iavorably cxprcssed, rhey sancrioncd t he acrion." Thc composition
of t he govcrnmcm irsclf in which rep rcscneadves o f both civilian
ami militar), classes wcrc includcd, ral"es ( finally) thar we havc,
and have had from rhc beginn ing, a movcmcnt concerned wirh
not hi ng clse t han rhc common wclarc of rhc Brazilian pcoplc.
C onfirming rhe Pos itivise rhesis of rhe Corrc o do 1'0 '(.'0 , R uy Bar-
bosa's Di rio de N oticias ( usually of qui te d ifferenr policy) said:
" Thc Army, having everything in irs own hands, gave ove r en fY-
rhing ro t he people . .." T E m phasizing rhc force of propaganda
prcvously put Out by poliricos and inrellccruals such as Bcn jam in
Consram, ir w em (ln : " For sueh a desiJeratum (Le., rhe Rep ub lic l
che)' wo rked wieh peo and intellecr in order ro arousc a parrioric
sp irir ami ro put rhe Armed Fo rces (Jn rhe side of rhe pcople. O nce
rhe period of pCf5uasion was passcd and rhe time for ac rion arril"ed,
swords w ere unshealhed and p05ir ions eonq uered ." Ami, w irh che
characrerisric m ueh-admired Barbosan rheroric: " Bm the angcl of
" ierar)' has nor )' cr smiled w ith all his radiance on rhe forces of
Tl bid ., p.ll S.
 Grder and Progress
liben)' ami progress, and now those swords have modcsrly and t im-
idly retu rn ed ro their scabbards. lcaving the glory and all rhc credir
te t he organizers of the rnovemcnr." ,\ Ioreover, " rhc ccld dic rator-
ship o rhc sword, " in t he p resent phasc o t he movcment, had even
intended to withd raw "modcstly" and dcliver "to t he people rhc
right ro decide al! martcrs as rbcy saw fir." It was ncccssary. thus,
thar "civilians. journalists. and intellecruals use the sword ro dcfend
rhose poinrs which nccd ro be main rained by force, rhat rbey jo in
hands wirh the gcncrals and ob lige t hcm once again ro draw th eir
victorious weapons, thac chey urge rhs as t he perfo rmance o a
dut y , t he d ury of gu an ling positions prcviouslv won and of defcnd -
ing rhe Republic proclamcd [ joi ntly ] by rhc pcople and by rhe
Army and Navy. . . ," ~
On Novcmbcr 22, che Dirio de No ticias once again took up rhc
subjccr. " \Ve are now in t hc eighth da)' o t he Republic and ir
seems to be more like cigh r months. so lirtlc has been che changc
[rom Empire except in the sensc o aggrandizcmcm of che
nation." ~ But che refercnce ro " aggrandizcment" appears ro nave
bccn pure rhetoric. The carly days o t he Republic seemed ro che
rcpublicans rhernsclves ro be meccly a psychological and social con-
tinuarion of rhc monarchy, largely bcceuse t he dange r o military
dictatorship so feared by bot h citizens and forcigners had not mate-
rialized. "Thc milirary, after gaining the victory, dcmonstrared
rhcr uner lac k of polirical ambiticn by relinquishing rhe dcsriny o f
th e naden ro thc hands o che pcoplc," che article connnues. It is
true rhar t he word " pcople" is here used rherorically. bur more in-
terestiog is th e artitude o comp romise shown by rhe nonmilirary
Ruy in making an apology fo r che A rmy and so ensu ring che pre-
erninc nce of civilians like h imself in che organization of th e R epub-
lic .
T his po int was rcire rared by che Dirio a few days larer in recall-
ing that. once th c Republic had bcen proclaimed. General Deodoro
da Fo nscca had malle (01)' one further conqu est : rhat of (he R ua do
Ouvidor. the g at hering place of busincssmc n in R io de Janeiro. The
opini n of the Rua do Ouvid or-v'rhe legendary t ribune. the
forUJn , th e ,\ Ionre A vemino, u:here t he public meets daily to d is-
cuss currenc atfairs"-\\'as imporrant in ju dgiog the event s of che
fiftcenth of I"ovem ber. And chis fo ru m had approved t he conduct
~ bid ., p. " i .
9 Di.r;o de ,V o/ci". (R o de J~ nci ro) , :"o:ovember 1' . , !lR<.
 T be Fiteentb of November 47
of rhc Army . "Rcprcscnra rivcs of all social classes con cur in accord-
ing rhc Army their acclamaric n. rheir appro val, rheir appla use, and
rheir praise."
T hc [ornal do C01J1l11crcio of X ovember 24, in reminding rhc
new leaders of rheir promise of Novernbcr 1 S ro he "si mple tempo "
rary agents of nacional sovereignty," rccognized thar so far thcy
had shown thcmselves ro be "firm in rcsolurion and moderare in
acrion." T his c lassic. conser varive, ann-romanric paper rccognized
rhat thc new go \'crnment w as ful filling its plcdgc ro mainrain otder
so rhar rhc nanon eould calrulv deliherate "r hc new and dcfinirive
form of existencc." I Apparently t he [omsl do Connnerc o did nor
fec! that rhc applausc for Deodoro and rhc Army emanating from
rbc R ua do O uvidcr was sutficicnr ro consccrarc rhe federal Repub-
le as rhc "ncw and definitivo form of cxisrence" , other voices also
nccded ro be hcard. Bur the [act was that w hen voiccs from rhe
distant plantations hegan ro rcach rhe provisional govcrnment. thcy
wcre ncarly all, if nor direcrly laudarory ro rhe Army, at leasr ap "
proving of irs artiru dc in effccring rhc su dden chango from . mon -
archy without allowing the new govcrnr nene ro beeome ideolog-
ically or fact ionally republican. T hey approvcd rhc intervenrion of
[he Arm)' in polincal life so lon g ;IS ir acted as a nonpo lirical age
in serving rhc nacional will and rhe nariona l inrcrcsr under eireum-
sranccs when all norma l mcans of inrerparr y pcacemaki ng had
failed. Ir was as a result of this rype of responsibility rhar the Army
had inrervened on th e fifrcenrh o f Novernbcr: acring rhus quite
ditferently fro m rhc facnous and sectarian body cnvisioncd by Ben-
jamin Co nsranr. So much so. in facr, that G eneral Dcod oro d id nor
hcsirare ro solici r th e collaboration of rhe rirled noblemen o f the old
regime, such as th c able Baron de Lu ccna. T his was an efforr con"
d emned in advancc by the Positivisr Corre o do 1'0 ,,'0 from che car-
l csr day s of {he rC lU blic an reg imc . In an anid e pubhshcd in No-
vember, 1899. rhc Corro J o [' 0'1.'0 cautioned rhat [here were 5rill
rem nanrs o f rhe ITlflllarehy in t he governmenr. remnants that che
Rep ublic cou ld carry " wit houe fecling the weighr" bur which
wou ld eve ntually cause ir ro suecumb to rhe we ight of " men who
had ma de up (he bad governmenrs whieh sad dleJ the decayed mon-
arehy for half a cent ury!" " A II ctilens should forget rhe p<lst. "
cOlltinued rhe COrTejo. " T he unl)' exeeptions to this shou ld he rhe
otfieers of rhe Second E mpire who sho uld rememher rhe past. not
1 Jornal do Clm mlercio ( Rio de J ~ne iro ) . ~(wembe r 14, ,88c).
 arder and Progress
as a reason for sceking revengo, but rarhcr as a simple remin der ro
ensure rhat rhc Rcpublic nor again be so corrupred." ~
So t an the rhoughr of t he p ure orth odox radical rcpublcans horh
in rhc Army and arnong rhc civilians. Bur such ideas ncver occu rred
10 t he Arruy group rcprcscnrcd by rhc majesric figu re o f Deodoro,
the old soldier of che Paraguayan \\'ar lcnt his sword, not 10 rhc
scrvicc of an)' "ism," but rar hcr to rhar of his country.
T hc Army in the new poliricel order, t hus roo k ovcr rhc role of
rhc Crown as a sup ra-political body, abovc the srruggles of Positiv-
isrs againsr non- Posirivisrs, of republicans and monarc hists, of old-
line republicans and johnuy-comc-larelys. in irs cfforr to rase the
narional inrcrcsr aboye pen ), factional strife. On rhis poinr rhc mon-
archisr j oaquim Nabuco, like rhc monarc hisr Baron de Rio Branco.
showed himself much more un dersranding rh an Ed uardo Prado
roward t hc part iciparion of rhc A nny gro llp hcadcd by Dcodoro in
rhc cvcnrs of the fi fteenr h o f Novcmber. Prado as a monarchist hao
beco lcss than disarming. and uoj ust in his judgme llts and comrncn-
raries on this parricipation, too simplist ic in his eagerness te con-
sider it a type of Spanish-Arncrican militarismo ,\ Ioreo\"er, he had
bcen blind to rhc rradi rional ro le o f t hc Army in Brazilian lifc and
ro rhe conslancy of its ser vice in rhe nar ional inrercst, far from rhc
exccsscs of ccnvcntional rcacrionarics on thc o ne hand and arroiste
radic als 0 11 the orhcr.
Ir is true th at sorne r ncmbers o f rhe milirary, likc sorne civilians,
were affcc rcd by che arrii..inue of th c momento But rhis docs not
seem to have effcctcd the acrions o f rhc Armed Forces in the crisis,
nor did ir c haracrcrizc rheir ro le du ring the pcr iod of consolidarcn
under Deodoro or Floriano, ncirher of whom allcwed thc Army 10
serv e rhc ep hcmcral idcologics of th e mome nr, Once a republic an
govcmment came to be d esired by cven rhe ccnservarive agrarians,
once rhcre ccascd ro be a d efinitive num bcr of rno narchists in Hrazil,
once thc dy nastic and hercdi rar)' fom] of go\'crnmcnt ccased lO be
effective, the Army li"kewisc becamc rep ub lican.
Before becoming " rhe consolidarar o f rhe Rep ublic," Floriano had
already anained ehe staTUre of an ideal fi gu re ; since t he Paraguay an
\ Var. he had been held up ro mosr Brazilian yout hs as ehe pro to t)" pe
o f rhe militar)' hero. Ilis deeds as a soldier were associared in rhe
popular imaginario n wirh a Jife of stern sacrifice in the nation 's ser\'-
ice. le is cvident, chen, that th e Republic would benefit, as ind ccd ie
~C1mpos Prto : Op.C il.,p.I !4.
 T be Fiit eentb of No vember 49
did, from {he support of a genuine and grcatly admircd militar)'
hero.
Ir is also evid enr thae the Ernpcror, ncver havin g bcen a soldicr-
monarc h, had snrfcrcd in the public eye by this lack o f an au ra o f
military sacrifico. Two or rhrce generarions of Hrazilians w ho had
g row n up und er t he scd uction o militar)' hcroism (having had rel-
an vcs w ho had foughr against t he caud l hinno o f Lpez) , early in
life lost inrcresr in an Emperor w ho appca red in public in a plain
carriage or on foot, c arry ing an umbrclla. dressed jusr likc a bou r-
geois in Frock coar, high hato and black bunon shocs. :"0 uniformo
no sword, no hig h Dones, nOT cven a horse; an)' coloncl in t hc Na4
rional G uard would havc bccn more Im perial in dress and hea ring
ami any coum ry landholdcr more instinctively patncian in his man -
ner.
R am alho O rrigo in " T hc Social Aspccrs of t he Brazilian Revo-
lurion" cornmenred th ar, wi rh an Emperor who dccla rcd himself a
rcpublican, " ir would have bcen ver)' srrangc if rhcrc wcrc any one .
in t he Brazilian monarchical pan)' w ho could nourish rhc prctcn-
sie n of being more rcalisric rhan rhc King himsclf." And, in his ES4
tudas Brssileiroe ( 1877-85 ) , Jos Vcnssimo cl carly places the fif-
tccmh of X ovcmbcr in rhc conrexr of pasr h isrory. particularly t he
uprisings of ,\I aranhao u nder Hcckman in 168-f. of Pernambuco in
17 10,1 8 1] , and 1848, ami of ,\ t inas Gerais in 1789 ami T8-fL " In
rhc eres of an)' serious pe rson, rhc work o f csrablishing rhe un ity
and inrcgrity o f rhc narion would reflecr credit on rhc record of rhe
Brazilian monarc hv. in the ligbt o f rhe gcogra phy of rhc enu m ry.
the uncqual dcvclopmenr of rhc provinces. and the separarisr spirir
which infilr rared Portugu ese co lonial organization. ?" Hur this
work was one which could pcrhaps only be ma imai ned by federa-
tion, and ro V cr lssimc fedcrarion in a monarchica l system seemcd
impossiblc. ' Alt huugh as shrewd a polirical rhinker as Joaquim N a-

' O rtI.g ~. o : 0 1'. CII.

. , p. 101 ,
t T he " ariou ~ rcbcllions spc ken of by Jos \'ers.,imo in hi. Ettudot H ,~Jilei,o'
(Rio de j anei"', l~n - tlJ ) 10 which Onigio refeN geneully fal! imo rhe c~rcg"f)'
oi cnnfl ic[ helw""n loc~! ~nd rem"te authoritv. T he Ikckmm re,"oh in ,\ b ranhi o
in t611.. ,remmed largd y froro a conicr bctwecn jc,u! nll~i[)narie. ~nd the local
ci,ilims ov er Ihe t re~f me m uf Ihe ndians. T he j e,c, who were " I'p<l.cd to
enslav ement , were eventually persuaded ro bo ,," !O lhe loc al need for forced laho r,
al!huugh rhe "pri'ing i1",lf wa, a failorc ~n d r",,,h cd in rhe e~ e<:ul ion of i" princ i.
pal ci"ilian k adcrs. The risings in Pernambuco In ti lO, , St , and rtl.. ll, ~nd in
.\linas G eni, in t~ .nd lll.p, "'ere o f a republi.,.n n ~fUre bue "'ere complicafed
jO O rder and l'rogress

buco rbou ght quite diffcrcntly, and alrhough Huy Barbo sa ad-
mirrcd rhe possibility of combining federation wirh mcnarchy,
Vcr fssimn's poin t of view is srill wort h considcrarion. If t he co ncil-
iation dcsired by N abuco and adrnitrcd by Ruy was impossible,
t hen Ra mal ho (Jnigo, disagrccng wit h Eduardo Prado, was COf-
rect in saying rhar "rhc r nan who brought about rhe militar)' acci-
den! o the fiftcenth of X ovcmber. so diversely inrerprcrcd by t hc
European prcss. had mcrely accelerared progress in simpliying rhe
resohnion of t he Brazilian social problcm rhro ug h the suppression
o f supc rfiuous c1cm cnts." 5

by loc al ~ mment uf a ll~g:c ,l rcgiun al ncglccr on fhe I"'rt nf rhe cent",1 govcr n_
m e nto
Vcr issimo's point in !his ""mplieated p' '''ge 5e~l1\~ ' " he tb,t cbe Cro wn m, de
prog re, in nati"nalifing ltal , despite t b~ eeon"m i~ ditTetences and comnlllniC3 -
rion prub lerns in 1 buge and bighly <! iH .... ified leTri"'!): emergi ng h um a. colon ial
s)'Slel1\ rh at did Ihtlc to prevido a seuse of polirica! un it)'. T be perslsr cra suc-
ccsson o f rcpublican rnov cmcnts. howe vcr, restified 10 the comin ued fceling that
rrue federari" n co uld "ur l>e ac hie\"C J unde. a monatcbical ,,,,rem. (T randator.)
~ On igio , " p. cit., p. '''l.
 Brtuiluui Socief)'ill the
Late Niuetecnili CentU1Y

T U E HOY TOL!) T Il E PR I:"C Ii'AL th at his llame w a s j oa q ui m , jea -

quim Amaral j anscn.' H e hall bccn born in rhc courr of rhc
Emperor in 188z. T he school was rhc V icto ria Acad cmy in the Rua
H addock Lobo. T here he lcarned his A BC's from rhe regularion
primer. whilc at home he conrinu ed ro rcceivc another son o p rim-
itive learning from rhe oldese Xcg ress in the slavc quarters: sro ries
o t he werewolf rhc headlcss mule, the IcgcnJs cf Charles the
G rcar, and t ales of ench anred princcs. cmperors, kings, and war-
rio rs. Thcse wcrc rhc sro ries mosr frcq uently told Brazilian childrcn
o the rime by thcir grand farhcrs or rheir N egro mammys. A nd
rhcre were times whcn thcsc sroryt cllers acted out of characrcr:
whcn rhc grandfathcrs to lJ [h e tales of horror and th e Negro re-
coun ted preny leg ends o a dark-haircd water sp rirc.
Ar homc j oaquim . rogethcr with rhc boys in t he n cighborhood,
also amused himself by fl y ing k itcs o f various ty pes and sizcs.
.'Ileam vhile. und cr rhe cloud-filled ami cvcr-cbanging skies of R e-
ci fe, anor hcr bey , Atanucl Camcro de Sousa Bandeira, was scnding
his box k ircs and papef birds hig h into the winds from the banks of
the Capibaribc River . Borh j oaquirn in Rio de J aneiro and M anuel
in Recite spun rheir tupS and modelcd fi gu res in cl ey, lh'ing the
happy life of boy s free from [h e com pany of girls.
T he gi rls. fo r rhcir parto jum pcd rope or form ed a rin g and sang
songs. Don a Virginia Cava lcan re. born in rh e Pern am bu co back-
lands village o f Sao Bcnro and cducatcd in Recfc. rccalls rhe favor-
I In t his choptcr thc .",ho. "'gil" his U'>C uf cycwit n= m'l eri.l .s dc" . ibed in
his I\'nle on MedloJ.l'p . xxix-xxxi,'. (Tr. nsla(or,)
 a rder and Progress

ite pasrimes of her childhood. rhe dances callcd Cirands, Ciran-

dinha, and Senbors V ill'l:a, as wcll as blindman's bu ff and boca-de-
fo rno / games which sorne malJlTTlys considcred too tomboyish for
youog ladics.
" Ianuel Bandcira, whc went frcm Recifc ro R io when srill a
child, tcstifics t har rhc game o f marblcs was pla yed diffcrently rhere
[rom his wav in Pern am buco ; "insrcad of bei og shor wirh rhe
rh umbnail re~sed behind rhe index fi nger, ir is dischargcd fr om rhc
tip o f rhc latter, with the thumh making a rin!; with rbe firsr fin-
gcr." Bandcira also missed rhc cashews and guavas o f Pernambuco,
jusr as t he youngsrers w ho weru sout h Irorn the northern stare of
Par wcrc ncvcr quite consolcd for rhe loss of rhe ar:ai or burti by
t he excclleucc of rhc jabuticabas and of rhe farms around R io and
Sio Paulo, famous alsc for rhcir cambuc s. bur lacking pitangas ro
equal t hose of th c ncrth , lack ing also pitombas, tnacaibas, or guaji-
rus. And the mand,1carus,'1 from whosc red flowcrs bovs of rhe
backla nds somewhar poeeicallv rcccivcd rheir fi rsr vicariu'us [eS$OOS
in rhe narure of the p hysical unio n between rnan and woman . l o all
parts of the count ry from north to sourh, rhc same lesson was being
lca rncd less poetically and vicariously by the sexu ally precocious,
from rhc orifi ccs in the trunk of rhe ban ana plant o r from all sorts
of animals, from [he humble chicken ro rhc cc w whose flanks sug-
gesr [he contou rs of rhc mulano girls of Baha.
O asto C ruls (h. 11l 86) . who passcd his child hood in R io de j a-
neiro during t he fi rsr y ears of thc R epu b lic. r cords in his notes fo r
hs exccllcnr stu dy o f rhe Carices past, A psr ncio do Ro de [eneiro
(Tb e A ppearmce of Ro de / (I neiro ), rhnr thc favorire fru its o f the
y oungsrers of rhc cou rr and rhc newly created fe deral capital were
the camhuc, the abiu, the grunnxama, the caj, the Jl/a1lga, rhe
sapoti, t he [ruta -do-conde, [he jamho+rosa, and the jambo-de-
catofo, a llT1o~t aH o f rhem fruit s found 00 rhe farms o r in rhe back
yards o f midd Je-d ass eiry hom es du ring the last days of the Em pire
and the earl)' day s o f rhe Rc public. T he hird s which the boy s
rrapped were likeU'ise virtually the same in rhe capiral as those of
rhe provinces. In the capital. howe \er. t he im po rt ing o f fr uits-and
eve n of hi rds-from Europe too k place ear1icr rhan in t he rest o f

2 A gam~ in whic h "bo~~" orders e. ....h mcmber o f ,he group tu perforol a !.~k.
T he fint tu Cl>mplet~ his l. sk h~col1l<:'S the nex! " bms." (T ranslalo r.)
3 Ceee"! peru;' janus, plam of lhe c. cfU' f.milr , similar to [h~ night_hloo ming
c ~ rcus . .\ l OS1 uf , hese names . re exp l. incd in Ihe Gl"s.. ry . (T r. n, latur.)
 Brmilian Society in tbe Late N netecntb Cenmry 5,

th e cou nt ry , pear, apple. pcach, ami straw bcrry heing alllong rhc
ncwcomcrs. And ir was almost rragic rhat, fr om rhc beginning of
rhe modcrn izarion of t hc ciev undcr :\ b yo r Passos, rhe E nglish
spa rrow hegan tn dri ve rhe narive Brazilian birds from rhc Carioc a
yards and gardcns. T hc child ren of Rio, along with thuse of Bclm.
were also rhc f irsr ro suffcr th c impacc of urban elcctrification:
srreetcar wires had an inhib iring etfecr on rhc rradi tional pasrime o f
kitc yi ng. a SpOrt which has sincc been in decline in all rhc p rin -
cipal cities of B raz i l. ~
,\ la n ucl Bandcira lcamcd his alphabcr in Recife in a linlc school
in the Rua de S olcd adc run by rhc Barros Barrero sisrcrs. Larer, he
transferred ro unorher run by V irgnio \ !arq ues Ca rneiro Leio.
H e rells lIS rhar in ncirher of these schools was therc a playground,
and in rhe laeter rhe po11mo1fr was still in use. As a rcsult. the chil-
dren played on ly ar borne or in the st recrs. or in rhcir d aily walks to
ami from school. School was a place for study, for duty. And it was
also a place of punishmcm and blisrers rom the pahllarria for
rhose who did not know rhcir lessons or who commirred sorne
ma jor dcvilm cnr. For rhese childrcn, it was rhc srrecr that repre-
senrcd freedom, fr eedo m from lxnh t he routine of home life and
th e dull monotony of rhe sc hoo lroom.
Evcry blcsscd d a)' except Sundays. holiday s. and sainrs' days,
J oaq uim Amaral J am en rrudged rh rou gh rhc strccrs of Rio de Ja -
neiro carryng norebooks. pcncis, nnd lu nchbcx, a child Irom a
strict patriarchal bcusehotd dcl ighting in each n cw sighr che strccts
had ro otl cr. In his prc-scbool y cars. bc orc chis daily advcntu re-c-
which soon bccamc a rourinc-of going ro sc hool cach moming, he
had enjoycd himsclf ma inly by p lay ing in t he yard (Ir ying his kirc
in rhc fi elds behind t he house. The street had been somcrbing he
had seen only fr om rhe windows. rhe verand a. nr rh c [ ronr doo r. It
w asn'e long befare he discovered rhat th:1.t litr le strerc h of rhorough-
fare wasn 't t he who le world. It was also che st rett of rhe milk ped-
dler, a musrachioed Pon u!>"Uese oeatl)' always named "'lanuel, w ho
sold his pmduct, frtsh an d unwatcred , drawn no t he spo r by his
nonc-too-clean hands for a couple of pen nies a g lass. Ir w as the

4 Emiliano Ribciro de Almcida Bra~a (b. Sii o Lu s de Maran hiio, . 873 ) bdi~, ~s
thar rhe "ites /io,,"n during his c hildhood were rhe besr in Brazil. T h is mos'1 rradi-
tinnal Bralian lOy ,..a s nor unl}" bclo.-ed uf c hiIJ n 'n, bUI aho of "docro r., collcge
graduares, pr iests, b w}"ers, and judges." Ad ulr k ioe flying app arenoly cxte nded
rhrough<>ut rhe nnnhcrn pan u f Ihe c nunory , from Recife ro ,\ b na".
 Order and Progress

strect of rhe rurkcy seller. ca rrying h is birds rrusscd to enormous

baruboo roles and shouring his tra dir ional cry : "l'erus de bOJ rodal
(Choiccsr t horoughbred turkeysl ) " In t he still-numerous patri-
erchal families of Hcrafogo. So Crisr vao. and Santa T eresa, rhere
was alweys a birt hday or a baprism to celebrare and chis could
ncver be observed properly w ithou r a far rurkey on rhc table cate n
in Carioca fashion wirh plcnry of roasted manioc meal. Then rhere
was t he vegcta blc man, wirh his baskcrs o f frcsh- aod somcnmes
odorifcrous-c-vegcrablcs carricd in ehc ,\ tadeira n fashion from a
long polc acrcss his shouldcrs. And rhe [ruit vender, rhe fis h pcd-
dlcr, the shrbnp seller, rhc chicken mano each wirh his peculiar
strect crr, his o wn eype of basket, his persona l srucll which pene.
trated to rhc interior of thc houscs. Th cre was also che scissor-
g rinder; t he lady w ho sold lace from t hc nonh; and t hc pcddlcr, al-
w ays callcd a "Turk," w ith his magica l rrunks fi lled wirh cloth,
ready -ma de clothcs, ribbons, t hre ad. combs, m irrors, needles. per
fume bordes. brushcs, hrillianrine for y oung men's hair and t hc
beards of cleganr an cienrs. 'Thc pedJler had a slapsrick ma je of t wo
hcavy boards fasrcn cd at one end [(J a lcarher bcl r sruddcd wi th ta cks.
\Vhen rhe stick was clapped, y oung ladies and nu rscmaids would
pass into a high srare of excircmcn r. Children roo. pcrhaps SO Ill C da r
shiny ncw toys would issuc from rhc "T urk's" rru nk, toys unparal-
lelcd . Toys Irom sorne r narvelous land ro sarsfy the wildesr d reams
of infancy , toys smclling o f exoric glues and painrs urr erly di ffcr ent
fr om rhc crude pastes and colors uscd 0 0 their homemade kitcs,
wooden dolls. and pinwheels. C hildrcn in rhe interior ccnrenred
rhemselves wirh roys rnadc from their natural surroundjngs: flutes
from papay a sralks, rouph -carvcd woodcn topS or horses, bird
traps, slingshors. or noisy boots mude fro m thc half-sbclls of coco-
nurs fasrencd ro rhe feet.
For example. j ofio d 'A lbuquerque :\laranhao (h. Rio Grande do
Norte, 188 3) su tes rhat he was t he happicsr o f c hild rcn so long as
he could play wit h wooden ho tses m ade from rhe cl1rnal ba tr ee. Bur
he also learned eady to ri de bare back on flesh-and-blood hots cs,
using onl )" a r ope bridle. a c hildhood Sport in agrarian arcas
th ro ughotlt Bral and especially in Ri o G ra nd e do Sul. wherc :\la-
nu el D uartc, of Sear R anch near Vacaria, says he srarted ro play ae
can le wrangl ing at rhe age of fi\"e. On the or her hand, Carlos Cor~
deiro da R oc ha (L. in the interior of the sta re o f Ccar, 1884) says
rhat his princi pal p leasure as a child w as bird cate hing. M aria Joa ~
 Brazilian Society in the L ate Nincteentb Century sr
q uina da Conceicc , an illitcratc scrv anr boro in Cciana, Pernam-
buco, in 18850 rells us thar in hcr childhood, poor g irls in t he int c-
rior of Pernambuco amu sco t heruselves wit h rag dolls, which
were always considcrcd a sign o f lowe r-class origine. Shc herself as
the illeg irimare d escendanr of a loc al g raudcc. scorncd such 10 )'.'>
and always played wirh a wom-out c hina doll, rhe castotf playrhing
of SOI11 C daughrer of rhe rich. ,\Iore forrunarcly situatcd young
ladies habiru ally played with china doUs-nor evcn rhc ch capc r half-
clot h. half-ccramic subsritures bur real c hina dolls made in F rance
wirh blond locks ano blue eres. and ofrcn wce ri ng silk dresscs.
Orher dolls were made of wa x, accordinp 10 Dona Anr nia Lins
V ieira de Melo (b. Sao Sebasrio. Sao Pau ln, 1879), "rhc produce
of skilled hands, wit h attractive [carurcs bur withour blue eyes or
red cheeks. almosr al ways palc and lifelcss in appcarance." This aris-
roc ratic girl fou nd th e rag dclls sold in th e markerplace ofren "wcll
rnade and in good tasre, wel l dcsigncd to wi rhsrand rhe wcar ano
rear o f infantile energ ies."
The cult of blond, blue-ej-cd do11s among the u pper-class chil-
dren of the Empirc had rhe ctfcct of con raminating sorne of rhcm
with gcrms o f A ry anism u nril they id ealizcd blond children and
considered rhe French fema le rhc mosr desirable irnagc of elegancc
and bcauty. Dona Isabel Hcnriqu cra de Sousa e (Iliveira {b. Babia.
1853 ) confcsses that when she was a girl shc "wantcd to be Frcnch
and know French manncrs at firsr hand." She also admits having
considered X egrocs an inferior racc. persons from whom one oughr
ro "ruaintain c ne's social distance." D on a Carlin da Cusrdia Nunes
(L. in rhc Imper ial cou rt, 1874) , w ho pridcd hcrself o n the "Divine
gifr'' o f "notable [i.c., Fren ch] featu res," also playcd with blond
d olls and becamc convinccd of the ncc cssiry for Brazil ro "support
white supremacy" and always "was upsct by the marriagc of any
relarive ro a person o f color ." Dona Virginia Cavalcanrc resnfics
th ar " a trip to rhc Ciry of Lighr was always the fo nd est wish of m)'
chil dhood, bur 1 was never able ro realize it ." This de votion to Paris
on the pan of many or her Brazilian Iadies o f the periad is attribU[-
ablc not only 10 t he French d olls wi rh w hich rhey had playcd as
c hild ren but also ro [he French fashion plales, which idealized
blond, rosy -cheeked ladies as bcing rhe most clegant in Eu rope-
an d in the world. Dona Virg in ia admits to having hecn weH pleascd
wit h lh e law w hich fre ed Xegrocs and mularws, " c hild ren of God
and therefore our brothers," from thc " ho rrors of sla\'ery." but adds
,6 arder and Progress
rhar " 13m unerly upposcd ro rnarriage bcrwccn whire and colorcd.
\\'hites are for whires, mularros [or mulan os. colorcd for colored."
Bur Dona H cnrique re Galeno. who livcd in Cear from child hood
and g rew up in a patcmalisric family whcre shc played very linte
wir h dolls and carly leam ed ro recite the nanvisr pocms of
G oncalves Das, r ece ived very linle impacr [rom the French
influe nce. Alrhough evincing a certain enrhusiasm for Frcnc h litera-
ture. she had ncver been a de vorec o eirher Frcnch dolls a l' Frcnch
fashio ns, always prefcrring ro dress "wit h t he grearest simplic irv."
Perhaps ir was duc ro rhis upbringing that. in hcr restirnony wrirren
half a ccntury afrer her childhood. she ca n claim ro have bcen al-
ways free o racial prcjudice. " 1 would not makc rbe sligb eesr oh-
jecrion ro the ma rriage of any mcmbcr of my family ro a person of
color."
But ro rcturn ro th c srrcct vcndors of thc late Empire and early
Republic. In Rio de J aneiro and orher c irics of Brazil. thcir ar rival
was ar mounced sometimes bv rarrlcs and ot her deviccs and sorne-

rimes hy srrcct cres. Rarely did rhesc mcrchanes go aho ut their
bus iness in silence, rhe lace sellers bcing one of t he few exceprions.
The crhcrs sang t heir st rccr calls rhrough all t he byways of che ciry
as thoug h thcy we re repearing a ritual from rhc disrsnr bur cvcr-
prcsem pase T o sorne peo ple rhcsc calls sou ndcd rnost agrccable
-the poet ,\ 1anucl Bandcira recalls t hem in a cclcbratcd poern-
but ro the more progressive Brazilians of thc last decades of rhc
Empi re rhey seemed sham efuy arcbaic and rasteless. In Rccife.
whcre thcy parricularly cu rishcd. exren ding cvcn ro thc i'egroes
who carr icd pianos and heavy furniture, or to t he srevcdores who
bore sugar from thc bargcs ro the warehouses. there were srill some
people w ho became ind ig nam abour such songs. JUSt as rbey ob-
[ectcd ro rhc songs of t he maracam or rhc hurly-burlv of rhc samba,
or ro anything elsc partir A fnc an o r N egro in origino "How long.
O mamceru, wilr t hou continu ro abllSe our ears and ou r nostrils?"
wailcJ the lJiilbo a Q uatro , a sophisticated progressive m:lgazine
opposed ro [he thro nc. [he Church. ro pril'StS, proc essions. novenas.
tam bas, :Ind m aTacatus, in its is.suc of February 18, 1877, The as-
sumprion of nearly al1 [hese progressivcs, made uncomfortable by
the survival of a past w hich rhey refened t o disdainfully as " colo.
nial," was tha[ these survivals irrita teJ th e eyes, ears. and nostrils of
foreigners cven mo re Ihan thcy did [he Anglicized or Gallieizcd
narjonals. A nd rhis was [he per iod, part icularly in [he capital cities,
when rhe fore igncr was c1evateJ lO an extTcrnc1y high position. far
 BraziJiJll Socety in tbe Late Nneteentb Crntury 57

beyond rha r o Braxilians or lbcn ans, as a standard serter o taste,

manners, and c1egance . This idolar rv stemmed from rhc h eg inning
o rhe nincr ccm h ccnru ry bur ir was acccnr uared during t he lasr
decadcs of rhc reign of Pedro 11. who himsclf was inclincd ro value
th e opinions o progrcssivc foreigners, such as P rc fessor and ;\la-
d ame A gassi7., ~ over t he more rradirional vicws of nanonals whose
social beckg rounds wcrc prcdominanrly pat riarchal and agrarian.
Norhing was more c haracrcristic of rhis idealization o f t he for-
eigncr t han rhc cxcit er nenr causc d among t he middlc classes by rhc
aucrions o f thc household goods of En glish, Frcnc h, German, or
Swiss families returning [O rheir nativc land after seve ra! years of
residcnce in Brazil. It would be no exaggcraricn ro say rhat such
auctions wcrc more t han business rra nsactions, rhcy were educa -
ticnal. as educarional as rhc schools and hc rcls csrablished by for-
cigncrs in Hrazil during th c sarnc pcriod. pcrhaps almost as educa-
tional as the "Frcnch'' ladics (who wcrcn 'r always French, by the
way }, such as rhe cocones of rhe cstablishmcnrs on R io's Ru a do
O uvdor or o irs famous brorhcl. t he Alczar. Acrrcsscs, singers.
modistes, sales lad ies in ciegan! shops. whatcver rhcy might cal
rhcmselv es, rhcy also functoncd at the t ime as insrrucro rs in civil-
iry. courtcs)', and refi ncme nr ro many a provincial Brazilian who,
dcspitc his m Olle)' in thc bank or thc lawycr's or schola r's ring on
his fingcr, was still a rusric in thc w avs of the world. O ne of rhcsc
cocones was Susana.
It is rcasonab le ro suppose rhar .\Tac hado de Assis himself owed
pa n o f bis manners and refincd rastes to forcigners of Susana's
t)'pe: cocottes, or actrcsses. or modistes-scl lers o f plumed
headwear or lace cu tfs-with whom " ,\ Iac hadin ho " (as he was
called ) carne into frcqucnr conracr du ring his days as t heatre critic o
The sarne cou ld be said of his [riend Q uint illo Bocay uva, w ho
wit hout havin g been educar cd in Europe ( his rravcls were confined
ro t he N cw \\'orld ) assurned rhc post o Forcign ~ 1in iste r in the
provisional go vernmem o f 1889. And ir ccrtainly w as t fU e up to a
poim of J os "taria da Silva Paranhos ~ who, des pitc be ing the son
of an illustriou s viscoll nt and himself a baron fro m his earl)' )'omh,
seems to have learn ed from the Eu ropean (o cottes of Rio de J aneiro
~ Lo\! is Ag.,,;>: ( ' 807-1117}), world-(. mo\! , g~o log i" .nd 1_o..log;, r. was pwf~,
sor of Sar ural lI, lOry at Ih n -ard Uni"c"'ity. In IU S. Ag. S'i z .nd hi, wifc madc
an cncnsi,'c ~ xpl()r:lI ion uf Huzi! and c.. lIaboraud o n A fourney in Y'<lziJ p ub-
li.he,j in 1li6H. (T ran,la!or.)
S Jos .\ lara da Sih'a Paranhos, Haron d" Ro Buneo. "'as Bra.zilian Forcign
.\ t inisl cr h um ryol 10 ' 9 11. Thc Ford gn .\ fini, u y ",a, l h~n-", now-rh~ 1Iam. -
 Order and Progress

subtlcries that would prove yery uscful in a diplcmatic carcer,

whcre rhc fine points o f worldly hehavior wcrc culrivared rarh er
rhan scomcd (as they would have bccn by Imperial eounselors of
st rictly parriarchal back grounds) . T hus ir was rhat Paranhos, dur-
ing his t ime as lord of rhe It amarat v, gavc so mu ch encouragemcnt
ro the schcols run by Freneh nu ns, wherc you ng g irls of Brazilian
sociery enj oyed an clcganr cducarion not onl y in t he French lan-
gu age, hut also in sorne of rhc rcfincmcnrs o f Europcan c ivilization.
Bur ro retum te Susana. T his )'oung lady was virtually an institu-
t ion in rhc R io de J aneiro o f her t ime, a pagan goddcss. priesrcss o f a
forbidden cu lto According ro one inforruanr," a worthy Brazilian
bom in 188 1 whom I shall simply call II.A., Susana was "the most
fam ous madam in Rio de j anciro." Arou nd rhc rurn of th e cenru rv

she was rhc qucen of hcr profession and had her finger in e\'ery pie.
So great w as hcr prestige that even hcr practico of Sapphic leve was
pardoncd by rhc indulgem Ca riocas. She also bccame par t of local
folk song:

On Sundays our Susa na gocs to mass

Bur on we ekdavs , she's too indolent, alns.

Hur again sccording ro I LA ., w hc k nov..s whar he is talking

about, "Susana w as a good c reature . She exploired only those who
had means and could atford rhc loss. The you ngsters we re trcarcd
we l! and were givcn good ad vice. lnsrcad of alluwing rhcm ro hu y
t he 1110St cxpcm.ivc charupagncs. shc would furnish rhem w ith a
winc from her nwn vincya rds-,-a wine whieh had earned the
Afrite Agricole no less. Srudenrs and young journalisrs wcnt te her
place and raug ht her gir ls ro dance rhc naxixe, wirh rhe cosr of
insrrucrion rakcn OUt in trade. \Vith us, Susana was ene of the
ga ng."
For I LA. such hig h life, tha nks to rhe influence of Susana and
oehcrs o f her ssrerhood. en joyed far grcarer prestige during his
vcueh than ir w as ro havc in later yca rs. Ar t he turn of th e cemurr ,
ir was a rare studc nt who had nor Irarcmizcd with French g irls, tu
",hom he tau ght Brazilian dance ste ps and from whom he learned
innumer able subtleties-not on ly o f the art of love bm also o f acs-

nI}' FaLte<: io J OWOIOWO Ri" dc Jan ciw . Ri" Branco wa. a high ]iH r, and "'r~y re
fr eq u('ntly n:fers lO his repuu lion as a gnu rnund and COllllujsscur uf prcny
w"men. (T n nslalO r.)
1 H and wrin en manuscripl in the aUlhur's pos'-t~siun.
 Brr ian Society in tbe Late N neteentb Century 59

rhcric, literal)" and soc ial matr era. From thi s o ur forrn er frcqucnrer
of Susana's girl s ded uces that subscqucnr gcnerations of Hraxilian
yourhs are becom ing "lcss ami less viri lc rhrough rhc ab use of rhe
cu lr of foo rball. Ir is a facr wcll csrablish cd by rhosc who havc stud-
icd Hraxilian socicry rhar lcsbianism has incrcased alanninglv cven
in rhc bighcst social circles. ro say nothing of amon g ehe 100\'('r
classcs. Could thi s be an indication of this 10s5 of viriliry > Ar one
time, in ma kin g ccrtain psycbological srudics . . . I dccidcd ro ex-
am ine aspects of lcsbianism in our soc icry nfrer 190 0 . I soon quit
rhe amcunr of marerial l asscmblcd was fnghrcning."
Thc highcr class of Rio prosrirurcs during rhc late Empirc and
early Republic was ro be fo und in rhe Catete scction ami in the Rua
Senador Dam as. As a bov, 1LA. rememhers the celebrarcd ll orcl
Ravor, in rhe Rila do O uvidor: " A two-storv building- which occu-
picd half a bloc k, with rhc girls in wrappcrs searcd i~ rhe windows
or leaning on rhe sills heekoning rhc passcrs-by." The chcapcr type
of prosrirurion was ro be found in rhe Rua Sere de Scrcmbro or rhc
Rua Uruguaiana up ro Rossio Squarc, spreading from rhcre ro Lapa
and rhc ,\ Iangue secrions." In addirion. rhere werc "branches ex-
rending ro thc hay fronr, rcachi ng into thc Gl ria sccrion .. ."
One ge ts the impression rhar ar rhc cnd of t he ninerccnth cenrurr
rhcrc were more brorhels rhan ordiuary shops in R io de [ aneiro.
Because of rhc hig h priccs bro ughr in by coffec, S o Paulo ar
rhe bcginning of t he rwenricrh ce mu fY also arrracted irs share of
high-class French girls. Its ccnters of opcration we rc also hotcls and
"boardinghouscs" similar ro thc {amous one in Rio kuown as " " Iere
Louise," and rhcsc csrablishmcnrs we re parronizcd not only by fcd-
eral dcput ies hur :1 [SO by scnarc rs and Suprcmc Courr judgcs. Sao
Paulo had irs Susana in t he person of ,\ t me Pommer y, who was por-
rrayed in a book publishcd in 19 1 9 as having cxerci scd conside rable
c hango in Paulisra CUStoIllS. One suc h inno var ion w hich spread ro
polirc socicty bor h in Sao Paulo and in Rio de J aneiro w as t hat of
t he rango-tea." Similar Susanas cxisted ar the t ime in Sal\'ador Ja
Bahia. in Reci fe. and especial!y in Bd m and ,\ la naus. The last e ity

~Speaking uf rhe pro1>1 irution uf mulan". in Rio de Janciro, Lam1xrg uh' cn-c d
thar "thcre are mulartn girls uf elc"cn or rwd \'c whu alrcady are mothcn: ' He
nm cd. ho wc"Cf, thar lhc;e nad\' c I'coM ilurcs a l wa ~'s Hpn...ervcd a re rta in deccncy-
almust a een ain dig nily- in rhcir ealling." Ir was "only in the large cirics, under
lhe bad example gi,-en uy F.uropean cuu l1csans, l hat thc\.C nati,-c cu,rom~ are
' puiled" (,\ I aur cio L ambcrg' O Brasil , tran, laled from l he G c rman [ Rio de
Janeiro, ' 8</i], p. 6,) .
9 H ilrio T cito : Mad,me l' ommery (Sio Paulo, ' QIQ) , p. ' 51 .
60 arder and Progresr
bad nur only Frcnch girls. bur also a numbcr o Iralians and Ger-
mansoall decked wirh Icarhers. laces, and silks. covcred with [ewels.
bigh-priced councsans-c-somc vinually [ennnes fatales-com pcting
with rhc near-nude dark-skinned caboctas or rhe imponed Bahian
gi rls w ho rivalled thcir Frcnch sistc rs in dispcnsing subtlc amorous
and gasrronomic dclights.
Some of t hcsc Frcnch Susanas grcw old in Brazil and ado ptcd rhc
airs o rhe grande datne, arrending mass C\'Cf)' Sund ay and bccom-
ing almosr rhe second wivcs o rieh indusrrialisrs. military meo, law-
yers, docrors, husincssmen, ami cngincc rs. Hut there were alsc rhose
wh o rcrurned to thcir co untry of crigin, a retum which ofteo caused
rcjoicing in rhc more sedare bourgecis families of thc pcriod, fa mi-
lics alarmcd by the spcll casr ovc r malc mcrnbcrs of rhe tribe by
these blond sircns. Wivcs much prcferrcd t bat rheir wayward hus-
bands seck rhc company of native, fresh-warcr charr ncrs, Negrcsses
oc mulattos of local origin, despire rhe lancr's bad habit of attempt-
ing ro retain thcir lcvers by black magic of Af rican origino
Ferrcira da Rosa, in his work O L upanar-s-Eetudo sobre o Cal
i i S11lO e a Prostituirao 110 Ro de [anero (The Bordelio: A Study
ol Procuring and I'rost tution in R o de Janeiro ) , confirms much of
II.A .'s infonuarion about rhc French girls of rhe Brazilian capital
during the late nineteen rh cemu ry. ,\ Iost Iivcd in two-stoey houses,
t hree , fou r, or more girls together with rheir superior. Such houscs
were faun d in thc downrown strcets of So Francisco de Assis, Serc
de Sctcmbro, Lus de Camcns, Lavradio, V iscondc do Rio Branco,
and in Tiradcntes Square. T he sight of t hese prosrirutcs grouped in
the windows (producr of procurers prorected by Brazilian
cusrom) consrirured a sad ta blcau.' "The srrccrcars, rbe customary
mcans of rran sportanon ehroughoue t hc cit y, carry rhousands uf
passengers daily ami cause them tu wmcss the mase ext reme cvi-
Jences of this lawlcss tratiic cxhibitcd by rbese women in the win-
dows, or cvcn in t he inreriors of thcir depravcd habirarions. . , .
Suc h womcn are in grcal num bcr thc rejccrs of t he brut hcls of
India, of the River Plare, and of rhe Brirsh eolonies . .. women
wh o bave lost aH respect for pubtic deeeney . . . almost all of
them l l ungarians, Germans, Poles, 1\ussians." 2 Ver)' few were
1 Fcrre ira da Ro : O f.up.11l<lr- Elw Jo sobre o C~l tismo e ~ ['roHiuirao no
R i" Je ~ neiro ( R io de Janeiro. '&;6/. 1'1" ' ], ' 5' - ' . See al"" Fra ncl"Co f erraL de
.\ !acedo: T ese A presclJt~Ja j Facu/J"J.. J .. M eJ i 1l.J Jo Rio J e aneiro ( Rio de
J:meiro, 18]: / and f1ere ulano AlIgu~tu L a~>anee Cunha: A l'rosrimirao, e11l
P"rticuiar n~ Cid"Je do Rio de j ..,,";ro (R io de Janciro. 1145/ .
2 Ro: 01' . cit. p. 'B'
 Brezitim Society in tbe Late Nin eteentb Cemury 61

Frencb , thc real Frenc h cou rtesans w cre rhe artjsts of t hcir c lass,
mem bers of rhc elite .
In 1879 Tiro de Xl atos. t he courr cbicf of police, directcd bis
delegare Flix da Costa to c onduce an investigation inro prosriru-
ton. The latrer acknowledgcd rhe prescncc in rhc co unc ry of an " as-
sociarion com poscd of Russian j cws, G ermans. Ausrrians, and othcr
. nationalirics'' fo rmed for rhc purpose of importing prostirutcs.
Sorne of these procurcrs opc rarcd under a {ronr as jcwcl mcrcbanrs.
O ne of rhe mosr notoricus was Sicgmond Richcr. aman whom the
police wishcd ro deport ami wh o t ricd vainly ro rcrain the brilliant
Ferreira de .'\1 eneses in his defcnse. Anot her lawycr was foun d in his
secad. a Brazilian at rhe start of his brilliant carcer, c-he pre ved t hat
Richer was aman of probiry an d a Hrazilian citixcn by Imperial
dccrce. "What can't ene prove wirh a linle good will ! " cumments
Ferrcira da Rosa in rclating t his ncidenr. "
T hc samc Sieglllo nJ R ich er, upon sceing himsclf denounccd as a
procurer in rhe newspapcr O P.Js, requestcd Pohce Chicf Andr
Cavalcanri to furnish him wieh a wr it rcn sratcmcnt as ro "whct hcr
or nor he had evcr becn convic rcd or dcporrcd [o r being a pro-
curer." The reply carne in due cou rse clcarly stat ing r har "rhc
referred perso n has nevcr bccn con demncd or depcrrcd as a pro-
cu rer," rhcs giving rhc pctinoner an otficial documcnr for rhe pro-
recrien of his c riminal acr iviries. " t v hv di dn'r rhe otficial documenr
proclaim ' rhe rcferred pcrson never was deponed bccause he is a
naruralizcd Hrazilian c irizcn, but it was preved in the formal invest -
garions of Au guse 26 and Septem ber 30. 18 79, rhar he is a pro-
cure r'>" asks Ferrcira da R osa. Anothcr procurer of rhc carlv R e-
public managed, rhrough a bribc, ro be appoinrcd second licurcnanr
in the Netion al G uard. One fine day rhc supreme commandcr of
t har militar)' body . G eneral O uriq ues j acques. ordcr ed t har t he
c ommander of rbe Ninrh Infantry barralion " fo rmally ind ucr Len-
ren anr lzido ro K appler." The induction nevcr rook plac e, becausc
rhe com mander peririo ncd 'w as nonc ot her than Flor iano Peixo to
and "che liem enam's cUllllllission gr antcd Izidoro Ka pplcr e v ent u ~
aH)' w as can celled, desp ire rhe enn rm ous effo rts of irs spo nso r," "
In [hc houdoir of A nit a, o ne of Izido ro's w hite slaves, " rhere
were frcqucm and co ntinu OllS meet ings of federal depuries.
wealth)' husinessmen, an d to p-fl ig ht law)'ers, journalists, and mili-
t ary men." A nita w as beauriful and im elligent, and her ch:l.fins
3 bid., pp. 46, 49.
.. b id., pp. IZ, 11], 119.
 arder and Progress

were cffccrive in furt hering t he arubirions of lxidoro, w ho "evcn

artaincd a dcgrcc in th e ,\f asonic ordcr." Severa] orh er procurers,
having bccom c '\ Iasons, had ro be "solcmnly expcllcd frnm t he
G ran d O rienr (Jf Brazil." The same Izidoro even succcedcd in 1893
in bcing appoim cd an auxiliary of rhc r ct h Police Prccinct of Ric
de j aneiro, according to a documcnt in his favor drawn up by rhe
federal delegare D amasco Comes. Thcre werc always secretarios
willing to grant narur alizarion papcrs and distriburc documentar)'
proo f of Iily -whire cha rac te r 10 an)' procu rer wirh sutfic icnr funds
ro support his requcsr."
Ir w as mcnt ioncd in che previous chapter rhar rhe rravclcd and
somcwhar asceric Ramalho O rrigo was surpriscd ar t hc cornmon-
place r nahogany fumitu re of rhc Sao Cristv o r ab ee and at rhe
lifelessncss of t hc COllrt du ring rhc rcign of Ped ro 11, an d particu-
larly rhc abscn ce of wcll-drcsscd und bcauriful womcn . One reason
was tbat rhc cream of rhc Brazilian aristocracy of rhe pcriod was
glittering brilliantly in Paris; ccrtain baroncsscs and viscoun tcsscs of
Pedro Il 's courr were celebrarcd in Europe for thcir char m, beaury,
and elcgancc. and sorne wcre cvcn known for rheir coqucrry. all
qualitics lacking rbc propcr conditions for flou rishing in Ro de ) a-
nciro. The Baro ncss of Fsrr la was a good case in point.
Toward rhe cnd of a life dur ing which hcr charm and bcauty haJ
rumcd the hcad of lllany a Eu rcpean arisrocrat. the Baro ness of
Est rla conf irrned ro me O rngo's obscrvarions 0 0 [he t edium of
rhc court of Pedro 11. "Wirhour sophisrication. wirhout arr,"
( O rrigo describes ir) "wirhour furni shings, wirhoue unifo rme,
witho ur balls. withour flo we rs, wirhour bibelors. rhe Sao Crist vo
palace secmcd a graveyard ro all livclv pcople. cspccially ro young
men and pretty womcn . '\tany o rhe hcrt cr cducarcd Iirazil ians,
sorne of rhem from thc bcsr Familics of rhc Empire, lived habirually
in France, England. or Bclgium." Thus, as Orrigo says, ro bccorne
acquainrcd with "rhc rnost cleganr ladies of rbe Brazilian nobility''
- a Baro ncss de Esrrla. for example- " one would look not ro the
pab ee of Sao Crisr\'ao hu t rath er to ,\l . Ca rnot of Paris or [he
proper mcans of int roduct ion." 6
Perhaps \Ve can eonc1ude t hat Pedro !I's ('oun enjoyed a moral
supcriority o'"cr t he ot her ('ourts of t he periodo which might glad
.~ bid ., pp. ' lO. Tl7- A.
6 Ramalho Oniga,, : "0 Quadro Social da Rcvolur; i o Brasilcira," Rn ..i st ; d e
l' orl ug.tI, 11, rq.
 BrtlZilian Socety ;11 tbe Late Nineteentb Cenmry 6,

den rh c hearrs of m an)' V ict orians stil l among usoCe rrainly rhc Em-
peror was a ma n of ausrcrc bchavicr ami sim ple habit s w ho shunncd
all outward manifesrarions of sexo Bur, as head of a monarchical
govem r ncnr, had he the right t o disda in all worldlincss. cve n rh ar
r nosr natural to his t)' pe of govcmmcnt ? Thc truth is tbat such
w orldlincss would pro bably havc cn couragcd rhe developmcnr of
rhe arts and w ould havc aidcd rhe solution of na tional problcms by
bringing rc gether socially vario us naricnal leadcrs who scarcely
knew nne ancrhcr an d whose associarions we rc limit ed to rhe course
of rhcir bureaucraric dutics.
lr secms thar Ped ro ll's dismal yourh lacked rhe infl ucncc of such
foreign ladi cs, an in uencc which. as Senhora de Bar ral rold him
larcr in life. would have given him g rearer fceling for thosc grae es
and subrlcries he nevcr really leam ed ro apprcciarc. Bis reeently
publishcd lo ve lerrers re rhat lady lamenrably suppOrt this conclu-
sion ; a disc rcet silcncc on his pan would have becn much more ele-
ganr." G ra nred as a privare individual Ped ro would havc had rh c
righr ro be as unworldly as he plcascd. in a rnona rch rhis anirudc
was a grave dcfccr, particularly ar a t ime when a more dramaric
monarc hical imape should han bcen c reared. Jf only fo r the psy -
c hologica l effccr , he eould han lived a some whar more imaginativc
life. cve n in his less public r noments: dinners an d receptions, roj-ally
sponsored artisr ic cvcnrs, rhe concerrs he atrended . Suc h a coursc
w oul d ha ve made him a much mo re imposing figure and, rhrough
rhe perso nal conracrs w hich would have cnsued. would havc giv en
rhe Empire greater presrige in its relations with thc countries of
Europc.
And this co nract wirh E uro pe would nor havc becn limitcd to rhc
acadcmies o f scicnce. bur would have extended ro rhe more yourh-
fu I aspects of t hat conrincnt. t o t hc vibranr, experimental Europe of
arr shows, schools of sculprurc, and arc hirccrure. From suc h dcvel-
oplllenrs Ped ro 11 livcd in almosr rotal isolation-c-even worsc rhan
thar of D om j oao V I- and t his ar a time when Brazil despetarc1y
needed t he stimu lus of European inf1 uenc e, not onl)' in R io de j a-
neiro hm in atl other secrio ns of the countr)' as wc1L \Vh<ltever
contact of rhis sorr di d rak e place was m ade, nor by rhe dilertante
asrronomer of rhe Imperial palace ( his eyes rur ned ro thc hea\'ens) ,
bur by Gallicized pro vinciall eaders such as the Pem ambucan Baton
, A1cind ro SoJr, cd .: A brinJo um Cofre: C~rtiU de Dom l'~dro 11 J COIldeJ1,J
d~ B02" "! ( Rio J e Janciro, 19 \6) .
 arder and Progress

de Boa Vista, who had eres for Frcnch architecrurc rhar extended ro
[he practica! considerarions of engineering and city plan ning. It is
[fue that rhc Empcror rook a ccrtain inrcresr in [he Frcnch gardcns
of .\ 1. G lawu in Rio de J aneiro ; [mt such an isolared interese dces
nor makc up for [he lack of Imperial iniriarive in [he improvement
of rhc urban sccnc and in rhe social life of rhe coum r)', maners
which, ovcr a long pcriod of years. rhc Emperor allowed ro cake
ca rc of rhcmselves.
Old ar twenty. Pedro had airead)' impresscd Eur opcans as a
brccding, rircd man, in conrrast [O his far her, whom .\ Ia:.. Radiguer
describcd as "a dvenrurous, impcruous, and galam as a Frcnchman
of [he good old days." ~ Radiguct saw che ciries of Pedro 11 as "sad,
mean. sordid, and completely out of kcy with rhe splcndors of th e
landscapc." T he mosr irnpcnant public buildings gave rhc irnpres-
sion of barracks or hospirals; onl y rhc churchcs and convcnts re-
rained rhcir true characrer.
And the samc observarions applied ro rhe sociery of Rio de ja-
neiro. "Compet ed [ O rhar of Spanish-Amcrican cirios. rhc r rivare
!ife of Rio de Janeiro is confined to [he borne." Ir was rhus difficulr
ro apprcciarc [he Brazilian characrcr. particu larly rhar of rhe Brazil-
ian woman. although Radigucr was able [ O rcspond ro t hc qualities
of [he young misses, noting rheir "indolenr grace," t heir "rnclan-
choly and pcnsive charru" as rhcy red ined in rheir hamrnocks dur-
ing [he hcar of rhc day." ' '''ha[ a pit y rhar [he higher circles of
sociccy did nor possess sorne of t har charrn, howcver melancholy.
and rhat che Em prcss Teresa Cristina. who for sheer rnelancholy
was rhe equal of hcr husband, did nor encourage rhe inclusion of
sorne of rhis yourhful beauty in developing a court arr uospbere
wonhy of a Brapanca-Hapsburg.
On rhe other hand. rhe aristoc raric Brazilian ladics in Europe-
who unforrunarely lacked a H enry James- were won hy of a soci-
ological and psychclogical srudy. Wirh rhcir rirled hushands-bar-
ons, viscounrs, generals-rhey formcd a rnosr inrcresring group of
expatriares who madc thc dcsignarion "Brazilian" famou s in rhe
wo rld of socicry and culture. not as social c1imhers or nom-cmrx
ricb es, hu t as an exoric elemcnt of [roe aristClcracy.
T riumphs of chis son mained by Brazilians like rhe Baroness de
8 :'ttax Ralliguct : SOlr..'enirs de r Amh iq/U' F:sp ~r.:n Ql e-C;'jJ i-- l'hQ u-B rifil
(Par s 8;6 ) , p. 185.
~ Ibid.. 16 .
 Bmzilian Society in tbe Late N netcentb eenmry 6f

Estrla gave Eurc peans rhe impression t hat such cxquisitely seduc-
tive ladies we re represcn rativc of rhe court of Ped ro 11 . Far from ir.
In facr, they were flecing a socicry which did not givc rhcm rhe
slighresr oppcrtunity or encouragemcllt, 00 rctuming from rheir
rravels, to cxcrc ise a discrecr fo rce in convinc ing t hc swccr-c-ncarly
alway s plump-carisrocranc ladies of Brazil, roorcd likc abbcsscs in
their tcwn houscs or rhcir pla nrat ion bornes. ro fu rnish those ho mcs
in bcrrcr tuste, ro decorare rhem with painrings and sratues by legit i-
mare artists, and ro surroun d them wirh fiowerbeds or tro pical
planrs and flowers insread of t hc ercrnal rose gurdcns bordcred wirh
oyster shclls. They m ighr also have succecdcd in teaching t hcm ro
spcak less st ridently and ro wcar fcwe r jewels when rhey wc nt
shopping. or ro givc dinners in which thcre was a grcater dcgrce of
rcstraint ovcr rhe num ber o f courscs. Such acrivity on (he pan of
reru rning \'oyagers would havc consn ruecd rhc cquive lcnr, on a
higher plane, of rhc insrruction givcn rbc sons ami husban ds of
rhcse ladics by rhe cocottes, rhc acr rcsses. and rhc nrodistes: lessons
of discrerion in spining. in pic king onc's tecth. dressing, blowing
one's nose, laugh ing, in using pcmadcs 01\ rhc hair or brilliantine on
thc bcard. perfuming onc's handkerchicf and in wearing diamon ds
on t he fi ngers. c utis, or shirt fronts. T ruly , as a civilizing for ce in
Brazilian lifc, rbcsc cocottes, ucrresscs, and modistes descrvc grearer
r ecogllltlon .
A nor her form of instruction was t he auction, alrcedy rnentioned,
where less travcled Br azilians could purc hasc o r becomc acquaint ed
w irh rhe appurrcnances of modern comforr from expatr iare Br irisb.
Sw iss, G erm an, or French hc useholds. Such acquaint ancc, ro be
sure, did not succ eed in clirninaring elemcnts of thc purcly Brazilian
versi n of houschold comfort : t hc opulent cuspidors or sumptuous
urinals of fine c hina. ofren decorared wirh gold like beakers for rhc
prcservarion of rhe fi ncst essences ernanat ing from persons of q ual.
iry. Tbcrc wer e a1so rhc rhousand :md one yaricrics of siker toorh
picks, fmm d assical :"epruoes ro patriorically romam ic Indians
w hose w arl ike arrow s formcd rhe working pan designed fo c aristo-
ctaric teeth.
In a w ork pub lished in Frcnc h in 1889 00 rhe Brazilian art of the
lare Em pire, Eduardo da Silva Pr ado found rhar che Brazilian
T his u ne)(pec red cumbi narion of \he hero ic and " rosaic, together wi\h the o'j-
lentarious manner uf picking o ne's le elh, ma,le a con\"ert uf at leas! " ne Engli,h-
man, the famous tu\"elcr Rich ard BUrlo n.
66 Order and Progre!s
interior rescmbled rhe Porrugu esc in irs barrenness and bad rasre."
O bjetr d'art wcre rare, parrly becausc of rile necessiry of "paying
enormous customs duries on suc h irems, as rhough they werc com-
mon merchandise." N erivc art ists, cven (hose of recognizcd mcrit,
dcvorcd rhemselvcs solely te rhc grand stylc and produccd pictures
far too largo for [he a"cragc middlc-class drawing room, fo r w hich
th cy chargcd prices cven highcr rhan those o living Eu ropcan mas-
terso T hus, t hc only picturcs on Brazilian w alls we re portrairs by
paintcrs w ho dared nor attempr rhe monu menta l and dcvored rhcm-
selves [O subjccrs thar would se11 . Landscapcs. water colcrs, or mod-
erarely sized picrurcs o an)' trpe we rc nor ro be seen.
As for furniture, rhe situarion was even worsc. During the lase
days of the Empirc Prado lamenrcd th c rcndency (which incrcased
du ring rhc early Repu blic under rhe impact of progressivism ) ro
subsrirute novehi cs of dubious valu end qu csrionable rasre for rhe
lovely old picces decorarcd wir h leathcr and Portuguesc silver
which had dignified many of the berrcr Brazilian homes. Such fur-
nirure had bccn fashione d from "ravishing native woods .. .
chcsrs and c rher piec cs carved in palisander. an en in whch the
woodcarvcrs of Babia ami Mi nas cxcelled .. . armchairs in black
lcather decorated wir h large copper nails, fou r-poster bcds. bcauri-
fui Pcrruguesc and Brazilian silvcrwork of rhe scbool of V alenria
da Fonseca and his conrernpo raries." a AH t hcsc we re scorned as
ugl y and sharncfu l archaisms by a middle class which had bcgun ro
" Europeanize" or "A mericanizo" or simpl), "modernizo" itself by
adopting rhe "'O(St aspects of progressivism, and by scd denly losing
all sensc of rhe valucs of irs uniquc tradition of parriarchal
monarchy, rhc 001)' such social tradirion in the Ne w \ Vorld.
Thc rradirional vales of interior dccorarion in rhc ben er Brazil-
ian homes stcmmed from colonial times and extended through a
largo pan of rhc reign of Pedro 11. T hcy rcprescnred an ordcr and a
harmony whicb, if not of highest aesthcric value, at lcast mcrited
respect for rhcir authcnticiry ami for their happy combination of
Europcan with native tropi cal e\cmcnrs. One sllch example was the
hamlllocks, at times made of feathers; asirle fm m being cool and
eomfortable, these \vere often rme works of art." Another \vas the
Z .\ L F. J. de Sanu Ana ~e r)', el JI.: L e Rrhil <!JI 1689 ( P~ ris, I ~ R9 ) , p. 57J .
.l lbid., p. H 7.
t T he ~" uf working Wil h feather<i w~s highly cult i" ated in B r~l il; its vd ue
had lleen nored as early ~s the bcginning of rhe nineteem h eentury by th e F rench
comment2tor Ferdinand Denis.
 Brazilian Society in tbe Late N neteentb Century 67

potter)" espccially rhc imerestingly shapcd da)' vcsscls uscd in pa*

triarchal homes as water coolcrs. Placed un dcr [he window sills, the
water in rbcse jugs wcul d remain fresh and cool rhrougbour rhc
nighr. Thesc jars, vcsscls, and water jugs werc studied carcfully by
the French artis r Dcbrcr at tb c beginning of rhc ninercenrh ccntury.
Debret sketc hed rhe forms he found mosr cbaracreristic, noting
rheir vague similariry ro oriental pottet),. It is possiblc rhar rhcse
forms wcrc of .\ Iootish origin, inrroduccd int o Hrazil by [he Porru-
guese, and inucnciog narive forms ro a dcgrce nor ro be discounted
in eirb cr its arrisric or ccclogical impo r rance. D ebrer al so poinecd
out rhar rhe ciar vcssels of Santa Cararina. Baha. and Pernambuco
were sufficiendy porous ro cause cvaporarion rhrough rbe shell irself.
thus lowering the temperature of rhe water wit hin but without the
sccpage and exterior swcating norcd in rhe gollehs o Egypt or the
alcarrazas of Andalusia. Silva Prado notcd rhar the yellowish color
of rhe lattcr was ugly comparcd ro rhc livcly red of Brazilian pot*
rery, and th at rhc bcau ry of rhesc jars camed them a place of honor
in rhe besr Brazilian homes until, undcr rhc impacr of progrcssivism.
such rraditionat objects we re replaccd by slick varn ished producrs
from England.~
Survivors of this period, in furnishing material for this book,
have testitied thar the tasrc and temperature of the water from thcsc
vessels was une of rhc mcsr sensual memorice of rheir yourh. Un-
accustomcd at rhc rime ro rhe extreme temperature produccd
by modcrn rcfrigcrarion, which they consider a comfcn more
apparent than real, they rcmcmbcr rhis water not mcrely with rhe
sent imental nostalgia of the agcd. hut rarhcr wirh rhc sense of rccall-
ing an expcricncc rhar rnosr kecnly evokes the spirir of an aurhcnti-
cally Brazilan past.
There werc also rhe cooking ami serving " essels used in prepa r*
ing narive dishes ro sarisfy the rnosr cxacting pala re, ano orher
household obj ccrs rnadc of narivc rnarcrials: brooms, feat hcr dust-
crs, pelm-leaf fans, sieves of fibcr. hcavy woodcn pcstlcs used ro
grind corn cr cotfee. And rhcr c wcre the curtains and drapcrics, the
bedspreads, pillow cases, tableclcrhs. and napkins made of the fin esr
lace fw m Cear, Alagoas, and Pernambuco.
\ lusic had come to be a Brazilian art par exeellence. Sinee colo-
nial rimes ir hall becn the forl1l most congenial to aristocrat and
plebian alike for the expression of their LusoAmerican spirir. At
~ Santa Ana :--"ery, el al.: 0r. cit., p. 544.
68 D rder and Progres!

rhc bcginning o t hc ninercenrh ccnrury de Freycinct had alrcady

nc rcd rhar "o all rhe ares culrivarcd by thc Brazilians. mu sic is che
mcst successful." t\ 1'h15 mu sical propensiry became onc o thc
characteristics o Brazilian socicty rnost closely associat cd with che
Braganca dynasry , rhe rnonarchy from rhe bcginning had becn C0l1 4

sisrcnely fricndly ro borh music and rnusicians. Thc name o thc

tnestico composcr Fathcr Jos .\ taurcio was d osel)' linkcd ro thar
o Dom Joao V I; tbar o Pedro 1 ro t hc Gcrman X eukomm who,
rogcrhcr wir h rhc Porcug ucse ,\ Iarcos Portugal, did much ro ad-
vane e musical rasre in Rio de j anciro during thc reign o t hc firsr
Em peror. Ncukon un also helpcd ro arousc European apprecianon
of Braxilian popular music, parricularly rhc sensual nrodinbas o
such composers as Joaqui m ,\ la nud , aurhor of rhc pat riotic " Inde-
pendone e Hyrnn." And thc reign of Pedro II was marked by rhe
triumphs of F rancisco .\tanucl da Silva. pu pil o borh N eukomm
and Portugal. and of A nr nic Carlos Gomes. composer o the
world-renowned opera Jl G uaraJlY, wbich crines have circd as an
admirable exprcssion of th e narive Brazilian spirir.
Thc reign of Dom Ped ro II was ulso notable for ies vigorous
support o t he opera. which prc scnrcd Iralian companics of rhe
highcse qu aliry whosc pe rformances in Rio de j anciro were at-
tended by rhe royal fam ily and in thc more advanced provinces by
[he provincial governors as a solemn social obligarion. Th is spirit of
noblesse oblige toward [he for m of music most rcprcscnrarive of
Eu ropean elcgancc was also felt by orher persons of culrivate d
restes. It is impossiblc ro imagine a baron, viscounr. counselor. or
commander of rhe court of Pedro lI-or. for rhar marrer, an)' doc-
to r, unive rsity grad uare, public fun ctionary. important rucrchant ,
or cvcn college studenr-c-in rhesc principal cines wh o was not famil-
iar wirb rhc Iyric rheatre cirher as occesional pat ron or real devotce.
The predilecrion was for lt alian singcrs, particularly those of thc
female sexo and not infrequcnrly prefercnces among rhesc artisrs lcd
ro confl icr bcrwccn srudcnt " republics" and shop employce "cas-
d es." , or bctween rival groups o f universiry srudenrs.
T he vogue of rhc piano du ring th c Sccond Er npire, a vogu e
which extended fro m t hc conccrt hall ro the privare heme, must

6 Ibid., p. 554,
7 Like !he stu denr "re publies," the "eJsle~" "'ere roorning housC'S for }'oung
single men bu! in his ca", TU n by and for shup elTl plo~'ees instead uf ~!u d ents.
(T rans b tor .)
 Bmzian Society in tbe Late N neteentb Century 69

alsc be mcnrioned hcre. Thc huge grand piano bccame a status syrn-
bol , a m ani fesrarion o f rasre and social prestige, whcrhcr in t he aris-
rocrnric villas of t hc subur bs. rhc middle-class ciry bornes. or rhe
mansion s of rhc more culrivared plantcrs end sugar processors in rbc
rural arcas. R uder planration hom cs conrenred thcmselves wirh a
mcre guitar or cvvaquinbo ( a sma ll gu irar ), a facr which causcd
such dwcllings to he dismisscd rathcr disdainfully as " houses wirh-
out pianos. " In thc city, as wel! as rhe country, che cxprcssion " H e
already has a grand piano " resrificd noe only to t he cultural, bu t
also ro rhe social and cconomic progrcss of a fam ily. Thus rhe piano
became part of rhc soc io-cultural syst em of Brazil, a dcvelopment
regard ed by sorne forcigo cbservers as a curse, pc rhaps hccausc thc
inst rument all too ofren refused to hc thc docile slave of fashion ablc
ladies who attempted ro dominare irs mysrerics.
According ro two Americ an clc rgymcn visiring in the rear 1879,
"pianos abound in cvery st rccr . . .", parricularly in the capital,
whose parriarchal homes werc well know n ro rhese visitors." From
suc h homes the sound of a piano played by rhe lady of t hc housc
could ofrcn be hcard in thc srrcer, and from sume, on Sarurdays.
carne rhe sound of dancing, nor ro rhc r nusic cf an orchcstra, bur
rarhcr ro that of a pia no played by a professional who made his
living by ccmposing music and playing ir on thcse occasions. Ac-
cording ro Cssio Barboso de Resende, in a personal letrcr ro me,
"Many of t hcse pro fcssionals bccame famo us and their cornposi-
rions were whisrled in rhe street and played everywherc." And 1
cannor ovcr loo k e ne of rhe mos t c haract er isric aspeets of borh
street ami coumr)' life d uring rhis pcriod: thc sound of rhe whistlcr.
Ir wenr on r ncming and night. at work, ar play, in t hc har h, c\'c ry
wbcrc.
Of rhe m any sounds t hat enlivened rhc anstocraric or middle -
class heme du ring Im perial rimes. rhere werc sorne, not alwa ys mu-
sical, t har emanatcd from ourside: rhc carriages which, on party-
giving day s, clarrcred no isily t hrough t he iron gate oponed only on
spccial occasions, the str eet ealls of t hc fru it, fish, and poult r), "en -
dors; rhe peddlers' r attles; rhc c r ics of t he mendicant nuo s or t he
a rdinar)' beggars asking for alms "for the 100e of God" ; rhe band
playing marches on the way to a hall or to rhe bandsrand in rhc
eat hedral squarc; rhe gu irat serenades; rhc sambas and 1JIaracatu
8 James C. Fletchcr and Ih niel P. Kid,Jer , B, .r..i1 w d the B,.r..iliam (+th edn.,
Buston, , H79) , p. 6) .
7 Order and I'rogress
rnusic o thc 5Ia\'c5; or rhc simple bcarin g o palms at fronr gates
whcrc a doorbc ll oc knock er was no t prcvided. A r times a kind o
musical dialogue cnsucd. rhough the " Dic es werc not always o rhe
bese quality, bet wcen che house and rhe st rcet. In an arrcmpt ro
bre ach the closed-c-almost hosrile-c-facadc o a bu ilding, the peti-
rioner would clap hand s and chant : " O de casa! ( H cy , r ou in rhe
housel )" and fr om within wo uld come che response, also in a son of
chant : "O de foral ( Hey, rO l! out tbcrel) " Through chis ritual,
communicarions werc csrab lishcd which could resulr in an invitation
ro step inside and even ro sir in rhc place o hono r in rhc living room.
If rhe rastc for Iamily bcirlooms had nor beco rcplaccd by thc new
craze for French or A ust rian furnishings, t he living roo m would
con tain hcavy pieces in jacarand a or vmb tico: a sofa for rhc ladies,
fla nkcd symmerrically by armchairs and orh er chairs of or nare up
holsrery for rhc genrlemcn. The visiror might he enrcrtained wirh
music, cithcr popu lar or classical, playcd on the piano by tbc bosress
or by on e of [h e r oung lad ies of rhe hou se. The sound of t he piano,
wherber in honor of visirors or merely in instrucrion or practicc,
was one of the principal signs of communication bcrwccn house and
strcet. for during thc Second Empirc no polite r oung lady's educ a-
[ion was considcrcd complet e without sorne k nowledge o f music.
lt is nor ar all surprising rhat a sociery so replete wirh rhe sugges-
rion of music in t hc mcsr prosaic acrivircs of daily life and pennc-
ared with rhe rieh natural mus ic of locusrs and tropical birds should
save its grcatest adm irarion for persons of musical t alent, for a
Padre Jos Maurfcio or a Carlos Gomcs. In t his respect, as in no
other, rich ami poo r were in com plete agre ement. Music, from that
of the church ro that of t hc srrcet-c-rhc band s in t hc public sqllare
or thc African-dcrivcd sam bas and 1JlaTaCatus of R ecife or Salvador
or R io de j aneiroc-constirured so integral a pan of rhe life of the
Second Emp ire as ro form rhc mosr unifying clcment in a societ y of
orhcrwise wide varicry in irs oripins, appearanc e, and ways of living
and rhinking. If sorne types of music suggcsted dfferent racial or
class origins, orhcrs acrcd as a harmonious synrhcsis of social anrag-
onisms and conrradictions. T he street march o for cxarnple. was an
important musical agem of Brazilian social unir)', w het her sung or
pla)'e d, w het her issuing from the piano of a fashionable home or a
gu irar in , he ~t ree r or the doorw ay of a humhle t harched hot. Its
popula rity with the average cit izen extended weU imo the opening
decades o the Repuhlic. An d if this sense of mltional commllnit)'
 Brazilian Societ y in tbe Late Nineteentb Centurv 71
was nor th e only att raction in rbe more erudire music of Carlos
C omes, it was at leasr an importanr factor.
G omcs was pcrhaps rhc gre atesr nonmilirary ido! o Brezil during
rhc 1870'S; his pc pulariry wirh all ages and classes o pcoplc rivallcd
rhat o rhe h roes o thc Paraguay an \ Var. Am ong lircrary fi gures,
not cvcn Castro Alvcs. Goncalvcs D ias. j oaquim \ !anoel de ;\1a
cedo, or Jos de Alcncar atraincd comparable acclairn. He hegan as
rhc idol o t hc law smdcnrs o Sao Paulo at a time when t his group
represcnted rhe fl.ower o rhc young Brazilian intellecruels." In
185 9 Carlos Comes composcd an " Academic l lyrn n," 10 words by
Birrcncourr Sampaio, wh ich bccamc wildly popular among stu -
dcnrs, and he also in rhis pcriod composcd a Iarge numb er of ballads
o gene ral appcal 10 )'ou ng pcopl e o all classes. T he "gen ius of
Campinas" th us becarnc an obj cct of narion al pride, earning t he ad -
miration and sup port of the Empcror himsclf. T his suppo n cnablcd
Carlos Gomcs ro enroll as a st udcnt in rhe courr conservatory and
later as a pupil o Lauro Rossi in ;\ Iilan. By 1868 he liad cornposcd
[ \VQ or rh rcc opercttas. and in 1870 he produccd O Guaral1i, a wo rk
which, in t hc rh etorical and some whar inexacr words of admiring
commentatcrs o rhc time , broughr rhe "spirir o rhe tropical fore sr
and of tropical passions'' ro [he Iralian operario sryl e. The popular.
iry o this new primirivism among Frcnch. Italian, and Brit ish crir-
ics was shared by t he public, and for once Europc bowed [ O Brazil.
Ir wasn't long bcfore O G uaran was he ing whisrled by even uucd-
ucared Brazilians with a ccrtain parrioric pride: thc work rivalled
rhe marches and sentimental ballads in popularity.
The ballads and marches, in the ir rurn. remain amon g thc mosr
cherishcd mcmories for humblcr persons rccalling th e larrer days of
rhe Empire. Thc ballads wc rc sung by rom anric young men ro rhcir
bcloveds tO th e eccompanimcne o rhc gu irar, the march es rcndered
with imprcssivc vigor by bands and orchcstras in t he public seuarc
of ciries and towns o all sizcs. Somct imcs rhesc bands werc of rival
political partics . onc Conscrv aeivc, ene Liberal. Dur ing rhc late
Ernpire there wcrc even compcnng bands of republicans and moo-
arc hists. T he con fl ict het \\Ten t he Church and t he .\ Iasons extended
ro t he bands supporred by t hese inimical organizations. Thus rhere

u Othcr studcnt gruul)!; cXl rci~i ng inrclketual k adcn;hip at rhe rime werc ,ho.c
uf the b w s<;: huo l5 uf O hnd a (l arer Rccifc) and of Ihe School of ,\ 1cdicine in
Baha. Th c~e studcnts fa r cxcccded t he lmits of thei t uni,cn;ity studies and wen:
panicula rly stro ng in rhe fi cld of mu~ c.
7' a rder and Progress

was bar dly a Brazilian of rhe t ime w ho was nc r affcctcd in sorne

way by music, wherhc r classical or operatic, or t hc college songs.
marches, sentimental ballads. maracatus, cocos, or sambas of rbe
da)' . A mong thc songs rer nem bered wirh panicular pleasure by
pcoplc w ho conm bured r ecollcc tio ns ro me werc "Quero casar C0111
a nmlher do men J1J1or (1 wan t to matry the girl llove) ," "Ouinzc
D as de V sge nr (A T wo-W eek j oum ey ) ," and thc rearful
Adicu, ~ I aria , for 1 nmlenving you
T hough 1shall rcmcr nbcr you always .
Perhaps sorne day 1shall d rearn of you crying for me.
1 go, bur fare may still bring me back .

T y pical of t hc humble people who cncouragcd these scngs was

D ona Maria T cod ora dos Santos. bom in j aboa ro, Pernam bu co, in
1878. Dona ,\ laria leamcd her len ers wirh a reacher namcd Miner-
vina de Al buquerquc and enjoj-ed (he childrcn's rcadcrs of Fclis-
berro de Carvalhc. As a grown woman she read the romances of
J os de A len c ar and t hc poetry of Casimiro de A bren. Unforrunate
in her marriage ro a garrulous alcoholic, she lived mai nly t hroug h
her work in drcssr nnking and em broidery. She cnjoycd doing t his.
although her ambirion had always been ro hecorne a reacher. As a
c hild she rcrncmbers hcr pleasure in dancing and singing. wirh a
prcdilection for rhe waltz, rhen considered a dance for young ladics
of t he upper cl ass. H er favorito bailad was "A corda, abre a j'11lela,
Estelar (Wakc up and opcn rbc window, Eseelal )" She was a
mcmber of the Linda Flor d ance socicry. a club frequcnrcd by
serious-mindcd young ladics. Almosr whire in appeara ncc hcrself
and favoring the dances ano songs of po lire socicty . D oria ,\ la ria
T eodo ra did not like Negrees, wh om she t hought consrtur ed ro be
rhe servanrs rarhcr rhan rhc cquals of w hites. They could dance
their msxixes ano sing t heir cocos; she preferred the w altzes an d
modinbss of w hite folk s.
Anorher ry pical case is t har of C ssio Barbosa de R esendc, a gen
rlcman of the upper middle class horn in the srate of ,\I inas Gerais in
18 79. H e tells us rhat in rhe fashionable circlcs he Ircquented in his
yourh rhc usual dances were rhe waltz, rhe polka, rhc sc horrisc b,
and rhe A merican quadrillc. There were tim es when t hc tnexixe w as
also performed, bur fl or in privare homes. since rhis dance was con-
sidcrcd a Negro vulgarity. The type of music mosr apprecia[ed in
these circles was ope ra, w irh C,1'lla/h'ria R usticana, Carm en, L a G jo-
 Brazilian Society in tbe Late N inetcentb Cemury 73

conde, R goletta, La TT(F~'i.1ta ,

and lJ Trovatore rhe fa vorite wo rks.
along with the inevitable O Guersni. Of t hc opcrw as, t he most
popular were T be .\lerry Wido- and T be Dottar 'rncess. Sr. Bar-
besa de Resende also s:!.ys rh. r in {he carly days of th c Republic
rherc wc rc innumerable fa mily rcunions in rhc new federal disrricr,
w hcrc on Sarurday cvcnings he "had rhc opporrunity to sce many
brillianrly lighred ballroorns, wherc professional orchcsrras fur-
nishcd lively mu sic for dancing until dawn." Thc music composed
and played by thcsc professionals was carricd from [he hallroom
inro rhe srrccr and sung ami whisrled evc rywhcrc. Evcntually . it
was absorbed by rhe lower classcs and pcrformcd. often with adul-
rerarcd ly rics which rransformed rbc more diffi cult words into cari-
catures of thc original texto H e also confirms rhe popularity oCrhe
guitar serenadc, [he words of many of wh ich rcmain clcar in his
memor)', One of the most popular of thcsc began as follows :
Ouisera amar-te mas nao posso, Eh'iril
Porque geado trago o peto mm
N ao m e incrimines que lIjo SO/l culpado
A mor no mundo para mim m orreu.
(" 1 should like to le ve you, Elvira, but 1 cannor, fo r my hean is
cold. Do not blame me, for it is nor my fault. In this world, love for
me is dead.") And anot her began:
Bem sei, mutber, bem conbeco
Que fui um ou co in fitar-te
Inda mein touco em amar-re
Sem consultar a rz.1o.

("1 kno w, my dcar, t har I was mad to ga7.e ar you and evcn madder
ro leve Y0l! without lisrcning re reason.") T he madncss sccms [O
have lain in a poor boy 's falling in love wir h a )'oung lady of wealrh
for rhc song cont ines :
.Has niio suponbas, nso cress
Que o teu desd m me consom e
Po s que um pobre e $0111 nome
S ei desprezar-te tamb m.

("But do nor su ppose rhar your disdain consumes me. Thcugh poor
and nameless, 1know how t disdain )'O l! as wcll.")
Along with the songs idcalizing pele, blond heroines were rhosc
74 Grder and Progress

cclebraring brun en cs and CYC lI mula rtos. T he eracing o social rcnd-

cncics through t hcsc so ng~ during rhc long pcriod whcn t hey wcrc
che mase po pular form o musical expression in Hrazil lcads to con-
c\usions wh ich conrnburc grcarly ro the psy ch clogical and socio-
logical inrcrp rera rion o rhc agc. H crc I can merely point out a few
o t hc more significaru signs of rhe com plex combination o reman-
t ic individualism and pat riarchal aurhoriry whicb c harac tcrized t he
Hrazilian social ordcr. Thcse confl icr ing rendcncics, by-products of
rhc dou blc srrugglc ro IllO VC fror n slavery ro a free cconomy and
from monarchy ro Rcpublic, sccm to be particu larlv pronounced in
t he Jasr dccadc o rhc rem ury . Tbcmcs o rornan ric individualism-
t he righe ro leve, indcpcod cnr of considcrations of family, racc, ur
cconomic status-are constantly soun dcd in popular songs of this
periodo Thc simple, idyllic passion of R omeo for j ulic t, free from
inhibiting formalir ics and convenrions. is espccially prominenr in
tbc "counrry" music of rhe back tands. celebra ting t hc leves of rhc
cabocto, rhe sertsneo, or rhe gacbo , ln chis vogue for idcalizing
rhc leves of humblc pcoplc in popular song. ir is safc to sa)' th ar
both rhc o peras of Carlos G omcs and t hc romances of Jos de Alen-
car had playcd t hcir parto
T he incrcasing dcmocraeizarion of Brazilian music was not al-
w ays favored by rhc ccnservarivcs of rhc pcriod, some of whom
openly dercsrcd t hc so-called " regional" music. T he case of the
A rmy officer Raimundo Dias de Freirs ( b. Piau , d l74-) is rvpical .
" In my boyhood,' he wrires, "t hc da nce music sccms to me ro have
bcen far more romam ic. disringuis
bcd. and ansrocraric rhan that of
tb c prescnt." T hc mosr frcqucnr dances in his social ser were rhc
waltz, rhe quad ril!c. rhc lanccrs, rhe pes de quatre, the schortisch.
rhc mazurka, aod rhc pollea. "Thc walr z W:lS danccd in eithcr t hc
French ur the Ameri can way ." Ami, surprisingly cnough . "Thc
American rncthod ga\'e t be co uple :1I1 air of mucb grcarcr disrinc-
rio n ami clcga ncc." Thc quadritlc. "afrcr having originaily becn
danccd in the Frcnch rn anncr, bogan ro assume A merican t enden-
(,.' ies somcw here hctwecn 189' and 189 3, T he Amer ic:ln 'luadrillc
was lighter and nry clcgant. Ir hao the :ldvantage of being able tu
form a complete squa re \Vit h on ly fOllr pairs of danc crs," As for t he
lancers, "i t w as a dance w hich bo re rhe mark of true aristocracy
, . , ano was thus favo reJ in t he more fashionable salollS of t he
d:lY"
T his connoisscur of hallroom dances admits t hat he liad never
 Brozii an Socicty in the Late Nin cteenth Centnry 75

bccn a "rroubadour or a sercnadcr, because 1 never felt [he sliahtest

inclinarion roward this ty pe of cnrcrtainmcnt. " I-I e prcfcrrcd ro r e- -
quem rhc opera and was grearly moved by O G uaran, pcr haps as
m uch throug h parriorism as through t hc love of music.
Joao Fcrnandes de Carvalho (h. R ccife, 1867) ccbocs rhc same
arist ocr atic rastcs as Sr. Dias de Freiras and adds rhat conccns givcn
by famous Europcan violinists also had g rcat social prestige in his
boy hocd. 1fe r cords th at, in addition ro rhe violin, rhc rnandolin
and rhe Rute werc considered sccially prcsrigious. alrhough norte o
rhcsc insrr umcnts could bcgin t u compete wirh rhe piano in impcr-
rance.
Dona Maria Vincentina de Azevedc Pereira de Queir s (h. Sao
Paulo, 1868) rells us rhac as a girl she ancnded rhc most elegant halls
of t he era: at rhe courr, rhc casino, and rhc club of the D rios, thc
Itamarat y, and at rhe Catete Palacc. For thcs c danc es, her go wns
werc ordercd from rhe court drcssmakcrs. "A silk drcss, with silk
srockings ano satin sl ippcrs wit h Louis XV hecls, a hand-painted
ivory or mothcr-of-pearl fan, full-l ength kid glo vcs, togcrher with
flowers for t hc bosom and t hc hair camc ro licrwccn 400 and 500
nilres" Dance ord ers wcrc uscd, in w hich you ng ladics carefully
norcd thcir partners for rhc cvening's programo To obrain such
bookings, rhc young gent leman was rcquircd ro bow before rhc
lady and request c f "her cxccllcnce" t hc honor of rhe ncxr walrz or
polka.'
Eu rico de Sousa Leo (b. Pernambuco, 1887) lamenta rhar in bis
yout h rhc best lyric cor npanies no longer carn e ro his pan of rhe
coun rry, a facr probably atmburable ro a decline in government
support of such companics in thc early decades of rhc Rcpublic. Il e
and his gcnerarion bad to contcnt rhemselves wirh p.mori,f2 and
mod nbas pcr fo rm ed ami sung on the Ca pibaribe on moonlir
nights by gruups of studcnrs. Sorne of t hese sercnading groups be-
carne Iamous for their songs ami for rhcir authcntic sr ylc of singing
rradirional melodies, a srylc whicb put thcm on a par wirh the besr

I This elsboratc polilenl....~ extended Ix: yo nd the d ance f1()or. O n meeling a b.dy
in a pubJie pb.ee, Ihe gentleman alwap re""...ed hi, hat in a !>ruad. sweeping gC5-
ture. E" en among meno il was e ustomary In unCtl \'er. o r al Ica!>! lO touc h the hato
w hen meetin g in publ ico
2 Fo lk play, in w hic h 11\-1' girls in re d and ti "e in blue repeal sonr; and d ance
fo r pen nies rhrown fr " m rhe aud ienle. T he group whieh gels the mosl mo ney
w ins Ihe com petidon. The dances are often int erspen.cd ",ilb din y jOkC5 by a
male cornil' ch an cter. (T ranslalO r.)
 Order and 'rogress

pastoral groups of thc interior ami of thc pasto One of rhe most
famous was thar of H crotides wbich, parronizcd by leading cirizcns,
performed regularly in Recife until abour rhe turn of the ccntury.
l lcrotides himsclf a rnulatro of mincing gair and nororious homo-
sexual prowes.'i, was grcarly applauded for his singing ami even
more for his dancing, which he performed with rhe coquerries of
an established prima don na, a facr which in no wa}' diminished his
starure as a fi ghrer in a city famous at rhc time for its st rcet brawls.
During rhc reign of Pedro 11 and immcdiarclv afrcr. many Euro-
pean singcrs, pianists, ami violinisrs became ehe idols of rhe Hrazilian
publico O ne of rhese was Sigismund Thalbcrg, considered at the
rime the king of pianists, whn carne frequently ro Brazil wirh the
encouragement of t hc music-loving Empcror. T halherg's debut in
Rio de j ancirc in j uly, 1855 was an cvcnt of such importance rhat a
mcdal was srruck in cornmcmorarion. and years afterwa rd Brazil-
ians wculd recal l rhc concerr wirh emotion ami pleasurablc nosral-
gia. Thalberg was a romanric-looking blcnd wirh murton-chop
whiskcrs, an aquilino nose. and rosy complexi n. His han ds, as was
appropriare in a king of pianisrs, were fin c-fi ngered and immacu-
larely kepr. Sorne said rhey wcrc rhc hands of an angel and claimed
thar his little fi nger alonc could produce more music tban a sobi
(Brazil ian thrush) in Augusr. Bcside his piano, all orher keyboard
inserumenrs wcre reduced to the status of marimbas:'
The passion in the capital for Europcan music broughr abour rhc
founding of a privare musical organizarion, capitalized ar 360
contos, wirh rhe purpose of bringing ro Brazl "rhc world's grearesr
singers." In ir wcre such importa nt fi gures as the Baron de Lajes,
rhe Viscounrcss of .\ linho, rhc Viscounrs of Esrrla. j equirinhonha,
lraborai, Eusbic de Qu eirs, and Abrantcs. Ir is not surprising that,
wirh this enthusiasm for European singers, pianists. and violinisrs,
Louis ,\ loreau G ottschalk could exercise such a powcrful hold on
the culrivarcd pcoplc of Rio de Janeiro, from rhe cleganr nobiliry ro
rhe pupils of thc fashicnable Episcopal Acadcmy of Sao Pedro de
Alc ntara. The appcarance of rhis artisr ar the Brazilian court in
1869 culminared in a festival of intcrnarional renown, rhe most clo-
gueIlt affinlla tioll in history of the de\"otion of the Brazilian mon
~ .\ I arimha\ , Ihe A fr ican cq uivalen! o f , he pianu, were considered fa, hiun able
in w me o f Ihe 1110<1 exclusi ve ei rcll."S , in con fr:ht !O the general aflitude of c on
tel11pt in Europcan izcd sllc irty fur anph ing g ro,..d y Ahtan in origi n, As we ha\'e
\Ccn, {he con!empr en ended tu :\f rican c\>uking and d ances,
t F..cugnolJc D,iria: COitllS J o P.nSilJ " ( Ro de j anl'iro , ' 9"9 ) . p. 50,
 Bmzilian Society i11 tbe Late N netem tb Century 77

archy ro rhe art of music-c-a devorion su rpassmg even irs passion

for orarory. One historian who as a child ertcn dcd rhe event at thc
Lyric Thearrc has starcd th ar rhe conccrt atrracred rhe bese sociery
of Ro de janeiro, rhc bo xes fi lled with elegaru ly dressed ladics in
silks and sarins from the most fas hionable designers o thc day
(Comait , Guignon, Gud in, C uimares. and Otriker, drcssmakcrs
of prin ccsscs) , rheir coiffures done at Gil ct's or Carlos Bincr's.
These resplendcnr fi gures were thc focal poim of bundreds of pairs
of opera glasses. which also scrutinized rhc array of prccious jewels
from Faroni or Bouere. On rhc sragc werc thc court militar)' bands
-650 ruusicians in all-chcir uniforms brillianr. The curram rose
and t hc fi rst notes of a "T riumphal .\Iarch" ded icated ro rhc E m-
peror, based on thcrncs from th c N acional Ant hcr, th undcred out.
The combination of parrioeic music, composed and dircct ed by
Gottsch alk, and o t he Hrazilian Empirc, svmbolizcd by the arisro-
erario audience, raised rhc evenr ro a Jcvel [ar bcyond rhar o a mere
socicry ccncert. According ro our wit ncss, it became the to pic of
rhc dar: "In rhe Ru a do Ouvidor, in th c drawing room, in conver-
sarions among friends, nobody ralked of anyrhing exeepc rhc gala at
rhc Lyric T hcarre." ~
Two day s larcr Gcttschalk, schcduled to direct a similar concert
at rhc sanie thearcr, ro the cnormous consrcrnarion of his admirers
suffercd a collapse just beforc he was scheduled ro makc his en-
trance. T hrec wceks later, ar 4 A.:\t. on Deccmbcr 18, 1869, he died
ar the Hotel Bennet in Tijuca. aftcr having gallantly kissed the
hand of thc Brazilien doctor who had rcmaincd at his bedside unt il
rhe end. The record of his dearh in rbe archives of the ,\ lisericordiJ
H ospital is laconic: '" artest thar Sr. .\ IOllrcaud [sic] Gottschalk,
American. single, 40 ycars old, heing rrcated at rhe Ilorcl Bcnnet in
T ijuca, died roday o an incurable galloping plcu ropneumonia. B is
illness lasted 11 davs ami his bcdy may be buried." ~
The funeral of Gorrschalk was anorher great specraclc end a fur-
rhcr proof of rhc union of music wirh rhc Hrazilian social ordcr.
Many marchers, carryng lightcd rorches, accom panicd rhe coffin
ro rhc Largo da Lapa, where the hearsc was waiting. ,\ lany were
cryi ng, and many more were wearing mou rning for rhis foreigner
~ Jbiu ~ p. 71. Abo ~ G ill.>en Cha-'C: A m..rica's MUJit: ( :-';<:w York, '9SS) gnd
Fr:lndsco Curt l ango: : ViJ.l :> Mm:rte de LOllis M (Jreau GoltSe h.llk en RiQ de
JlI1uiro. El A mbiente Music.ll en la MitaJ del SegunJo Imperio L\ lendoZll., '95 ' )
fnl' furt her rt'fercnces to G nHschglk's su)" in R io de Jgnciro.
D ong:
' . op. Cit.,
, p. 73.
 Order and Progress

whom Hraxilians lookcd upon as a belovcd relativo. His "T riumphal

,\ Iarch" would conrinu e ro link his namc with Brazil, and ir could be
said thar rhis A merican carne ro occ upy rhc posirion of off icial lira-
lian musician. cvcn more rhan J os ,\ Lm rc io or Carlos G omes,
whosc ruusic was mo re vicorouslv e
Hrazilian bur w ho both lacked
rhc advanragc of conducring-c-and vireually hy pnot izing- a vast
group of musicians in a patrioric piecc o n an occasion which so dr a-
marically syrubolizcd the Brazilian Empire. X Ot only t he arisroc-
raey of R io de J aneiro, bur t he middle class and rh c common folk
roo lo ved and adm ircd this fore ig ner who had lcarned ro spcak Por-
ruguese in a rd er ro identify himself more d osel)' with the people of
rhc eo untry. D uring rhc rcig n of Ped ro JI. Gortschalk was rhc most
beloved fo reigner in Hrazil. parricularly in Rio de J aneiro and
among e
t hc vo un(!"
e
inrcllectuals o f Sao Paulo.
T hc ent hnsiasm fo r G orrsch alk in Sao Paulo ano R io de j an ciro
does not mean rhar t bcse rcprcscnranve cit ies we re lacking in ad mi-
ration for other foreign ar tists in music and thc theatcr. Fo r ex-
ample. Cand iani w ns the cen rer o vcn rablc adulario n rhere and in
Recife. Risto ri' was rcceivcd by rhe Empcro r and Ernpress. After
rhc lat rcr's perfo rmance in Rio de j anciro, t bere w as a public cere-
mo n)' in hcr ho nor, during which rhc Baroness of Rio Negro. in t he
name of hcr admircrs. orlc rcd he r a cruwn fashioned. in a very Bra-
zitian rnanncr. from humming-bi rd fearhers. After he r benefir per.
formancc, "H un drcds of persons, carrying rorchc s and balloons, es-
co rred her ro bcr home ro the sound of band music, fircworks, and
vibranr 'vivas." ,; A nd orher cclcbriries in t he world o musjc and rhe
t bcarer wcrc similarlv f rcd by thc lite and by th e studcnts of R io
de J aneiro, Sao Paulo. Rcci fc. and Salvador, among them Pani,
Sarasarc, and D usc herself on her visir ro R io in 1885,
The hend ir for rhe grear rragedic nnc c oin cidcd with rhe "burn-
ing pcriod of t hc abolition qucsrion, wit h its fl ux of rcpublican
ideas. sorne sincere ami ot hcrs affect ed." Political rension w as in the
ai r, w hic h possibly accollmcd for a ce n ain ioirial diffide nce (lO rhe
pan of a public st itl unac(] lIaimed w irh t his eminenr arr isr. 1"'ever-
rheless, t he journalisr an d promoter Fer reira de Araj o was ab le ro
rouse public interesr in t he e\ent. anJ despire the pressu res of rhe
times, rhe F.rnrire preserved irs rem rat ion of enrhusiasm for music
ami t he theat er. Duse ended by rccei\"ing the w arm applausc of the
?Candiani and Ri<'! ori were [alian sin~ers fallll>US al rhe tim e. (T ranslato r.)
'D vna
' . : 0r. . ,,-
e l t ~ p. 'lO.
 Brazilian Socety ;1/ tbe Lote Nineteentb Ce1Jtl/TY 79

Brazilian public; rhc Empcror prescnted her with a magnificenr

bracclcr."
Ar thc samc time as Dusc. rhe rhen cqually celebrated Fl vic
And t-cwhosc namc was impartcd {Q a style of beard for sorne
rime considcrcd very clcgaur by Brazilian mcn of al] classcs-calso
carne ro Brazil. Enrhusiasms of this [ype wcrc characrcnsric of a
pcriod in which thc my stiquc of hairdrcssing dc vclopcd into a vir-
tual culr . Among mcn of mcans. rhis cultism was cxprcsscd largely
t broug

h rhc bcard. which was nor onlv
carefullv rrimmed accord-
iog to thc stylc affcct cd, bur often as careully perfumed. For rbc
womcn. of coursc, ma jor art cntion was gi\'eo to rhe coiffu rc, while
both sexcs fa vcrcd lockers or bracclcts containing or madc of hair,
ofrcn ohtained, in rhe words of (lile chron iclcr, " rhrough amorous
dcvices." ~ Ar orhcr times, meo cncloscd rheir mother's hair or rhat
of their deccascd wife in a gold lockcr, ano worncn in like manner
ofrcn carried rhar of a dcad c hild on rheir bosor us. This cult of hair
extended ro orhcr arts. and the bcauty shop of lid iar in [he Rua do
Ouvidor dcalr also in plurncs. gold omamcnrs. pcarls, and stork
fearhcrs, probably bc causc such ameles wc re ofrcn uscd ro adom
rbc hair.
T his obscssion wirh hair ar thc cnd of rhc Sccond Empire consti-
tutes a psycbosis worth rhe atrention of a social psycb iarrisr. Ir
seems clear rhar rhc mystiquc of rhc male bcard and fcmale cciffurc
was d osel)' link ed t e rhar of a combinarion of Euro pean monarchy
and provincia l parriarchy, in which rhc qualitics of male potcncy
and fcmalc fecundiry would be cqua lly cclcbrarcd. And srrangcly
cnough. republican propaganda, insread of opposing this symbol-
ogy of monarc hism, adoprcd ir for irs own purposes. T hus it ga\'e
grcat prornincnce to [he hair of rhc allegorical fcmale figure of rhc
Rcpublic which bcgan ro appcar in illustratcd magazines and ncws-
papers of rhe scvcnt ics, her cxubcrancc and youth agg rcssvely con-
rrasted tu rhe mclanchcly old age of :ln Emperor caricaturcd in rhc
images of Pedro ('..ashe w or Pedro Banana. As for the propagandists
of rcpublica n i~m. few lacked an abundant parriarchal heard. Sal-
danha ,\ 1arinho, Prudente de ' torai<;, Campos Sales, Silva J ardim,
Barbosa Lima, Sampaio Ferraz, Q uintino Bocayuva were aH a bun ~
dand y bearded rom rhe time o thcir eady youth, aJmosr as if ro
l' Ib iJ . pp. IOj. 106.
1 A oJ was a famous actor of the Jal" oioetceolh cenlury who atfecleJ a
poioted beard.
2 D ria: nI" cit., pp. 1: 9-, 0.
80 arder and Progress
dernonsrrare rhat pcrsons o republican persuasi n could be quite as
virile, social ly and politically, as [he barons, conseibeiros, and corn-
manders of [he Empire.t It also sccmed as t hough sorne were rrying
ro convcy die imprcssion rhat (he Republic. although a ncw form
o govcrn ment, did not consritutc a ncw social a rder in which men
wou ld cease ro be rhe rulers and women the prim auxiliaries of t he
homc, just as in (he old rcgimc. Dcodoro, with his characrcrisrcally
Imperial beard and his conscrvarive social views, du ring (he days o
rhe provisional govcmmenr would ncver artempt ro alter anyt hing
outside rbc field of polirics his approach never rcmotely suggesred
rhe soc ial revolurion desired by (he Positivisrs. The early republi-
cans clcarly acc cprcd rhat rhc only profound social change really
needcd had alrcady raleen place in rhc abolirion of slavery ; for t hc
rcst. it was jusr as well for Hrazil ro contine ro follow Imperial
social tradirions. including t hc t radicional power relations bcewcen
rhe scxes and classes. Long beards ami abundant bair-dos continued
to act as sex and status symbols during rhe fi rst decades of the Re M

public. and ir is signifi cant rhar a social system which had disinte-
grared in sorne of irs funda mental precepts by abolishing slavery
should have conrinucd in repu blcan t imes ro respect sucb social
differentiaron ami symbols of racial and class superiority.
Recalling his you ng manhoc d. Jos Silva Pereira (b. Cear ,
1880) w rote ro me: " In rhose day s, poets sung of rhe beau ry of
woman's hair. braided or orherwisc arranged. T hose who didn'r
have an abundanr growt h of hair bought the well -prcpared braid s
sold from t ray s in rhe srrcers . . ." The " infernal scissors," Silva
Pereira goes en. had not yet madc th eir dcprcdations on rhose vast
and lovely coiffu rcs, nor on rhe mate musreches eirbcr, sorne of
which w crc ru frcd. sorne drooping. and sorne clipped. Such
appendages were parricularly affecred by leaders of all er pes. There
mar have been a reducrion in Christ-like beards, in sidcbu rns, or in
ncck wh iskers, bu r rhcrc was ncver an)' disappearance of facial hair ;
3 Aside fro m th e hair, the point in com mun in this grou p is rh ar ehey were all
repe bl ican politieal leaders. Saldanha ,\ 1arinhu and Q uintino Boc ay uva were
amo ng rhe signers of the Rcpublic an ,\ 1anifesto of 1870 ; Prudeore de :\lorais and
Campos Sales were, re' J'Cctivcly, rhe th ird and fou nh Presidents of Ihe Republic
( , 8<,l4- IQtl1), Buh(}~a Lim~ "a~ a sTrong-arm polirical tigure IIf socia lh1i c leanings
w ho sern d io the Brazilian Puliament aml as gtwc mnr nf Pernambuco; Sampaio
Ferr:az waS an equally slrong_am ,eJ police c hie in Rio de Janeiro . Sil\':l. Jardim
was nOe of the m()~t outspn ken radicab of the late Empirc, an open advocate of
re'olurion , in cootra-q to the rnore gradual rcpublican alt itudes of the signen
of rhe manifesro, (T ransbtnr.)
 Brazilian Socety in tbe Late N inetecntb Century 81

the desrrucrion of such a social symbol would have carricd a sug-

gesrion incompatible with rhc risc of a ncw and incxpcrienced polit-
ical a rder.
Thus rhe minisrers and depones of rhc Republic, for examplc,
followed rhose of rhe Empirc in tbcir social habirs, patronizing rhe
same barbers. rhc same haberdasbers, the same ccsmcticians, rhe
same horels. rhe sarne rearooms. rhc same cocottes. They con-
tinued to smoke the same brands of cigars and cgarertes,' to make
use of rhc samc public coacbcs and rhe same donkcy-drawn strect-
cars, ro attcnd the same tbeatres whcrc. as conservarive sratesmcn
end industrialisrs, thej- applauded and sup porred rhc same artisrs
they had cheered as abclitionists and republicans in their yourh.
T hey carne te drink rhc samc wines as rhc Imperial counsclors, ro sir
in tbc idenrical upholsrered or morocco chairs rhar had replaced the
rradirional picccs in jacaranda or vinbat co during rhe larer years o
Pedro 11, ro listen to ralcnrcd r oung ladies playing rhe samc picces
0 0 the same Erard grand pianos. In (he [ornal do Connnercio they
rcad rhc same cdirorials in suppOrt of thc status quo-now republi-
can-c-rhcy had rcad in earlier days in support of rhc Imperial order.
Such Imperial figures as thc BaTOO de Ramiz G alvo continued ro
serve as rhc learned elcmcnr among public officials, and their
spreadeagle seyle of extempore polirical aratary changed Iitrle if at
all .
T he high value placcd on oratary or eloquence and rhetor ic was
a socio-cult ura l artitu de, thc cxrcnsion inrc rcpublican times of
which should not be discounrcd. Such was rhe emphasis placed on
cloquence-csacred, political, or mcrcly social-c-rhar dur ing this
long period in Brazilian life ir overflowed irs ccnvcnrional limirs
(rhe address, the scrmon, or rhe roast) ro disfigure and pervert
other forms of expression: pocms, novcls. essa)'s, editorials, letters,
official documents and repon s, even relcgrams. Everyrhing was
rouched by rhis fl crid contagian which, during rhe monarchy, had
had so favorable an ambiance for irs dcvclopmcnr and which con-
tinued to fi ourish in republican times rhrough the efforts of such
spcllbinders as Ruy Barbosa, Barbosa Lima, .\ lartins Jnior, Lopes
Trovc, and Pinto da Rocha. In clerical eloquence, no one in rhe
fi rsr decadcs of rhe Republic would equal Mom'Alveme, a Francis-
t F rom the middle uf the Imperial pcriod. sorne of the<>e chaoged t heir names
regularl)' in acco rd~oce wirh p"Jitical and social evem<;, as is shown most inreresro
ingl)' io t he BrilO Alves colJecrioo of cigar bands,
 O rder and Progresr

can w hose scrmons in monarchica! t imes had been a series of contin-

uing triumph s both for rheir dramatic imp act and their rhcological
and philosophical weig ht. BU[ in t hc fi eld of political oratory, it was
rhc onc-rimc monarc hisr Ruy Barbosa. rhe lasr At hcnian of rhc par-
liar nentary gnve rtun cnt. w ho cmploycd his gifrs wirhin thc cham-
bers of t hc First R epublic ro resise rhe impacr of new ideologics.
Producrs of a polincal sprelll which placed an inordinat c valuc on
r hctoric, suc h tl uent orarors as R uy could ofte n carry a point, even
a senselcss poinr. in rhe face of t hc sober bu r possibly sounder rea.
soning of les.s gi fted spcakcrs. T he samc sort of thing happcncd in
acadcm ic compcritions, where profcssorial c hairs oftcn went ro t hc
glib, mu cb ro rhc derrimcnr of such fi clds as scicncc. which are
often bctrer scrvcd by men of slow and prud cnr cxprcssion than by
rhc facilc and overfl owing.
A lfredo Severo dos Santos Pcrcira ( b. Fo n cleza. 1878) looks
back on this festival of orato ry wir b an incisivcly c rit ica] ere : " In-
stcad uf doin g. wc likcd ro ralk, in voices chargcd wit h cmotion,
holding the tloor as rhcugh w e wcrc reci dng tu sentimental m usic.
T he dangcr in t he addicrion to rhc drug of rhetorie, as Ramalho
O rtigc sapo is t har ir cnahlcs one ro exaggerate and alter rhe facts
out of all prcporrion." Santos Pcreira has nor bing bur praisc for r he
diploruaric ser vice of Ruy Barbcsa ar T he B agu e, bur this praise
does not extcnd to his "kilomcrric discourscs," in whicb "bis plar-
form ralcnrs scarccly concealcd the vices of our roman ric oratory,
which shou ld be as undesirablc in a polirical assembly as it would be
in thcsc devotcd ro only rhc fi ncsr ami mosr disciplincd cxercises of
rcason." A no sincc ir fo llowe d rhar rhc Comt ean socio cracy ami irs
rcpublic an overroncs was "a social srruc rure bascd on sciencc ami
not on rhc roma ntic cmpi ricism of polir icians w ho rry to solvc
cvery problcm wir h ccstat ic orarorical fi reworks," Sanrcs Pereira in
his old age rcmaincd convin ccd t har Brazilians would continu e to be
as add icfcd to r hetorieal and orarorical excesses as rhey had been
Juring rhe days of the Empirc.
Anot her Positivist, A gilberto Xavier ( b. Rio de Janeiro, (1 69).
srares rllat he studied w irh Ben jamin Constam and learne d from t har
master to eonsider mat hema tics "the true logie" and astronomy
" t he besr se iemitic model. " In nrJer ro eontinuc his sciem ific educ a-
to n in aecordanee w ith Positivist vicws, he studied biology w it h
G eorges Au diffret, "one of t he Illost em ine m o f Corm e's pupils"
",ho, "after becoming a civil cnginccr ar the Poly tcchnical School
 Brmii mi Socety in the Late N neteentb Century 83

o Paris (whcre he srudicd marhemat ics with Comrc) , took the

advice of the master himscl f 10 bccome a doctor at the .\l ompclier
Medica! School, there com plering rhc cerebra l t hcory o Comre."
T rained undcr such preccplOrs, Xavier could not havc becn favor-
ably imprcsscd by rhe rhc roric of R u)' Barbosa. "\ Vhen rhc Rcpub-
lic carne into being." he says, " I was passing from adolcsccnce ro
yourh'' ( he was rwc nry }, but having bcen raughr by Hcnjamin
Consrant, he had airead)' lcarncd from this founder of th e Republic
rhar "g rear social changos obcy natural laws" and he saw rhe
monarchy "crcarcd by our ancesrors for t he occasion of our coun-
rry's pohrical indcpcndcncc as being a rheolcgical-rnilitarv regime
incompatible wit h thc scicntitic-indusrrial forces of th e futu ro and
thus ounnoded and imp edin g th c progres.~ of our revolution." For
rhis rcason he was nor deceivcd " by che mctaphysics of democ-
racy ," unlike his con rcmporaries who felt rhar "once rhe Rep ublic
is esrablished we will be scn led inro tite normal march of rhc fu-
rurc." Thanks ro his scientific training, Agilbcrrc Xavicr saw rhc
change as one oC inevitable rransirion quite beyond rhe co ntrol of
rhe orators and Jemagogues, as ou rlincd by Ccmre in his "irnperish-
able pamphlet" Atl A ppea/ to Conseroatives. This wo rk ser forrh " a
series of sociclogical predictions of scicnrific veraciry , similar ro
those of ast ronomy savc for rhe abiliry ro reduce suc h problcms ro a
mathematical solurion."
Ir is evidcnt rhat Poseivisrs of rhis eype and backgr ound agrced
rhar Brazilian dcvclopmenr wo uld be direcred by somet hing othcr
rhan polines. panicularly polines co rrupted by rheroric. BU[ it is
also certain thar sorne of rhc Hrazilian Positivisrs th cmsclves were
oraro rs and rheroricians in their own way. attriburing a scientifi c
validiry ro abstraer soc iological formulas thar werc merely doctri-
naife In narure.
Despite thc ideas of such Gatlicizcd Positivisrs as Agi lberto Xa-
vier, howcvcr, Posirivism ncver hccamc so deadly an enemy of ora-
to ry rhar ir rejccted eloquence cntircly. Such Posirivisr repu blicans
as Jos Isidoro, .\ Iartins Jnior, A lexandre Jos, Harbosa Lima, ami
Benjamn Ccnsram were no rcd for their eloqucncc, and rhis elo-
guence \...as not always free from rhctoric and verbalism. BU[ none
egualled Ruy Ba rbosa in vigor and oratorical f1 oridness. This
[remendous figure, who began as a somew hat anti*derical spirirual-
ist and endcd a ....irtual Catholic, was a midd le-c1ass ind us"trial is[ in
his political t hinking and t hereby inimical to the Positivists, who in
 Order and I'rogress

t hosc d ays ad vocarcd t he incorporarion of the prolerar iat into Bra-

zilian sociery. For t his rcason. during rhc period of rhe provisional
govcrnrncnt, he was c onsran tly in con icr w ith Posirivists suc h as
Benjamn Consranr an d D cmcrrio Ribciro. w ho ar the time wis hed
ro introd uce quite exrensive soc ial re forma, perhaps premaru rely , in
a Brazil hcavily burdencd by the spirn of the pase It was Ruy Bar-
bosa. w ith his bourg eois libcralism , w ho defeated thesc Posirivist
vcnrurcs. as he also dcfca tcd j oaquim Na buco, whosc policy d uring
rhc monarchy had been frank ly social but wirhour Posir ivisr orrbo-
doxies. Until 19 19, Ruy Ba-bosa continued ro disperage the social
and labor issues agirarcd by rh c Posirivists and b y N abuc o. By this
attitude he made many su pporters, part icularly arnong y ou nger
mcn and those o f his own agc g roup who, seduc ed by his OTatory
and pe rsuaded by his rheroric, rernained indiffcrcn r to rhe fact rha t
such discourscs only barel y ro uchcd on rhc social problcms created
by rhc abclition of slavery.
Dem stenes Ipirang a d e Sousa Danrcs ( b. Pernambuco, 18 76 ), in
a ITlOSt intcrcsting tcstirn ony, confcsscs rhar, as a " fcvc rish su ppo rt er
of Ped ro Il,' he had had a " ho rr ible" imprcssion of rhe Republic
whcn ir w as fi rsr proclaimc d and had considcrcd Ben jamin Consrane
and Ruy Barbosa " plagiar ists and transplanters o f a Norrh A meri-
can republican regimc diamcmcally opposcd to ou r cusroms and
cha ractcr,' but rhat eventually he had become fascinat ed by the
cloquenr Ruy and his "resplendcnr intellige nce." H e saw how rhe
"purc and eloq ucnt Word'' spread "likc a hurricane," a hurricanc
tbis particular supporter o f Pedro Il could not resisto On rhc orh er
hand, Sousa Danrcs srates, " I w as always o pposed ro Posirivism and
considered A uguste Cornee a spite fu l lunario."
" 1 w as and srill am a g rear admirer of a good orator," say s Emi-
liano Rbeiro de Almcida Braga ( b. M aran ho. 1873) who, as a
hoy, wirnessed rhe proclamation of t he Rcpublic in his province
"wirh muc h vandalism, always jusrificd by the cxprcssion "The
A rrncd Fo rces in rhc na me o f rh e people.' '' \ Vith his arui-rnil hary
sentirnents and bis predsposition to admir e g ood oraro rs, it was
only natu ra l rhar Almcida Braga should be comc an ardent adlllirer
of R uy. t he grcat civilian figu r e in t he provisional go\'ernment. H e
c arne ro consider the eloquent Bahian a.~ having a " gr ear intelli-
g ence, such as is rarely found in t his world." As a totall)' comrnitted
Barbos:m . he was oatu rally unsympathetic ro Augusre Cornte and
Ben jamin Co nsrant. " 1 bel ieve rhar Augusre Cornte, w ith the best oC
 Brazilian S ociet y in tbe Late Nineteentb Cenrury 85

intenti ons, crca rcd Posirivism as a rcligion, bur 1 knew many a Posi-
rivisr who was black as pitch! Well do 1 rernembcr a ccrtain govcr-
nor o Amazonas and his gang, al1 Positi visrs . .. in rheir shcnani-
gans!" And o rbis Amazonian governor, he contines: "Whcn 1 first
began ro hca r about Bcn jamin Constanr, ir w as in .\ la naus, from this
saruc governor F.R.F. who was a relarive o rhc Posirivisr and w ho,
in rcferring ro his kinsma n. always rose, r emoved his hat, and cired
his narne in full, an ac rion which natu rally was imirared by a\l t hc
orhers in rhc campany. T his govemor culnvared his rclarivc's neme,
bur not bis virtucs, and after only one rear in gcvcmment he was
able ro re tire and esrablish a string of gardcn apartmcnts in Ri o de
j aneiro!"
Orarors of a new ty pe began ro appear and ro express thcmselvcs
in a less baroq uc m anner, bese describcd as fu ncrionel and cssenrially
substantive in narurc. Suc h was rhe eloqu cnce of D avid Campist a,
of ,\ Ian uel Vilabcim. of Carlos Peixo rc, o Gastc da Cunha, Epi-
teio Pcssoa, Mederos e A lbuq uerque, and Lauro Sodr . A nd it is
wonh no ring t har with rhc decline of this exaggcratedly baroque-
cven roeoeo- .oratory carne a corresponding decline in the rastc fo r
thc Italian opera whieh had so vividly c haracrcrized rhe lase q uarter
o rhc nincrecruh ce m ur}'. \ V. J. Cesh's rema rk t hat in rhc antc bel-
lum American Sourh-,-a region so similar ro Brazil-c-orarory had
served as "a direcr insrr ur ncnr of emotion, likc music'' 5 is also rele-
vant bere.
It w ould be difliculr ro imagine a sociery more in la ve wirh roeoco
oratory and mo re intoxicared by voca l music t han t he Brazil o rhe
rwo or three decades o rransition from mcnarchy ro Republic and
from slaverv ro free labor. Ir w as a pcriod in which tbcse prcblems
of rransirion werc gino far lcss artenriou in [he forrn o political
analysis or socia l science and philosophy rhan t hey got from emo-
rional oratory and pur ely rhcrorical rensic ns. T he solutions
broughr abour wcre mcrcly jur idical, or at best polincal. A nd qu ite
ofren thcy were solurions proposed wirh the collaboranon of music
or drama.
U ndcr rhc spell of a myriad sircn vcices, thc harsh social rcal irics
were avoi Jed or overlooked by go \'ernment. by adm inist ration. by
schools and c hurchcs in t heir search for solurions. \ Virh t heir exces ~
si\'c tast e for music and rhetoric, share d by rhe vast majority of
Brazilians. rhese supposedly responsible agencies failed ro guidc t he
~ \ \ 'ilhur J. Ca.h , Tb" .\fi" d o/ tb" 50mb ( papcrba"k, Sew York, 19H ) , p. <}o.
86 a rder 111ld Progress

cOllnte)' in rhc sobcr and objcc nve coursc ir so urgenr ly nccdcd.

Thcre wcrc sorne realists of (he highcst caliber in the public li fe
of rhc pcriod, hot h in rhe monarchy and the R epublic. suc h meo as
Co regipe. Jon Al fredo, Anrnio Prado, T acares Bastos, Como de
"'t agalhacs, Saldanha Marinho, Prudente de ,\ Ioraes, Cam pos Sales,
R od rigu es Alves. Afonso Pena, Lauro .\ Illcr, j lio de Casrilhos,
and R osa e Silva." But tbe numbcr w ho clung ro rhc A rhenian tra-
dition undcr c riricnl conditions that dcmandcd a ncw trpe of public
servar a w as also considerable. T he social arder prod uccd as Inan)'
of on c kind as rhe or hcr: t hosc who could size up t hc siruation as ir
was ami [hose who sought a merely rherorical solution along gen-
eral principies o Europcan or A nglo-American origino T hus for
cvcry Cotegipc rhcrc was a Le pes T rovo: for cvery Anr nio
Prado a J os Xl ariano , fo r evcr y cold. calc ulating, quierly ctfectivc
Flor iano Peixoro, a Coelho ~ CIO al! Iuss and fcathers, ly ric and ro -
manti c in his alrnosr mcssianic repubhcanism. Ir ca nnor he said rhat
rhc period prod uccd mcn too plaron ic and thcoretical to face con-
c rete problcms obj cct ivcly , for rhis w ou ld he unjusr lo mcn o ad-
minisrrarivc efficienc y and prac rical knowlcdgc likc Coregipc, on
t he une hand, or Rodrigues A lvcs on rhc or hcr. Both rhcse mcn
showed great pclirical sagacity and flex ibility in furthcring rhc rapid
disinregrarion uf sorne o rhe mose charact crisric feeru rcs of thc
Braxilia n social Syst CIll j Cotegi pc, as we have sccn. in calling for rhc
immcdiarc abolit ion o slavcry and Rodrigues A lves in his practica!
acriviry dur ing the Republic. Bot h wcrc srarcsmcn w ho gave rheir
atrenrion ro thc aspecrs o Hrazilian social strucrurc mosr capablc o
being transformcd inro a new soci al order. In t bis spirit. and em-
ploying such c r ircria. rhcy and or hers o rhcir tr pe suc h as R osa e
8 A mixed bag uf prominene monarc h;';e. and re pub lican. " f che late ninetfemb
ce m ury . Cotegipe wa, a <;o n""rvaeil'e Prime .' l in i,ter frolTl 1814 10 I HH8. wh"
resigned ove r che abo lition ..sue and was rl."placc d by J oao A lf redo (Co rrcia d e
Oliveira ), under whosc minislry che cmancipancn wu proclaimcd . A m,mio Pudo
an d T nnes Basto'S were liheral mn narch isrs who accepced the inev itabil ity of tbe
Rcpublic. COllW de .\ tag alh~"" wa~ a leading publici, e " f the time , aurhnr of O
Sd -.'il$.e"l. Saldanha ;"!arinh" wa, a jou rmlisr an d a fou nde r " f thc fi rsr rcpubli.
c an club and republic an ne,npa pe r. P rudente de ;" lo u is, Ca lTl pn~ Sal"". Rod rigu es
Ah-es. ami A fonso Pena were sc ccesstvc Prcsidem s o f Hraail belween lllw and
1'J'Xi. Lauro .\ Iiiller w a~ a Cabilll" o/fin r in eh.... Ro drigues Ah'es gO\"ernm cnt ami
in ' 91: bec arne Foreign .' !n i, ter u n the dca th of Ihe ( nlOu'S li aro n U" R i" IIran co.
J lio de C. " ilh", W", a p"wc rfol r " lilica l Icade T fr nm Rin Gund e d o Sul who
cOll';tane1r " PI>uwd the cem ri' l len de ncie, u f lhe republican g"H fnl11Cnl. Rosa e
Sih' a, a one-time mo narch i, . wa, leader nf Ihe con", n 'orin repub lic an hctinn in
Pernamb uco. ( T rao,lator. )
 Brmi an S ociety in tb e Late N netcent b Century 8-I

Silva and Anibal Frcirc wcrc mcn of qu icr ami scrious acrion facing
rhc oratc rs and rheroricians who eboundcd in t he polirical fic ld.
Thc Cotcgipes and Rodrigues Alves coul d when necessary makc
rhcir spcechcs, spccchcs wh ich were cx prcssive if not cloqucnr, bur
which never descended ro rhc lcvcl of mere oratory.
 "[111],,

From Empire lo Republic

E:-O OF Con:G IP[ 's STA~t P werc pcrha ps more concemcd with
M order rhan with progress; {hose o Rod rigues Alvcs's mold
were mo re arrcntive ro thc intereses of progress rhan to [he demands
of a rder. Bur botb tr pes almos r invaria bly 5 ;1 \\' rhe problcms o [pe
onc as inextricably connectcd with rhose o rhe ot her, rh us ident ify-
ing t bemsclvcs dosel)' with a social and cu ltu ral viewpoint dari ng
from prc-narional rimes ami cxrending bac k as [ar as rhe reign o
Dom Joao V I. Thc announcement rherefore by [he Posirivist-
oricnred R cpublic, proclaimcd by D codo ro in 1889. ro rhc effect
t har t hc ne w governmenr would be a polirical muer dedicared to
[he conciliation o thcse sociclogical valucs did not really represent
a new scicncc applicd ro thc political sccne (as t hc Posid visrs be-
lievcd) so much as a confi rrnanon of an esr ablished consrant in Bra-
zilian dcveloprnent, rraccablc to remete colonial times.
In seeking ro examine rhe relarionship of the Republic of 1889 to
the c ultu ral developmenr of Brazil during rhe late monarchy and
early Republic. 1 shall use the term "cul tura!" in irs sociological
con rexr ro signify a com bina rion of valu es, sryles. rcchniqucs. and
habirs, rat her t ban in ies more narrow scnse in refcrence ro thc arts
and scicnccs. A nd in speaking of "progresa," 1 am using [he term to
indicat e a relarive dcvelopmcnr rarher than in the mcssianic sense of
designaring an evolurion mo"ing con srant lv and complctely roward
social bett crmcnt . I rake my place among rhose w ho are inclined ro
lxlieve less in a complete and rnonolirhic progress rowa rd suc h bet -
terr nenr t han in a ntultiptcty of progresses, w hic h are somct imes
neut ralizcd whcn jud ged in rhc Iigh t of pu rel y ethical, aesrheric,
religious. or inrcllcctual valucs-c-or by rhc pu rely teehnieal and me-

"
 From Empire to Republic

chanical critcria of the avowcd progrcssivcs. .\Iorcoycr, rhcse rwo

ways of mcasuring progress, must be sccn as pralJel rathcr rhan
com.'ergel1t. Using rhis dual standard of analysis and compariscn.
wc can place the Athcnian asscssment of cusroms and values on a
rclarivcly (bur not absolutclv ) superior planc to rhar which g OY
erns va lucs in Chicago or Sao Paulo or Johannesburg. The Brirish
historian G ..\ 1. Trevelyan corrcc rly warns US, in an already classic
srarcment, thar: "Progress. as we of rhc rwentierh ccnmry are
betrer aware rban Out Victorian anccsrors. is not alw ays ehange
from bad ro good or from good ro berter. . . ."
In visiring Brazil ro observe rhe general effecrs of rhe tran sforma-
tion from monarchy tu Republic, the Anglo-American publicisr
Isaac N . Ford norcd that Brazilians werc prone ro prccrasrination, a
habir which he rarhcr flippanrly assertcd was "formcd under [he
influence of an enervating climate." 1 H e norcd the continua! use
by Hrazilians of such exprcssions as "Wait a whilc" or " Be paricnr,"
and concluded rhar it was also a martcr of "rece insrincr," bcyond
thar of climare, that causcd Brazilians [O adapt thcmselves so slowly
ro the polirical and social changes broughr about by rhc Republic.
Since rhey were nor a pcoplc who. in work or play, husrled ro make
tomorrow arrive more quickly. thcy were not impaticnr wirh re-
publican insrirurions, nor did rbcy appear ro hope thar rhcsc instiru-
rions could quickly bring ebout a narional rcgcncration.
"T hey bclicvc," said Ford of rhe Brazilians of 1R9O, "rhat they
bave entered upon a Furu rc of britliant premiso.' That is ro say, he
found Brazilians alrcady living psychclogically in thc futu re indus-
trial dcvelopmcne proclaimed by rhc decrccs of rhe provisional gov-
ernmcnr andoundcr thc charm of this mysrical faith, quite willing
ro reconcilc rhemsclves ro thc "disordered finan ccs," rbc "rempo-
rar)' milirary usurparon." and the "constitucional ancmalies'' rhar
characterizcd rhe first rwo years of rcpublican expcricnce."
O f all rhc visiting fc reigners who busied rhcrnselves in analyzing
thc fi rsr rcacrions of the Hrazilians ro thc fururc whicb Iaced rhcrn
so abruprly, perhaps nene has bccn so cxacr as Ford in linking rhesc
rcactions to the peculiarly Hrazilia n psychological, social. and cul-
tural climare. He saw thar Brazilians had no objection ro the
intrusion of the futu re upon the present jusr so long as the change
was gradual an\l did not involn a complete repudiation of rhe pasto
Gradual, without eagerncss and impatience, with the new Presidenr
1 huc N. Fo ru: Ttopic~1 Aml:tic~ (L o n uo n. '&.1 3). p. 7; .
n
2 Ibid., p.
9 arder and Progress

of rhc R cpublic giving himself rhc airs of a consriturional Empcro r:

wir h rhc scpararion of Church from Starc wirhour th c weakenin g of
Carholicism as a national insrirurion , wirh che employ rnenr of
former mcmbcrs o court in importara adminisr rarive posrs undcr
rhe Republic; wirh rhe transform aran of rhe formcr provinces im o
srarcs unaltered in thcir social, cultural. and ccclcgical characrcris-
res; ando finally. with expcrienccd and titled Imperial polirical
figur es such as rhe Baron de Luccna, Counsclor Ant nio Prado, and
rhe Viscoum de Cabo Fro catering 00 as befare. Thcn rhere seemed
ro be norhing precipitare abour rhc new arder.
N evcrtheless. th ere was a considerable chango in rhe cultural
order wirh rhe rransformar ion of Brazil from Empire ro Rcpublic.
Insread of cmanaring from France and England (t he narions most
influential during rhe monarchy ). rhc ncw inspiraric n, t hanks ro
Ruy Barbosa, carne almost enrircly from t he Unired Sratcs. And it
was fr om rhis shifr in influcnce rhat thcre arose a series of consc-
quenccs of signal import ance ro Brazilian cult ure. Prominent
among thcsc was rbc study of con srirurional la",' and adrninisrrative
law, a resk which had ro be pcrformcd in a language wirh which
mosr Brazilian jurisrs werc as r er little acquaintcd. Ir is t ruc t har rhe
parliamcntary sysrem fo llowed by t he Empirc had been ro sorne
degree inspired by thc Brirish cxample and t hat thc English lan-
guage airead)' enjoycd prcsrigc amon g Brazilian politicians and jur-
ists of rhc lire. {The subtlerics of English pronunciation had cven
been debared in parliam cnrary scssions.) Bur ir is also truc rhar rhe
Brirish sysrcm of go\'ernmcnr had been exrcnsively srudied by
Frcnch wrirers we ll kn own in Brazil, and ir was through rhcm rhat
parliamenrarians of rhc period of Pedro JI learned mosr abour t he
Brirish legal s)'srem. Ncw rhe siruation was different, ro undcrsrand
rhc American governmcnr, ir was nccessary ro read books writ ren
in English.
Already in th e decadc prcceding rhe Repu blic, the Unired Srates
hao infiuenced Brazlian cultu re in various significanr wap . T his
infl ucnce had incrcascd wirh rhc proclamation of thc Rcpublic
which, incider ually, almosr cxactl y coincided wirh t he firsr Pan-
American Confcrence in Ocrober, 1889. In rhc p rcvous chaprer ir
was poinred our how, even in Imperial times, F rench ballroom
dances were being rcplaced by t hose of rhe Unitcd 5tatcs. T he sarne
thing was occurring with Bcirish influeoces; foc examp le, rhe raste
for Sir \ \'alter Seon was being o\'erraken, if not surpassed, by rhat
fo c James Fenimore Coopee. T he Empcro r himsclf had taken rhe
 From Empire to Repnbtic 9'
initiarivc in directi ng arrenrion ro rhc Unircd Srares efrc r rerurning
from tbat country rnuch impressed by ccrta in marvcls of rcchnical
progress, some of whicb he immediarely introd uccd inro Brazil. l
sa)' "rhe Empcror himself ' becausc nohody during rhis pcricd was
more caurious rhan he in insisting thar cu ltural progress be con-
sistenr wirh rhc cxisring socia l order. Thus Rcpublican or quasi-
Republican caricaru risrs found considerable material for satirc in
rhe alleged dccla rarion o rhe Empcror in Philadclpbia in 1876 rhat
he wished ro scc in Brazil. no r cann ons. bur modern industrial and
agricultural macbincry . In ies issuc of J:muary 7, 1877, t hc am i-
clerical and anti-monarchical O D abo a QUiltro, publ ishcd in
Reci fe, Fearu red an anicle interprcting Dom Pcdrc's rcmarks as ex-
pressing a desire ro bring American civilization to Brazil in rhc
form of machinery . Recalling impishly that (he Emperor's first
visir to Euro pe had resulte d in "a verirable rcform of Brazilian
cusroms and insrirurions: th e abolition o hand kissing," t hc wrircr
found the "pretentious" dcclararions of Pedro 11 in Philadclphia
ro he mcrely an atrempr "ro cut a good figure wir h the Amcri-
cans, withour regard for rhc anvil chorus ehey would provokc in
nu raZl' ]... a

The facr is rhat Pedro 11 bore himsclf in rhe U nired Srares lcss like
a visiting head of srare t han a mere Ambassador of his counrry, anx-
ious ro scc American civilizaran at closc range and to lcam from ir
rhings which could bcsr he applicd to rhc dcvelopmcnt of a srill-
back ward narion. In rhis vcin he had conferred wirh thc N cw Or-
lcans H ealt h Cornrnission on rhe problerus of yc llow fcver. had
inspccrcd mode ro fire-fighring equipmcnr in X cw York, and had
visitcd the Ar med Scrvices acadcmies in Annapolis and West Point.
Bur in rhc U nired Sutes, as in Europe. his cu riosity for the rechni-
cal marvels of r nodcrn civilixarion had nor prcvcnred him [rom
sccking rhc acquainrancc of famous poets and men of learn ing :
Longfellow, Lowell, an d \ Vhittier in ,\ lassachuscttS; Bancrofr in
R hod e Island, and Pro fcssor Loomis in Ncw H acen. Earlier he had
reprcsenred rhc only American monarchy at rhe Philadclpbia Cen -
rennial Exposition. where Brazil had won mo re prizcs th an any
orhcr Sou rh American coum r)' (.,.: 1 against 80 by Argentina and
40 by Chil e) .4 These awards no( on1)' sgnified the grearer order
prevailng in Brazil th an in rhe Spanish-Ame rican coum rics hut also
3 O Dillbo J Q Uiltro (Recife ) , Ja nuH V 7, [lI n .
4 James C. F1ctc hcr and Daniel P. Kid.lc r: RTllzil IlnJ rh e B, llzili.:ns (4th edn.,
Boston, r879), p. S91.
 arder and I'rogress
tcstified ro irs grcarer cultu ral progress, cven in the fiel d of indus-
try T he Emperor's visir te [he U nited Srares symbo lizcd the eager-
ness wirh which his coum ry was striving ro accclerare a progress
recognized by che Pbiladelphia Exposirion as already far from in-
considerable when ccmpared ro other such countrics.
Ir is natu ral rhat Dom Pcdro's visir ro rhe U nited States should
have opened new perspecrivcs in rhe cultural progress of Brazil.
hith erto confincd largely to Europcan models. The same purposc
was servcd at the time by the extended visir to Brazil of the Swiss-
American inrellecrual Louis Agassiz, and by the rcsidcncc in N ew
York of rhe Brazilian-j ewish journalist J os Carlos Rodrigues. D ur-
ing bis scvcral years in New York, Rodrigues publishcd rhe journals
N ovo Mundo and R evista Industrial, ucquiring prinring and jour-
nalisric rechniques which he later applicd in Rio de J aneiro ro the
notable advantage of Braxilian culture, despirc the horror of Ruy
Barbosa, whose rom anric rasrcs in jou rna lism were ou traged by [he
indusrrializcd and commercial tone of Rodrigues's publicarion in a
ciry srill half Europcan in irs journalistic tasres.
Ir was to Agassiz rhae we owe the visir of \ Villiam James, who
carne ro srudy [he Brazilian rropics in 1 8 6 5 . ~ T he saine purpose
brought H arrt, O rville Derby, O rton. and Branncr. By 1880 rhis
field of research in its crudesr bu t r nost scductive form- the Ama-
wn-had also arrracred t he Brirish " 'allace, Bates, and Chandler,
the French Marquoi. and [he Brazilian Costa Azcvedo, Soarcs
Pinto, and Couro de .\ tagalhaes. Among thcse. [he wo rk of the
Americans in disscminaring a greater know lcdgc of equarorial
Brazil had particular irnpact on Brazilians. Some of rhcsc men, such
as Branner and D er by, in addirion to rhcir geological srudics, cxam-
ined orher aspects of Brazilian cultu re, and Branner, through his
knowlcdgc of Porruguese. was ablc ro wrire a grammar of the len-
guage of Brazil. H artr in his study of rhe myths surrounding rhc
Amazonian rortoisc conrribured to rhc dcvelopmcnt of Brazi li an
ethnological rescarch.
The reports of rhc Amer ican naval officers H erndon, G ibbon,
and Maury on rheir srudics of the Amazon arouscd rhe inrercst of
the Brazilian government in rhose waters, and rhc maps madc by
Maury figurcd in the trear)' wit h Peru rcsulring in regular naviga-
~C:ul~to n Spngu~ Smith : "William j arres in 1lr:l7I," in FOIl1' t'~ pe1'S t'1't u mt d
in tbr lmtitutt f01' Br.r.;i/i,n Stud es, VallJe1'bilt Vnh '( 1'sity (N a)h,"i1 k , T enn"
' 95)
 From Empire to Republic 93
rion of rhc Amazon by Brazilian vcsscls embarking fro m Bclm de
Par . The Xlau ry maps, published in rhe Correio M ercantil of Rio
de j anciro, causcd considerable indignatio n agaiost rhc United
States. an indignarion spu rred by the apparcnrly sincere words of
rhc Rcvcrend J ames Flctchcr. a fellow American. w ho found ext ra-
scientific clcrncnes in ,\ Iaury 's ca rtograph), which he felr would
cause Brazilians ro suspect fi libustcring or impcrialism bchind his
activity. N evert heless. in 1867 t hc A mazon was opc ncd Irom the
Arlanric ro Peru ro ships o nl l fl ags, a mcasurc exrraordinarily ad-
vanrageous ro the Erupire in irs awakening in thc Unitcd Srates o a
drcam of dcvcloping this vasr arca ro a dcgrcc dcnied an), orher
pcople of N ordic ext racrion, Brazil, according ro Flet cher, "diffcrs
from all orbcr t ro pical counrrics " ; so that its civilization, w it h its
airead)' cvident progress, cou ld pcrhaps be extended to rhe A ma-
zon. The U nitcd Starcs eould rakc advanragc o t his Brazilian ca-
paciry to ca rry devclopmcnr ro the arca by inrcnsifying irs efforrs
ro make the A merican presenc e felr in the form of labor-saving ma-
chines. By 1870 there wcrc alrcady a number of Brazilian firms
dea ling in suc h macbincry and orher N ort h A merican products."
Sincc 1855, in lctrers ro A mer ican ncwspapcrs, the Revercnd
j ames Flcrchcr had bcen extoll ing Brazil as bcing not merely "rhe
on ly mo narchy in A merice" bu r also t he "only consrituticnal gov-
cmmcn r" in thc hcmisphcrc. exce pt fo r the U nircd Srates, w hich
was advancing inro the futurc " in tra nquility and material prosper -
iey." In orhcr words. ene in wh ich order ami progress wcre com-
bined. It was a cOllntry airead)' devonng much arrenrion ro educa-
non. nne conraining fl ourishing learncd organiza tions comparable
ro t he N ew-York His rorical Socicty. M r. Fletcher wished te sce
dcvelo ping relat ions bctwecn men uf lcarni ng in Brazil and t he
U nited Starcs. ro sce good rcxrbooks, Amer ican style. in rhc hands
of Brazilian sc hoolchild ren, and A merican producrs in t hc lirazilian
mar kct , a markc r which could prove irself a grea r consumer of such
nrt iclcs,"
\Vith t hese t hrce cnds in view, Flcrcher promored an cxpc sition
of Ame r ican produc ts in R io de j anciro, inel uding ph orographs,
maps, books, cngravings.firhographs. and farm implemenrs. This ex-
position can be considere!! a hisrorical landmark in t he deyelopment
of c ultural rclat iuns bct wcen Bra7:il ,nd [he U nitcd States and a great
~ Flctc her :l.nd Kidder : " p. d t ., pp. s flo, 1<,16.
1 bid ., pp. 1JlI, 1 j9.
 a rder mui Progress
srimulus ro rhc progress of A merican influ cncc in rh ar eoum ry.
T he event tcok place at t he N arional ,\ l useum and t he Empe ror
himsc1f attended. Anracred particularly by the scicntific exhihirs,
Dom Peoro 11 spent half an hour po ring ovcr Youmans's Atlas
of Cbemistry , H e cxprcsscd int erese in works dcaling wirh rhc
American India ns ano in schoolbocks ano maps , Also in machin es.
in farm imp lemcnrs, in wallpapcr design cd by srudcnts of t he Phila-
del phia Art Aca dcmy. in bookbindings. ano in various mat ters of
physical scicnce." AH in all, rhe exposition was an cvent in R io de
j anciro. \ Vithout being pre rcnrious. ir awa kcned rhe cu riosiry of
Brazilians of man)' professions-c-inrcllcc ruals, indusrrialists, plant-
ers, scicnrists, busincssmen-ctoward a civilizanon which mosr had
not prcvicusly considcred capa blc of com pering wir h Europe in
matrera of technology.
U nder the influcnce of t bis exhibitio n and or her com parable
st imuli, Brazil soon carne ro admire rhc many American products
arriving in the cotl me)', sorne of which were considered by local
cngineers and rcchnicians to be superior to rhose of Europc. 5uch
was the case of rhc Haldwin locomctive, k nown everyw bere in Bra-
zil as t he Belduina and uscd figu rat ivcly in common spcech as t he
sym bcl of a force capable of ovcrcomin g all obstaclcs. T he Singe r
sewing machine also enjoyed grcar pcpulariry , surpassing rhat of
the British Excclsicr manufacrurcd by Gipping. Borh the locomo-
rive and t he sewi ng machine, cach in irs ow n way, developed ncw
dim ensions in rhe eultu rallife of Brazil.
'Ve should nor forgct rhar it was du ring rhc reign of Pedro 11
t hat, in addition ro rhc establishment of regular navigat ion on rhe
upper Amazon, Brazil undcrwent rhe imrial period of railway con-
struc tion t bar madc rhe Bald w in locornotive wirh irs inscription
"A lade in rhc U.S.A." a familiar obj ect on rhc Brazilian landscape.
This was alsc t he pcriod t hat saw rhc laying of the submarine cable
[O Eu rope, rhc in rrod ucrion of gas fo r illumination, and rhc exten-

sive modemizarion of dock facilities, of water and scwage systems,

of public parks. bridgcs. rnarkers, rheat res, bospitals. ano penit cn-
riar ics. U rhan transportaran alsc was greatly modcmizcd, with t hc
srrcercar, the familiar Braxilian bo nde, making its disnncrive contri-
burion ro t he democ ratzation of everyda)' life. ,\ Iao)' of t hese techo
nieal innovat ions that so mar kedly ehanged t he Brazilian scene and
Brazilian li\ing habits were pro jects finaneed and undertaken by
8 Ibid., p. 1.;0,
 Fr011l Empire lo Rcpublic 9,
Brirish and Frcnch intereses bur a grear and increasing numbc r of
them were rhe resuh of American capital and know-how.
Afrer rhe Flcrchcr Exposirion at tb c Narional ;\Iuseum. aod in
spitc of rhc brief wa ve of parrioric inJign:ltion againsr rhc U nited
Sutes arcuscd by rhc ' ta ury incidcnr. anyrhing A merican bcgan ro
be rcgarded by progrcssivc Hraxilians :\s vcritably chnrisr naric in
valuc and inuence. part icularly in thc scnsc of being fre e from rhc
com plications of t hc European past. Ir was Ruy Barbosa who, though
no econom ist and even less of a sociologisr. did much ro transplant
rhc American polirical sptelll ro Brazil and who inrroduccd a
number o f reforms "appropriatc ro our prcscnt-day civilizarion,'
which, abandoning "rhc framework of old-fashioned Roman fc r-
malism." moved roward "the simplific ation inhe rent in an industrial
civilizarion," as he said in a repon ro G eneral D eud ora in 1891.10
The Iacr is t hat since t hc 8i o's American inventions and rcc hnol-
ogy had anracted rhc arrention of rhc more progressive Brazilians,
who saw in rhcm rhc bopc of freeing Brazil from rhc remaining
elements of irs feuda l pasr as well as from cert ain pernicious archa-
isms of Latin origino
T hesc Latin vcsrigcs in Brazilian cultural lifc had grcatly sur-
prised Agassiz on his visir rhcre in 865' In rhc Brazilian Empirc, he
noted at rhe rime. " public procedures, resu lring probably fro m old
social condirions, offcr ccrrain c bstaclcs ro prcgress." These ob-
sueles, he fclt, wc rc due to thc fact thar, during t he pcriod of dis-
covery , "Portugal was rhe Europcan nation . .. least affected by
modcrn civilizarion. . . . T he grcar t ransform arions which had
overrumcd Eurcpe du rit1g rhe ,' liddle Agcs and ar the hegi nning of
modern times had scarccly rcac hed Portugal. . . . Reman rradi-
rions, Roman archircct ure. and a degcneraecd fo rm of thc Latin
languagc srill were flou rishing rhe re when rhat nation founded irs
rransarlantic colonice and, in all rhcsc colonics. thc ccndi rions of the
rnctropole wcre nevcr changed." 1
le will surprisc no ene thar rhe oldcr str ucturcs of R io de j anciro
can be comparcd wirh rhe architecture of ancienr Re me. The very
administrat ion of t hc Brazilian provinces was patterned on R oman
fo rms; in the Em pire of Pedro 11 the Romanism of rhe physical
archirecrurc exrended ro t he social srr ucture as well. A nd what Bra
9 Got'h no Prcr.:irrio dor Ert.Jdor Unidor d r Br~fil-A n eX'os .JO Re!.Jtrio do
M i ni stro dll Fllundll (Rin de Janciro. 111<;>' ) , p. :0.
1 ,,1. and .\ lme Lo ui, Aga""il ' V OYlIgc .JU Brsil (Pati" , 1117: ) . pp . : 52-3 .
96 arder 41Jd I'rogress
zil necded most, as progressivcs likc Agassiz pointed out, was not ro
strengthcn (he aurhorirv o [he naticnal govcmrncnr ovcr th at o
[he p rov inces, but rat hcr ro "devclcp t hc counrry's natural re-
sourccs." \ Virhin rhc fram cwcrk o rhis Rom an form of govern-
mcnt , rhc provinccs found rhcmsclves lcd by "young lawycrs"
whcn whar t hcy really necdcd. accordi ng te Agassiz, was "practica!
meo familiar wirh agriculrure and industry ano not mere speech
makcrs." ~
Thus Ruy Barbosa. alrhough more o a specch rnnker t han a
practical man of agriculrurc and indusrrv, nevcrthcless was a good
pupil o Agassiz whcn he callcd for (he ahandonmem o "rhe
framewo rk o old-fashioncd Rem an formalities" inher itcd fr om a
Portugal more Reman rhan rhc R oma ns. in favor of "simplify ing
reforms inherent in an industri al civilizarion." Ir was such rcforrns
which wculd facilitare thc replacement of rhe monarchy by rhc Re-
pu blico Once pointcd in t he direction of indu srrializaricn, ir was
unde rsrand able th ar Brazil had rurned eagcrly ro rhe cco nornic and
polirical patrerns of rhe U nitcd Su tes. had bcccme rbc champion of
Pan-Americanism in \\Tashingtun. and had allowed irself tu cnter
into a commcrcial treaey "mosr Favorable tu [he Unircd Stares," as
F ord wrote in I 892. ~
H O\v did Brazilians of chis pcriod of t ransition rcact to the new
presence of {he Un ired Sutes in {he political and culrurallife o rhc
coumry and ro [he injecti on of rnachinery frorn American faetones
inro th c reccnrly agrarian economy based upon slave labor? The
reacrions wcre mixcd. A mlcar Armando Borelh o de ,\ lagalhaes (b.
in rhe prov ince of Rio de j anciro, 1880 ) eells us rbar he had adm ired
rhc Unircd Srares From childhood becausc of rhe "splcndor of ies
libcn y and irs dcmocracy," as wcll as for irs industrial progress.
R aiscd und cr rhc Positivisr in uence , rhc son and brother of illus-
rrious militarv figures ami t bc ncphcw o Ben jamin Constant, ir al.
ways seemcd to him necessar)' that Brazil adopr a republican system
which would briog "grcat cr bcncfirs tu t hc prolcr ariar in rhc form
of general cduca tion , rech nical specalizarion, and artisric and cul-
tural developme nr. rogcrhcr wir h material support, sanirary living
ccndirions, a sciem ifi cally rcgularcd dier, and a sysrem of hospirals,
maremiry bornes. and medical clinics." These humanizing factors
would be dcv clopcd under an indust rial system, once t he coumry
was frce of rhe long y cars of backward monarchy .
~ bid., p. : 53.
a Ford : op. cit. p. J9.
 From Empire ro R epubic 97
On rhe orher hand, H igino Ccero da Cunha (b. ,' laranh50,
1858) srated in 194-0 rh ar as a child he had no scnse of rh c prcsence
of the Unircd Srarcs in Brazilian life and rhar rhis carne "onlv aftcr
rhe proclamation of the Republic in t hc consrirunonal law of Ruy
Barbosa, in finance. in rhc cinema, and in cxotic dances"; while De-
mos rhencs Iparanga de Sousa D anrcs (b. Pernambuco, 188'0 ) con-
sidcrs t he Unired Srates as rhe "narion whi ch has brought us rhe
greatest number of evils."
J os Alves de Figueiredo (h. Cear , 1879) resrifics: "When I
read A Ilusi o Americana by Edward Prado, I harcd the Unired
Srares, bue as time wcnt on I saw my error and carne [O adopr rbe
ideas of this fiery Iirazilian author." lIe eventu ally saw thc Unired
Srarcs as having. "aftcr S\'. .-irzerland, rhc most pcrfcct rcpublic in
the world and one which must of neccssiry act as rhc hub of civili-
zation in our conrincnr."
Raimundo Das de Freitas (b. Piaui, 1874) stares: " lo my adolcs-
cence 1saw rhc Unired Sratcs as rhe enormous devourcr, rhc domin-
aror of [he sma ll nanons of Cent ral America and pcrhaps of Sourh
Americe as well, despite [he proclamations of rhe celcbraecd .' lon-
roe Doctrine." American inecrvcnrion in rhe Central American na-
rions made a bad imprcssion 0 0 him. lo his childhood. [he prcdorni-
nating foreign infl ucnce w as rha r of France. Nevcrtheless, in time
he came to admire rhe U nired Su tes. A mI despite chis Frenc h inu-
enee which, as we havc sccn, caused young girls ro play wirh
French dolls and scek Freneh luxury articles, Dona Anr nia Lins
Vieira de ,\l elo (b. Sao Paulo, 1879 ) confesses rhar since hcr yout h
she had been rnost impresscd by "the dceds of Edison, which
scemed fanrasric." Such an impression was nor rarc among Brazil-
ians of thc era and rherc werc sorne for whom, from rhis point of
view, the Unired Starcs became ahnosr prophctic-c-thc land o
promise for mcchanical marvcls. rhc paradisc of invcnrors. Floreo-
cio Carlos de Abreu e Silva. narive of Rio G rande do Sul, saw the
Unircd Srarcs as "rhc land of clectricity governed by rhc magic
wand of Edison"; while T oms Pompeu de Sousa Brasil of Ccar .
as a young man wished his country ro bccome an amalgam of
"American progres.~, Brirish democracy, French cult ure, German
discipline, and lralian artistry .'
Manuel Duarte (b. 188 3 in Rio Grande do Sul. whcre he was a
companion of Gcrlio Vargas) su tes thae his yourhful impression
of the U nited States was one o "supreme grandiosity"; t S indus-
,ries seemed [ O manufacmre everp hing used in Brazil. 1le was carly
 Order and Progress
convinccd that the pr csidenrial form of govcrnmcnt in t hc Amen-
can sryle "'<L~ the best for Brazil. sceing ir as "thc socio-political
remedy for our ills'' t heough "administrativc rcsponsibiliry. amplc
publiciry Ior all acts of gonrnmcnt, cconomy in public financcs.
parsimony in necessary expenses, unresrricrcd respcer for ind ivid ual
and ccllectivc c pinion. shclr er and initial hclp to the poor farmer.
ccutinuous dcvclopmcnr of public educarion, personal and profcs-
sionallibcrty, a lcgislarive budgct with auditing of public expenses.
municipal plebiscitos in cxccurivc actions. and wide pamciparion o f
rhe pcoplc in t he making of laws."
Padre Lcopoldo Fern and cs Pinheiro. bom in Cea r of an int ran-
sigcnt monarc hisr family, grew up bclicving "repubbcanism to he a
saranic form of governr nenr'' and, though srill too young ro read.
"clapped my han ds when I hcard rhar Anr nio Consclhcirc had de-
srrcycd a batr alion of go vcmmenr rroops" bec ause " 1 t hought rhat
t hc victory of rhe fanaric of Canudos wculd be t hc casiest way of
resto ring rhe monarchy." Hur he srill admircd rhe Unircd Sratcs. " a
geeat mac hine ru n by rhe largcsr cirizen body 00 earth."
M anu el Pereira Dinis, a 11It!stifo ho rn in Paraba in 1887, wa s
disappoinrcd by rhe Arner ican-model Repu blic o 1889 and saw ir
as "a fedcralisr regime w hich pu t us fo rty y cars hchind . almosr
to rhe brink of economic and polirical ruin." Ile adds rhat for a pan
of his Jife he saw bo t h the U nircd Sutes ami England as pow crs
which, ehrough their ind ustries, "st rovc ro be absolute culees of al!
orher narions." D cspirc a brief pcriod of re publicanism as a law stu-
dcm in Recife, Scnhor Dinis r ctumcd to the conclusi n t hat "thc
rcpublican rcgime wirh us is . . . merely a sy ndicate of exploiters
of [he public treasury to t hc in creasing derrimcnr of our pco plc and
o ur aur horiry. . . ."
The U nired Su tes ro sorne cxrcnt had also madc its presence felt
in Braxil tbrough che arrival of immigranrs fror n che American
S curh afrer their defcar in [he Civil W ar. T his w as parricular ly rruc
in rhe srat e o Sao Paulc where, according to sorne, the newcomcrs
brought t hcir racial prcjudices and had sorne influcncc on Paulist a
planters opposing rhe abolition of slavery. (In one instance, an
A merican w as blamed for the assassination of an abol itionist in Sao
Paulo on t he eve of em ancipation.) ~everthel ess. ir would he un
just ro den)' thac [h ese and other rl mericans of the late ninetcent h
cenrury had brollght ideas leading to c ultural progress in the prov-
inces and not only in the court. Sao Paulo beeame nota ble in the
 f r 0111 Empire to Republc 99
late nineteenrh cemury for its reforme in cducarional metbods, im-
pro\'emenrs which can be anribured ro rhc presence of rhc Ameri-
cans, alrhough also duc in pan [O rhc presence o Bririsb and Gcr-
man reacbcrs, rurors, and governcsscs.'
The rransinon from slavcry ro free labor in arcas where thcre
was considerable Europcan immigrarion had not come about with-
OUt sorne previous anricipation of new industrial or farming
mcrhods and thcse arcas suffe red Iirrle chango outside the political
ficld save {oc a slighr period of dcprcssion. This fa cr jusrifics rhe
commcnr of ene observer rbat rhc Rcpublic had bccn a light dessert
after a heavy feijoada scrved at dawn. Both N orrh Europea and
American influenccs. howcver. undoubrcdly had an cffccr on rhe
cultural rhythm of t hc peri od in go\'ernment and in labor and ga\'e
another dimensin to the Luso-tropical patterns of Hrazil .
Ir is not surprising that, during rhe reigns of Dom joo and rhc
t wc Pedros, Hrazilian culture; dcspire irs dcviaticn from the free-
lahor republican panero dominaring the rcsr of rhc courinent, al-
lowed itsclf ro be infilrrarcd and influcnccd in many ways by pat-
teros of life from orher American and W csrcm narions of quite
different economic and polirical formar. lnfilt rated ir was. T he
st reercar, ro irwoke a picru resque exaruplc, syrnbolizcd tb c t ransi-
gcncc of this arisrocratic slave-owni ng culture in accepring the lev-
cling cqualitarian European or North American system of mass
transporrarion. Not the leasr significant fearure of rhe st rcctcar-c-
and the same could he said for the tr ain-e-was rhar all classcs in the
communiry were now cc nducted ro t heir dcsrination at the samc
rate o speed.
Similarly . Eu ropean immigranrs in sou thcrn Brazil, in rheir role
as poor whire laborees, small farmers. mechanics, arnsans, and
crafrsme n, effecred a change in a socicry accusromcd ro associaeing
rhosc activitics essentially with Negro slave labor. The mach ines
imponed from Europc and rhe Unitcd Srates had much rhc samc
impact, since these machines werc run by mcn of varied erhnic and
social con dirions in a vivid demonsrration of the abiliry of 311 classes
re devclop the aptitudes nceded ro assimilare and cope with [he in-
novarions of a technological culture.

t The infl uenc.. uf fo rnla] edl1cation on rhe c ultural progress uf Brazil during rhi.
tn nsition peri ml dCloCrH:s mure specialil:Ctl stuJy. H en: jt can be considercJ unly
in oonneetiun with other inteUcetual aspecrs of the same pr()gres~-iou rnalistj c,
litenry, medica!, and technical.
/ 00 O rder and Progress

Ir should be undcrsrood thar thcsc cu ltural innovations rock

place in Brazil withour depcndence upon eithcr (he polit ical system
or rhc esrabhshcd panerns o labor in the counrry. SOIllC seudcnts of
rhc situation havc rhcreforc rcached the conclusi n (already ad-
vanced by Dliveira Lima during the period in quesrion) thar ir
would have been nor only possiblc. bur also dcsirablc, [O prolong
both rhe monarchisr rcgimc end rhe slave system somewhat ro allow
t ime for a bcrrc r assimilarion of rbesc innovanons. T his had heen
rhc desirc o rhc Empcror, as wcll as o suc h obj ccrive staresmen as
Cotegipe, who likc Lafayetre hall bcen accuscd by republicans like
"laciel Pinheiro of wannng ro perpetuare slavcry "as a sourcc o
public income." ~
j oaquim N abuco, on rhe orher hand, always scparated rhc cause
of abolirionism from rhar of thc monarchy. Favori ng rhc latter, he
also supportcd rhc former, in eirher case wir h such courrly clegance
as ro gain rhc respect of abolinomsrs and republicans alike." N a-
buco nevertheless remaincd convinced for a long time rhat ir had
bccn an error ro rcplace t be mo narchy w irh t he Republic, and ir s
possible rhar he went to rhe gra"e with t his conviction srill in his
secrce rboughts. T hough he scrvcd rhe Republic, he continucd ro
co nsidcr rhc Empirc rhe more aurhcnric sociologically, nor only in
rhc scnsc rhar ir was pecu liar ro Brazl bur alsc bccause he feh it
could bcrter echic ve a nacion al culture rhrough t hc ccmbina rion of
inrellccrual, acstheric, and scienrific facrors airead)' favore d by rhe
Empire. T his monarchisr tradition, howcver, was acrually followed
by rhc Rcpuhlic in irs most creatjve periods, for cxarnple, during
rhc presidency of Rodrigues Al ves in [he early years of rhc centu ry,
whcn foreign policy was dire cted by rbc Bacon do Rio Branco and
rhc diplomat ic corps was scrvcd by such monarcbisrs as N abuco
himself.
Ir was through rhc cfforts of thcsc men that Brazil cvcnrually
recovered [he equilibrium losr during t he Canudos episodc, w hen
~ .\ I aeicl Pinhciru , "A I ndcni z~ ..a"." A l'ro.,!nci4 ( Recife }, D ecember l 811H.
8 So muc h .0 rhat, while fhe em husia.", "f repuhlican \'ictury was still al its
heighl .\lart ins Jn iur. in rhc O .... orte of S""ember : 3, J8~, expressed his feeling
Ior rhe defeate u mnnarchi.r in paniclllarl}' honunble teml~, calling him a "great
rhinker" ",irh rhe ,olll lO d o( a P"d," ",hu ll(l \V ough r ro l>c: "e ntirely convinced of
e" erYlhing he hau bcen w ld" by the republ ican. , Ir \Va., rhe "Iin le enemie~ of y~
terday" ",hu ,buuld he "w rmemed by . em...""," and n,, "ingenllflus brot hers"
like Joaq uim ";~bu co, lO ",hOln ,\ h rt in~ Jnior n teno.k d a "fI':l.ternal embrace,"
reminu ing him t h~r the " di~ ingu ishc u and ci rcumspeCt citizen Ruy Barboll" h~d
come ovcr to t1w Republ k .
 From Empire l O R epubtic /0 /

thc valiant rcsisrcncc to rhc Arrny of rhe Rcpublie on the part of

Conselheiro and his bravos sccrucd to rhrcatcn thc stabiliry of re-
publican instiru rion s and ro favor a rcturn to a monarehy suppo rted
by an alliance of back-counr ry fanners and mcmbers of rhc urban
lite, an alliance supporrcd in rum by the powe rful Carholic semi.
mcnts of both groups. By now ir appcars rhar thc thcsis rhat ac-
corded ro rhc Canudos movement-,-a rusric revolurion-c-rhe digo
niry o a monarchical Catbolic resisrancc ro the Rcpublic has been
amply demonstrared. T hc so-called "breviary'' o Anr nio Conscl-
heiro found in Canu dos does not confirm t he cmphacic asserrion of
Eucl ydcs da Cunha that rhe famous mysnc was a rebcl againsr rhc
Carholic Church and a votar)' of "free lovc.' Ir is a pitv rhat Eu-
cly des, to whom Afranio Peixoro offered Conselhciro's preeious
manuseripr. should nor have felt impelled ro rectify his opinion of
Consclheiro on thc basis o the brcviery. \Vhat rhis documenr really
says abou t mat rimon y docs nor oppose monogamy but rather civil
marriagc. A Church marriagc is sccn as being an expression o rhe
graec of OUr Lord, a "ceremony uniting irs parricipanrs with thc
Morhcr Church.' The Rcpublic, says Consclhciro, is a "great evil
for Brazil," bccausc it wishcs ro "cnd religion." Rcpublicanisrn is
based upon a "fa lsc principle . . . even though it brings good to
[he eountry ir is still cvil in irsclf becausc ir is eontrary to Divinc
Law." By Divine Law was mcanr rhat [he Brazilian ought ro obey
" Pope, Princc, and Parenr" and not thc so-called "Prcsidcnr of [he
Republic." For its defian ce of thc Divine Law, the Brazilian Repub-
lie would "fal l ro thc ground" rhrough [he "rruc judgmcnt of
God.' 7

In rhc light of che brcviary, rhc Canudos uprising is shown ro

havc becn cxrrcmely conscr vative, wit hour t he shghresr rebellion
against eirher thc Church or rhe sacramcnr of marriage. On the con-
trary, it soughr ro rcaffi rm tradirional. purcly Hrazilian vales, sorne
of which were cventually revivcd by rhc Rcpublic to the exrenr
thar Rodrigues Alvcs, like Pedro 11 bcforc him, carne re be known
affccrionatcly as " Big Daddy."
Promincm in Ant(lnio Consclhciro's conscrvatism was rhe cult o
the Farhcr, as inJi ea[cd in [he terms "Pope, Princc, Pareot." This
cult, a reaction to the exccsses of the allcged anarchic and anri-
rcligious dcmagogucry of rhe Republic, coincided with thc tradi-
TLuciano Carneiro : ..( )o Con-elhm de Am onio Consd heiro," O CrU"'..eir Q (R io
de Janc"o ), Dccemher 5. '951
/02 Order and I'rogress
tional conscrva nsr o th c Hrazilian lirc, mao)" of whom were
similarly disenc hantcd wir h rhc Republic o 1B89. In 1909 Sousa
Bandeira, in his book cntir led R eformas, state d rilar o nly a conserva-
rice Republic could save Brazil, a Fact rccognizcd " by rep ublicans
who m ust 3!>5Ume rhe responsibility fo r whar they did in 189 1." Ir
was, in cffccr, time ro "turn back" hcfo rc "things hccomc evcn
worse." "Lcr us noc be ashamcd ro confcss OUt crrcrs; Jet us now at-
tcmpt ro consolidare t he Republic along rhc lines o rhe cxpcriencc
of OU t forcfarhcrs, rhc J eep sourcc of OUt narional t radirions.. .." 8
Thc only rhing lacking hcrc ro match rhc rradirionasm of rhc
"Counsclor" is rbar. ro rhc "narional rradirions." we add rhc "Carho-
lie traditions" of arder, authority , and hierarchy.
~S()u~a Handeira : Ref orm.H ( Rio d e j anciro, 191i9 ). p. 16.
 ~ [IV J~

Educatunt and Urban Culture

I New York from Brazil in 189 1 convinced

SA AC F O RO RETL' RSEJ) TO
rhar t he ncw R epublic rcprcscnrcd ene o [he t wo counrries in
tropical Amrica wherc public cducarion was making good prog-
ress. Thc orhc r co untry was .\ lcxico. " Ir is in rhe dirccrion o popu~
lar education t hat progr css uncrringly lies in ,\I exico no lcss rhan in
Hrazil," I he wrore. wit b an emphasis more journalisric than socio-
logical . T he .\ 1exico he rcferrc d ro was rhar o Porfirio D iez.
Hrazil, t hough rcpublican in appcarancc, was stilllargcly monarc hi-
cal in its cultural sysecrn. including educarion. T he Empirc had al-
ways concerncd irsclf almos r lovingly wirh cducarion, t houg h nor
wir h rha r o t he public ar largc , an d w it hin irs limirs o selccrive
cnrollmcnr. th e Fmperor did jusr abour cvcrvt hing cxe epr rcach thc
e hild ren himsclf.
In 1869 Brazil had en e primary school for each ;.1. 1 free-born
children bctwcen t he agcs o six and fiftccn. F ive years larer, rhis
fi g ure had im provcd ro one school for cac h 3 1+ ~ By 1889 t he
n umber o pr imar)' schools. both public and p rivare, had risen ro
nearly 7.50. wirh a total enrollmenr o approxirnarely 3{)O,OOO sru-
dcnrs, as againsr 3.5 16 schools an d 11 5.735 pupils in 1869.
T he cducarional darling o t hc E mpcro r d uring mosr o f his rcign
was rhe Imperial Acadcmy. which hore his namc, " Ped ro 11." and
which was lc c arcd in thc court irsclf. Und er his paternal vigilance.

lsaac N . Ford : Tropjc~ 1 A l/ler ;c~ ( London. , By; ) , p. 340.

t
~ Th ese fi gures are raken from Br.1ziJ n 1N69 , a publca rion <.lirened by thc
Baron of Sama Ana X cry with rhc collaborarion of he liaron do Rio IIranco, Luis
Crub, Eduardo P rado, and <>fhers. ] w a, publi, hcd in Paris in 1~ 1l<J .
 arder and Progress

rhis school otfered a qualit y educarion ending wit h rhe grant ing o
a degrcc of considerable distincrion: t he Bach elor of Letrers, a des-
ign ation rcscrvcd cxclusivcly for t he graduares o Pedro Il. This
diploma was nor eas)' ro ob tain. In 1887. out o a total enrcllmcnt
of ; 69, only f l degrecs wcre grantcd." T hosc fortunatc enough ro
ca ro t he rirlc, ho wc vcr, wc rc ablc to cn rcr rriurnphantly inro an),
insrirun on of high er lcarninp ; gradu ares o Ped ro 11 wcre virtu ally
academic princclings. holding free acccss tu all branches o human-
isric knowl edge.
Carlos Lus de Vargas Danras (b. in rhe province o Rio de Ja-
neiro, 1870 ) gives us inrcresring informarion about t he Imperial
Acad crny, from which he was graduated wi th rhe Bachelor o l.er-
terso Ile had gene rhcrc f rom rhc Pcrrugu ese Lirerary Lyceum.
which operatcd from scvcn in t he mo rn ing unril eight at night in a
building in rhe Rua da Carioc a. I lc was no rich man's son but rath cr
a scholarship studenr at tb c Lyceum, who hall atrcn ded primary
school in rhc interior o t he province of Rio de J aneiro, w here he
was boro (un a far m in ,\ b eacos in the Realengo area} . Having
bccn insrr ucred at home in his alphabet " in t he lap o rhe most
sainrcd of mothcrs." Ca rlos Lu s firsr enrered puhlic schccl in
Queimados. whcrc his family had subsequenrly moved. under rhe
dcdicared t urclage of on e Estcvo do s Santos Fasciord. There he
learn cd rhc elaborare celligraphy o t he t ime, "whar we called rhe
twigs. curves. stem letters, advancing later tu rhe covcrcd lcners."
O th er subjecrs werc reading. beginning grammar, dicration. sen-
renco analysis. arithmetic "P ro t he merrjc systcm. physical gcogra-
phy. and religion. Ir is int ercsting ro lear n t har rhc inst ructor "from
his rnonthly salary of 10 0 milreis on which he had to mainrain his
not inconsiderablc fa mily . ncvcrthclcss managcd tu save out cnough
ro grant prives tu descrving studcnts ar [he end of rhe academic
r earo" Each Sam rday "st udcnts cern ed home a repo rt card w ith
grades for t he week in aeteodanc c, lcsscns. aod deportment. . o o"
Pun ishments "consisrcd of adm onishments, rcduct ions in wcekly
grades. cnforced periods of standing, loss of recrcation pcriods. de-
renrion afrer sehool hours. being made ro pick up small picces o
paper, and, in extreme cases, 'intimare acq uainrance wirb the

a Por rcfercnce 10 fhe Impe rial Aca demy and ifS rc!alion<hip fO Ihe Imperial cul _
!Ural spl cm, see ,he M n nriri, H il triclJ Comnno t lJl i"l'1J do I ~ Celllenirio do
Colgio d~ Pedro /1 , writtcn b}' a profcssor ,'mcrifU5 uf t his school, Esc ragnol1 c
D ria (R o de j aneiro, ' 937 ).
 Education and Urban Culture I D,

ruler.' " As for recreation, rhe school was "houscd in a rented build-
ing withou t a yard appropriate for games or physical cducation uf
any kind. Recess was chus largcly liruitcd ro rnoving abo ur a bir and
srrcrching the lcgs afrcr hours of immobiliry."
A r rhc Portuguese l.irerary Lyccum . rhc boy incrcased his
kno wledgc of Portuguese through thc gramllla r of Coru ja and
srarred Frcnch by the OllendortI method. Bis srudics were so assid-
uously pursucd that he rcccived rhe highesr grade in the official ex-
aminarions. In a schoo l of -lOO pupils of all ages, including adulrs
and almosr all of Portugucsc dcsccnr, he was rhe only onc ro reeeive
the gold medal of the Passos ,\ Ianucl Prize institut ed in good
Lusiranian fashion by rhc Count of So Salvador de ,\ latozinhos.
" It is worth poiming out," says Carlos Lus parcntherically in his
t esrimonv of 19-1-0, "rhar this gcncrous gesrure by rhe school was
madc ro an clevcn-y ear-old boy of undistinguishcd parentage on
rhe firsr oc casion when the prizc was offc rcd.'
Anyonc coming from a farm in rhc interior who eould srill
ac bicve such an acadcmic triumph in t hc capital ciry had his nexr
step airead)' dicrared for him . he would attcnd Pedro 11. The Impe-
rial Acadcmy exisrcd ro edu care rhc besr intellccts in rhc country,
rcgardless of rece, creed. or social ccndion. U ndcr the vigilam eye
of rhe Emperor, irs funcrion was ro providc a Brazilian lite notable
for irs humanisric rraining, a training which would Iater be in-
creased, rarher rhan ovcrshadowcd, by stud ics of a univcrsity or
technical narure. A degrec holder from Pedro 11 bclonged ro the
inrellecrual nobiliry, having gained the clcarcst ritle lo such a dis-
rinction then exisrent in Hrazil.
Carlos Lus, as a poor eounrry bey of proved merir, rcccivcd :1
fu ll scholarship ro Pedro 11. "1 am honored ro confesa my undying
graritudc ro che Brazilia n govcrnmcm of this time, to whosc gener.
osity I cwe whatev er small valu c I mar llave," he states. \\'anting ro
bcconre an cnginccr. he bu ricd himsclf in rhc study of marhemarics,
even ro the point of having a privare reacher: Lus Pedro Drago.
Ile attended classcs in rhe supplememary coursc. which in this pe-
riod prcpared for entrance into thc Polyrccbnic School. Wi rh rhc
coming of rhc Rcpublic. it was not long before enginecrs were
much in demandonC)[ unly for their serviees ro repurable firms, but
also for the prestige they gave ro the so-called "supervising board"
of enterprises whose exisrence was merely fietitious. These ghost
eOTIxlrarions paid their "advisers" magnificently, but were gener-
106 rder and l'rogrcss

311)' SO shorr-livcd t itar engincers scduccd by mere num bcrs scldom

rcccivcd more rhan a flcering tastc o th e promiscd honcy. But such
werc t hc ucruarions of rhe rcpublican job markcr rhar rhe O\' Cf -
valued cnginccrs soon fcll from favor and Carlos Lus, after his
graduaran from Pedro 11. dccided ro cnrer medica! school and ult i-
marcly bccamc a physican.
H e rccalls titar insrruct ion in languages had beco deficienr at
Pedro 11; English, German, ami French w crc raugh r as though rhey
were dead. Fcr rhis reason, he mastered only Frcnch, then consid-
ered an cssenrial sccond langu agc in Brazil. Books wrirrcn in Ger-
rnan and English werc litrle uscd by t eachers at the t ime; but Portu-
gucse. Larin, and Frcnch were languages an educared person needed
to know wcll. A single incorrect syllable in Latin could prove a
misfortunc ro a man wirh prctcnsions o f culture, and an erro r in
Frcnch pronun cianon was an inrellccrual sin wi rh alrnost equ ally
disastrous consequences. A misplaced pronoun in parliamcntary
discoursc could mean osrracism Ior a law graduare. One of rhe ob-
sracles im pcding thc political risc of Esr cio Combra was his fail-
ure in a discourse to pronounce rhc wcrd lte in the French
manncr.
In his days at Pedro 11, Carlos Lus knew rhc famous Benjamin
Consran r. bur wir hout admiration. H e was a rnan rowar d w hom
"t hc rnagnanirnous ruler acred as a tolcrant and loving farher," bur
who "from rhe srronghcld of bis acedemic c hair preachcd the ne-
cessiry of transforming t he foem o governmcnr. therc by calling
for rhc dcposiron of rhe venerable old man ro whosc limitlcss good-
ness he owed rhe oppornmiry ro conrin ue rhis pracrice with impu-
. "
mty.
Of Benjamin Consranr and Pedro 11, Carlos Lus givcs us a dctail
which remained in his mcmoey umil old age, wirhour his cvcr hav-
ing previously divulged ir: "B enjamn Consranr had a son, namcd
after him, whc was a dar sru dcnr of rhc sixth rear at Pedro 11. One
day ncar rhc end of th e acadcmic rear of 1889, rhis bey called upon
me, as a sevenrh-ye er studcnr. ro sign my name ar t hc head of a
pcririon he was bringing from heme in which studenrs of all classes
would eeguest the ncw .\ tinistee of Instruction [Bcnjamin Con-
stant, Sr. } to dispense with fi nal examinations. Constam. Jr., was a
happy-go-Iu cky type. I had at fi est taken the manee as a joke, con-
vinced tlut his fathee would pay no attcntion tu the request, but
aftee a beicf COIl\'cesation I learned that the whoJc thing had bceo
 Education and Urban Culture 10 7
ccoked up between th c rninisrer ami his son. , . . Surpriscd by rhis
information. I prom ised ro sign, rhough not ar the head of thc list,
so that m)' firs r rcfusal would not be misintcrprcted. Thc perinea
was senr, bur no action was takcn . O ne o f rhe leading bcneficiaries
of rhe suggestion would bavc bcen Benjamn. j r., who had low
grades in G eneral History."
At Pedro Il- which, under t he Rcpublic, was known for sorne
time as the N ational G y mnasium-c-rherc was at leasr onc profcsscr
who did nor allow himsclf "ro be inrimids rcd by rhc discretionary
powcrs of rhe ,\ Iinister of lnsrrucrion. I li s name was Ramos Mclo.
Ramos ,\ l elo , .. calmly averaged rhc grades of Benjamin Con-
stant, Jr., and failed him." Carlos Lus, in recalling th is hitheno
unrevealcd bit of history , praiscs rhc "good lesson in manliness and
civic responsibility'' givcn by Ramos Mclo, but docs not fail ro add
tbat th is quixoticism had brought ahou t thc professor's "compul-
sor)' rcrirc mcnr a few days afrcrward," rhc ministry's ,"engeance
againsr a profcssor scru pulous in carrying out his du tics.
In rhis and cthcr acrions, Benjamn Constanr appcered ro Ca rlos
Lu s ro havc been a public servanr of sornewhat lcss rhnn aurhe nric
virrues and onc who hardly descrved rbc epirhers "pure'' and
"modcl" accorded him by rcpubhcan syrnparhizcrs. "Prorccted by
rhc Empcror," says Carlos L us, "he did nor fear te depose him."
". , , H aving sworn ro dc fcnd rhc monarchy. he did nor hesitare
ro preach rhc neccssicy for its cxtinction and to conspire for rhc
proclamation of che Republic" ; a soldier, whose dury it was ro
mainrain disciplin e, he uscd his professorial chair as a stronghold for
crcating republican propaganda: ", , . as a Posirivisr, he shc uld
have rcceived no more rhan mainrcnance pay, bur eac b month he
too k the salaries of his military rank, his professor ial ehair, his posi-
tion in the N ormal School, his directors hip in rhc lnstiturc which
roday bears his nante, in w hich last fun crion he also rcceived living
expenses includin g a hcuse. bcd and board, servanrs. light, etc. for
hirnsclf and his family . , . . As ,\ Iin l\ tcr of \ Var, he acceprcd bis
promotion at a grand dcr nagogic manifcstarion in fronr o f the
Itamaraty Palacc, in wh ich ,\ 1ajor Scrze dclo Correia ",homeJ rhat
t he publ ic had proclaimcd Deodoro Fonseca a ge1leTlrrimo and
Benjamin a ge neral. \Vithout even askin g t he ,\ la jor to presem his
alleged petition from the people, Benjamin Constant immed iatcly
acc eded ro th e re<juesr, brushing aside aH considerarions of moral ity
and the legal anJ pccuniary rights oC those who preceded him in
108 arder and I'rogress
senioriry. And ro com pensare Scrzedelo for rus dcdicanon , he pro-
meted him ro coloncl 0 0 rhc spot.'
"""[b us in 1940 rhis ene-rime graduare o Pedro 11 concluded: " If 1
had tu ad... se any adol cscenr bey 0 0 the choice of a rnodel, (he lasr
persan I would choosc would be Bcnjamin Conseanr." For one Bra-
zilian citizcn, rhc Rcpu blic had madc abad start. ar leasr so far as
cducaeional moralit y was concomed.
This mora lity, du ring th c Em pirc, was nor confin cd ro rhc Impe-
rial Acadcmy, nor ro reachers suc h as Ramos .\ lelo. In 1884 Ra-
mundo Dias de Freir s ( h. in Piaui, dl7+ ) entcrcd thc G ymnasium
of Pern ambuco, rhe Pedro 11 of t he norrheest, wh cre he cncoun-
rcrcd an atmosphere of such ausreriry as ro intimidare him. H e had
done his primary srudies in Piau i. fi rsr in j crumcnha and larcr in
Amaranre. His rcachers had bccn Dona Ludovica. a "cultivated
lady " w ho "raug hr wirh arfecrion and never spared hcrsclf in her
dury to her pupils," and anothcr whom he cheracrcrizcs merc1y as
"old Jos." In bor h schools "rhc mcrhod of instrucrion was the
samc. " 'e werc ta ught rhe lerrers of che alphabet , thcn rhc forma-
rion of syllables. which wcrc recired in a singsong manncr as were
rhe arit bmctic tablcs. One leamed by rote and devclopcd th e habit
of srudying aloud."
OIJ Jos was asevere tcachcr and Rai mundo. an indolenr scholar
im crcsrcd only in play. was very rnuch afraid of him. l l e mar hace
misscd in Jos che "goodn css and affccrion" he had foun d in Dona
Ludovica. parric ularlv since his father was a widower and, in add i-
non ro being saddened by his condition, "was co nstan tly worricd
about rhc durics of his puhlic office."
In j os's school, rhe princi pal punishrnenr was rhe pa!matria,
bu r at t imes bis errant sch oolrnarcs wcrc forced ro walk in the strcct
earrying ridiculous placards or wearing rhe mask of an ass. T he
pahnat ria was forevcr active du ring che evcryday lcssons, as well
as in tests and discussions. and thc blows were given with a ven -
geance. In ncither sc hoo l was rhcre any provisin for playgrounds
or rccrcarion period s.
From thc interior of rhe province of Piaui, Rairnundo and his
brcther Cndido went te t hc province of "!amnha o, w here his
lind e was a judge and provincial president. Ilere he attcnded his
third primary sehool, wherc he rccords [ha[ "notebooks (or the
teach ing oC writing ami arit hmct ic were unk nown in the north" ;
ealligraphy was learn ed "by the tracing in ink o\'cr lett ers
 Education and Urbon Culture / 9
previously made by rhe reachers." This did nor terminare his wan-
dcrings as a primar)' pupil, he an cnded a fourth school in Reci te,
wh ere, undcr a Dona "taria R ita, he followcd rhe sarnc teaching
mcthods-c-and che same punishmcnrs-c-as in previous insritutions.
Once, howevcr. he r cceived a diffcrcne punishmcnt, w hich rcvolr cd
him. ''I w as pue into a rnessy. dirry room filled wirh soiled clothing
and containing a used c hamhcr PO[ which gave o ff a nauseating
odor. I rebclled againsr rhis and srarrcd ro cry and bear on rhe door.
This angered the rcachcr who, indignanr, rricd to quiet lile by seiz-
ing me by rhe cars and holding me againse the wall wir h hcr knce
while she bear me furiously. I return ed thc assaul r whcn and w here
I could, bur neither this nor rhe subsequent complainrs of my Aunt
T eresa did any good. \\'ithin a fcw daj-s tbc rcacher w as calling me
all kinds of namcs and gen crally cnhancing my reputat ion as a
rowdy and insu pport ablc br at."
le w as with rhis reputarion rhar Ra imundo cnrcrcd the firsr )'car
of thc G ymnasium of Pernambuco. The reacher in this class was a
srricr and demanding man narn ed Miranda, under whosc tutelage
rhc boy from ;\Iaranhao madc progress in rcading, writing, and
arirhmeric. His uncle, now provincial prcsidcnr in Pernambuco, had
nst ructed him ro smdy Portugu cse. Fre nc h, and arithrnctic prepar-
atory ro a carecr in business. and rhc bey continued in rhis currcu-
lum through secondary school. He bad excellcnt rcachcrs. Bis
French instructor in rhc firsr )'ear was Fathcr j caquim Arcovcrde, a
fu tur e Cardinal of R io de j anciro, ami in rhe second a D r.
Sarmcnro. H is rcxrbooks werc J. F. H albour's French grammar,
readi ngs from Charcaubriand , and rhc Pon ugu cse grammar of D r.
Ablio Csar Borges.
Raimundo belic vcs rhat, by failing rwicc in his carechism lessons,
he incurred the antipathy and nagging of sorne of bis teachers, and
ir is clcar t hat, dcspirc hcing rhc nephew of thc provincial presidenr,
he was punished likc any orhcr pupil when he failed to mensure up
ro srandards. In his opinin, this punishmenr was "barbarous" whcn
administcrcd by rhc "two cenrurions" in thc form of powcrful
blows on the palm. O nce, sceing his hands already bleeding Erom
the palmatria, he rcfuscd to submit to furr her punishmellt; he was
taken [Q the ofl1ce o the principal, who summarily expelled him
from thc school. It should he noted, howevcr, that when this hap-
pened his und e was airead)' dead.
At sixtecn Raimundo matriculatcd in che .\ Iilitary School of
l/O arder and Progres!
Ccar . This was done 00 rhe advice of a relarive who was a lieutcn-
anr in the Brazilian Army and who helicved rhar "rhe militar)'
school is a narion al instirut ion wbcre poor boys, t hro ugh rheir nwn
efforts, can risc in the world and be usc ful tu rheir parcnrs wirho ur
rhc hclp or prc rccrion o anybody." One ( 01)' had ro "a dhcre to
che inflexible Iinc o o ut)' appropriarc tu a soldicr ami cirizen." T o
adolcscenr Brazilians, t hc A rmy mcant prcsrige-,-a disrincrion
which ir had lacked during th c Empire. Raimundo benefin ed from
rhe " real and positivo" milita r)' discipline at rhe Ccar institurion,
nnd rhc "incorrigible" youngsrcr finally bccame t racrable, a fa cr
which po ssibly explains his respccr in old agc for rhis trpe o educa-
tion and for irs direcrors, bot h before and afrer rhe proclamation of
t he Rcpublic.
O f rhesc direceors of militar)' education, none appcarcd greater
t )'oung Raimund o tha n Ben jamn Consta nt : " a proud. saber. and
independcnt fi gure." Raimun do had early bccn a su pporrer of thc
rcpublican regime. a prefcrencc "certainly infiuenccd by reading
French history. which greetly inrercsred rhc Hrazilian yout h of bis
time." "Benjamn Ccnstanr was a reachcr lovcd nor 001)' by mili-
tar)' studenrs, bur also by ),oung peop le in civilian life. Bis re publi-
can ideas and his stu dics in Posinvisrn madc him highly csrccmcd. It
is in large pan tu Ben jamn Consranr rhat we owe th e cxrinction of
rhe monarchist rcgi mc in Hrazil, he pcrsonally carried the fight t o a
vicrorious conclusin in cxtin guishing t hc lasr pockers of resisrance
to rhc co up of Ncvembe r 15."
Born in Rio Bonito in t hc sratc of Rio de janeiro in 1890. Astro-
jildo Pereiro Duarrc da Silva rclls us rhar he had an early dcsire ro
bcccrne a monk ("a r uonk, nor a priesr'') . This Falsc dawn of a
rcligious vocation carne while he was a somewhar less t han seraphic
pupil ar rhe Colegio A nc bicra in N ove Friburgo. Astro jildo enrered
t his ar-isrocratic school. run by Jesuit pricsrs. afrer a rout inc primar)'
cducarion mar kcd by rhe usual schoolboy pranks and rime-wasring
nonscnse. But since his father was prospcring. he was able ro eo jc y
the luxury of an cndi ng a rich r nan's school which had the addi-
tional distinct ion of enlist ing t he son of Ru )' Barbosa himself as a
member o th e student bod)'. At t his very school, a short timc be-
fore, Ruy had delivercd a famous discoll rse conciliadng orthodox
Cat holicism, previously outraged by the introducton ro his book O
Pilpil e o C01ldi jo ( T he Pope 4 11d the COlm d i) .
Thc t ellching method s o the aristocratic Colgio An chieta wc re,
 Education and Urban Culture 1/1

narurally cnough. Churc h-oriemcd, with daily masses and Pater-

nosters, Ave Ma r;"s, and Sa ve Reginss ten times a day. Asrroj ildo
becamc thc bcst algebra pupil of his class. rhough his favo rite rcad-
ing was [he Antoogia Nacional of Lacte Barrero. T hough he feh
himscif ro be a sincere Carholic ar the rime. he was a ponr srudcnr uf
carechisrn and rciigion and "at rhc samc time, along wirh X.Y., was
aurhor of a clandestino pornographic manuscripr. Larcr, X.Y. re-
pcnring of his pornographic advcnturc, dcparte d for Rome to srudy
for rhc pricsthood."
From Anchieta. Ast ro jildo wenr on to rhc cqu ally famous
Colegio Abilio in Nireri. H ere. he recalls. there was a lay armos-
pherc with few physical sports. Now fi frccn, he parricipated for rhc
first t ime in lircrary grou ps and began ro wrirc amorous verse. as
wcll as ro become inreresred in polirica l quesrions. He also became
an anri-milirarisr and an avowcd at heist. In his t hicd y ear he
abandoned bis gyrnnasium coursc to follow one which he srylcs as
"chaorically aurod idacric. " H e fcels rhat no reachcr ever in uenccd
him veey grearly and rccords thosc confused rasres which charac-
terize rhe self-t cacbing of adolesccnce. In terarure he rcad ,\ 1a-
chado de Assis, R aul Pompeia. Euclydcs da Cunha. joo Ribciro,
and G raca Aranha; admircd both Ben jamin Consrane and R uy Bar.
besa, and prcfcrrcd Francc ro rhe U nircd Srates. Because of rhe in-
flu ence of R uy Harbosa, he liked England, but held Germany in
anriparhy .
Ir is perhaps no exaggerarion ro sal' rhar Asrrojildo Pcreira lack cd
a systematic educarion suc h as rhar givc n at Pedro 11 . "Thc Colegio
An chicra is one of t hc worst memories of my adolescence and thc
Colegio A blio ncver raughr me whar I wa nted ro learn, " he con-
fesses. Pcrhaps rhis acco unrs for whar he rerms his "intimare reli-
gious crisis." in which he passcd through th e successive stages of
anri-cle ricalism, anarclusrlc arbeism. and finally Xl erxism.
Amlca r Arman do Borclho de ,\ Iagalhi es ( b. in th e provincc of
Rio de j ancirc, 1880 ) was a nephcw of Ben jamn Consranr and
learned his first lctrers on rhc family coffec planraricn from his god-
rnor her. Don a Elv ira Cbaves Fer nandes. He already knew hc w tu
read and write when he went to livc at co urt, where he w as placed
in a kindergart en- an innovation at th e rime-ro n by D r. Meneses
V ieira, one of Bra7.il's {otemost cducators in the time of Pedro JI.
At t he age of m ehc he cnrcrcd rhe Brazilian At heneum in Sao
Cristv~, a school directed by a retired Army lieutcnant named
1I:! Order and Progr esr

Ulisses Jos da Costa Cabral. "] lis lcssons in the humanities," rccalls
Amcar Armando a half eentury later, "werc always accom panied
by opportune parric tic pronouneemems and arguments ro support
rhc eonqueMs uf Libcrty, of Der nocracy, and of rhc republican
form of governmcnt ovcr t hc emire civilizcd world. . . . H e
imprcsscd us wir h his cloqucncc nnd his clcgance of srylc." Cabra!
constantly dire cred rhc att ent ion of his pupils ro pa s.~a ges from rhe
works of Samucl Smiles, principally Cbaracter and Pouer of IJ' ill,
as we ll as Colonel Curto Corsi's T be Educaton of , Soldier and
Edmundo de Amicis's Tbe Heen. Punishment was moral. "a
mcrhod mu ch mo re cffccrive t han corporal punishmcnt when cm-
ploycd by a master of psyc hology suc h as Ulisscs Cabra]. " T be
books cit ed abovc wcre among rhc most widcly read by children of
rhc era. largel)' undcr pressnre from adules conce rncd by the exccs-
sivc adolesccnr taste for works rhey considercd fr ivolous: the
novcls of J ules Vemc and Anhur Conan Doyle's tales of the adven-
rures of Sherlock Holmcs.
The Bmzilian A thencum was co-cducarional: anot her pcdgogi-
cal innovation in a period virtually ,\ Ioorish in this respectoAmor-
ous dalliance was, of coursc. frowned upon. and rhe director of rhe
school, pcrhaps under Posirivisr influcncc, raught his boys to regard
Wornan as "superior ro rhc man in scntimcnrs, in emctions, in kind-
ncss." a thesis which appearcd ro Arn lcar Armando ar rhe close of
his life ro have bcen " a great error . . . ir is only rhc exceprional
woman who deservcs this sort of vcnerarion.. . . In general, rhe
fair sex is dcvoid of characr cr. fr ivolous. cgotisric, ccnce rncd only
wirh appearanccs. full of unrcascnable whims wir h which ir tries ro
dominare rhc men. Furilc, ami unpa rrioric. irs mcmbers regard
t bcmsclvcs as t hc central point of rhe famil)' and considc r rhem-
sclvcs more important than the very country irself!''
Alrogcrhcr it would sccm th ar rhis illustrious nephew of Benja-
min Consranr-c-rhc larrer an extreme devorce of rhe cult of the
W oman-Republic-c-had a sorne w hat restric red sensc of thc Posiriv-
ist mystiquc of the female goddess and the idemifi cation of this
goddess with the image of the Republic. In his old age. he also came
ro regard Positi\"ism itself as "mopian," although he still thought it
comained. like the Catholic Church, much valuable know ledge and
servcd as the source of man)' uscful principies. He (,ontioued to see
Auguste Comtc as a philosopher who "Ief[ Niet7.sche, Karl '\1arx,
and Spencer fa r hehind" and the Republic as "the goal of all civi-
li7.ed people in rheir search for the ideal fOrol of governmenr."
 Education and Urba n Culture 11 ]

He rells rhat the Brazilian Arhencum was "consrantly holding

IlS
ce rcmonies re celebrare narional hclidays and t hc annivcrsarics of
grcar bardes in which Brazil had bccn invo lvcd. " Of rhese cererno-
nics, rhe ones which imprcsscd Amllcar Arruando rhe most were
rbosc dedicarcd to rhc Ronden ,\ Iission, rhcn in irs heydcy of hercic
dceds in the backlands.
Amtlcar Armando's higher educarion was pursucd in military
and civi l engineering. Bcforc marr iculation in rhe .\ Iilitary Sehool
of Rio G rande do Sul, he had alrcady had sorne expericncc as a
scldicr, having joincd a parriot ic banalion in rhe carly days of the
Rcpublic. training undcr "t he mcmbcrs of the artillcry squadron
which had rcvolrcd ar rhc forr rcss of Sao j oo" in Rio de j ancirc.
T houg h a soldicr from a verr early age, Amlcar Armando ncver
was given to quar rcls. "Thcre werc very few persons wirh whom I
broke rclations. argucd, or had fisr fig hts." He rcad a grear deal and.
as a studenr ar militar)' sc hool. "ourside rhc regular rexrbooks. en-
joye d rhe poems of Goncalvcs D ias. Casimirc de A breu, Castro
Alvcs. Guerra j unquciro. as well as rhc novels of Jos de Alencar."
As a rcsulr. perhaps. of the lcssons of thc director of rhc Brazilian
Arhcneum, he dctcsrcd "obsceno or evcn ourspoken works," so
much so, in fact, t hat "when a fellow studcnr loancd me a well-
known volumc of this type by Bocage, I returned it ro him, inform-
ing him that 1 had rcad only onc sonnet ('Do not lamenr you r con-
dition, O Nis .. .') and ir had nauseared me. N or, as a marure
rnan. have 1changed m)' tast cs."
Manuel (Carneiro de Sousa ) Bandcira (b. Rccife. 1886) , one o
Brazil's grcatcst pocts, has already noted how he did his primary
sehooling in Rccife and larer wcnt for his sccondary educarion ro
rhe new federal capital, whcrc he Iollowcd rhc humaniries course ar
Pedro 11, rhcn reccntly recbrisrened the Nerional G yrnnasium. Fol-
lowing thc full course for the dcgrce of Bachelor of Scicnccs and
Lcrters, he srudied such nonpreparatory marcriels as drawing,
mu sic. mechanics, lircraturc. and logic. Of his reachcrs. some oCllll4
perial \intage. he states: '" had great admiration and respeet for
Silva Ramos (Ponuguese ), Jos Ve rssimo (geography), CaLrita
(nmhematics), Frontin (mechanies) , Said AIi (Gcrman), Alexan-
der (English), Paula Lopes (natural histor)'), ~erval de Gouveia
(physics and chemisrry). Joao R ibeiro (hisrorr)." Some \Vere Posi-
tivists, hc recalls; others \Vere Carholics or materialists. The teacher
who int1lJcnced him most in his lirerar)' devcloplllent was Joao
Riheiro, "\Vith whom students used ro comoerse after c1ass. He
1/ 4 O rder and Progress

made us apprcciatc che supcr iutitv of Raimundo Corrcia over Bilac,

of ,\ tachado de Assis over I ~ a de Quciroz, at a rime whcn Bilac and
Eca werc idols in thcir respect ive ficlds of poctr), an d prose. "
Of che N ational Gynmasium, Xl anucl Bandcira says " ir had a
ccnvenrional appcarance: a large patio wit h cloisrer wherc wc
play cd violenrly during the ten minut es recess bctwccn classcs."
The gamcs we rc racing. hide-end-scek , lcapfrog, jum ping. and aU
sorrs of acriviry wirh gymnasium apparatus. Thcy hazcd che rcsh-
meo, bu r wi rhour resorting ro cruclry. "Thcre wc re never aoy civic
ccrcmonies, so far as I can rcmc mbcr."
In his sccc ndary schoo l ycars, ,\ l anucl Bandeira read widely OU( -
side schoo l hou rs. " l devc ured che Lusads, rhc Porrugu cse classics,
Boc age (minus rhc conrroversial sevenrh vol umc) . Fi linto Elisio.
and thc Brazilia n romanrics such as Castro Alves, C oncal vcs Dies,
Hilac, and A lberto de Oliveira.' A r fifrccn he rc ad a grcar de al of
G uy de Alaupassant and Anatclc Franc o, "rhc larter linle known in
Brazil at rhc t ime." In his sixth year he rcc civcd a prizc of T ainc's
bo ok on La Fontainc, of which he notes " 1 read this book very
carcfully and co nsidcr ir as having had a great int1uence on my ideas
of pocrry."
O ne of rhc mosr cvidcnr advaruagcs of rhc Im perial sptcm of
cducaton in Brazil was its rendency ro unify t hc r egional cultural
cenrers: Rio de J aneiro, Baha. Sao Paulo, Olinda. and R ec ife. T his
cncou ragc d hig h srandards instea d of sprcading ed uca tion t hin an d
subsriruring quant ity fo r excellcnce. Hrazilians from all parrs of rhc
coun try felr ohliged to send t hcir children to rhesc ccntcrs if t hcy
wanred ro scc th cm wel l cducared. wherhcr suc h t raining was in
law, medicine. engineering. o r pharmacy, in milirary science or in
rhc humanirics. In rhesc citics, Brazilian srudenrs from rhc most di-
ve rse provinccs hecame acqu ainted ami associarcd wir h on e an ot her
in rhcir stud ies, rh eir lcisu re hc urs. an d t hcir pranks. Thcy lived
roge rhe r in t he famous srudcnr "repuhlics" and carricd ou rheir t ra-
ditional rivalri es wirh rhc "casrlcs" of cotnmercial employees. t he
Ianer Leing hoys of poorer families w ho. parado xic ally en ollgh.
reprcsem ed the mo re conservarive side of the social order an d
hen ce w ere associatc d with rhe medieval symbolism of rhe castle.
'Io complete the para dox. ir \Vas t he sons of \Vell-ro-do parems.
students of law. med icine, amI engineering, w ho stood for rhe spirir
of " progrc ss." at t im es car ry ing thei r enrhusiasm ro virrually an-
archic extremes.
 Eductnon and Urban Culture liS
Brazili,ms [ rom Rio G rande do Sul or Scrgipc. from i\1 aranhao or
,\ linas G crais, fr cquenrly rnar ricd girls from Babia. Pernambuco, or
Rio de Janeiro w hom rbcy had mcr du ring rheir srudcnr days. Fu-
turc polirical leadcrs living rogerher as flexible vourhs in rhe inri-
mac)' of rhe "rcpnblics" mo re t ban once mainrained t heir Fricnd-
ships into marur ity . evcn wh cn rhc association involved ditf erences
in pclirical arfiliarion. Further, in th ese ccnrcrs boys of routinc
provincial background allowed rhemselves re be infl uenced by
reach crs of progrcssive ideas in polines. literat ure, or philosop hy
and rcrumcd to thcir bornes wit h new rcndcncics and ncw anirudcs.
One of t hese was lI igino Cc ero da Cunha. bom in 1858 in Sao
Jos das Cejazciras, in rhe rhcn provincc of Xl aran hdo. Cc nha's pr e-
par aTOr)' educat ion was con ducted in t he ly ccum of thc provincial
capital of Sao Lu s, afrcr wh ich he spem sevcral ycars as a storc
cler k in th e interior. At t his time. he becamc greatly inf1 uenced hy
t hc weekly O Pensador ( Tbe T binker) of Manu el Bittcncoun and
Al ulsio Azevedo, which was rhen engaged in journalisric warfare
with rhe Cat holic review Cn:iliznro. Becoming am i-clerical him-
sclf, he bccam e " a tsbula msa in regard ro ancestral bcliefs aftcr
reading t he wo rks nf t he German philosopher Bch ner, Force and
Matt er and '\/,111 A ccording to S c ence." ll is radicalism was inrcnsi-
fi ed wh cn he wcnr ro srudy law in Rccifc, whcrc he cnlisrcd among
"r he phalanx o dcvorees of T obas Barrero, in wh ose ranks were
includ ed Arrur O rlando, Clvis Hcvil qua. ,\ Iarrins J nior, Faelanr e
de C mara. Benediro Lcir e. Vi vciros de Cast ro. and Urb ano
Santos." He took pan in abolirionisr and repu blican campaigns
"under rhc leadership of j os ,\ !ariano. j oaquim N abuco, and .\ Iar
rins J nio r," collaborating " in varicus jou rnals, espccially in thc
Fdlba Jo N orte of .\ la rtins J nior and Faclante da C mara."
Du ring his years in Recite. he "rcad man)' French and English
periodicals" and "becamc acquaint ed with rhc works o Cornee.
Lit tr , nnd orhcrs." A fter ccmplcring his law srudies, he went in a
spirir of advc neure ro Amazonas. bur evcnt ually returned ro his na -
rice provincc. H crc he livcd a life o active lcadership, his Recit e
experience apparenrly having conrribu red to prolonging rhc spirit
of his ),out h and keeping him physically as w cU as ment ally young.
(In 1940 , at the age of eighry.two, hc was st ill "organizing concerts
in rhe governor's palace. rhe local th eatre, and in private homes" in
rhe cir)' of T eresina.) In the Pcrnamh uc an capital, he had been "in
constan t attend:m ce at the dramas, come dies. and opera" presenred
11 6 O rder and Progress

at rhc Santa Isabel and Apell o rheatres, th en in rhcir heydey. and

had dance d quadrilles, lancers, waltzcs, and polkas in t hc mansions
of the fashionable qua ners of .\londego, ,\l adalcna. and Ponte
d'Uchoa, as well as in rhc rcsidcnccs of Santo Anton io and Sao
Jos, wh ere studcnrs werc somerir nes pcrmitred ro take pan in rhc
fcsriviries. A bit uneas v in rheir bo rrowcd frock coars, boys Irom
remore provinces herc had rhc opporrunity ro minglc wirh prirn
ansrocraric young ladics who worc Parisian gowns and spoke
Frcnch as \VeU as any Frcnchman. wi rh viscountesscs w ho bad t rav-
elcd exrcnsivcly in Europc, and wirh baronesses who in rhcir youth
re mcr nbcrcd having been courte d by Anr nio Peregrino ,\ 1acicl
,\ Iontciro.
lr was here in this samc Recite rhar such provincial srudcnts and
fururc men of rhc world end of lcncrs as Ara jc J orge, Punt es de
.\l iranda, Gilbcrro Amado, Anibal Frcirc. Augusto dos Anjos.
Francisco de A..sis C hateau bnand de Melo, and J os A m r ico da
Almeida-c-and, in 'In earhcr period. G raca Aranha, Epir cio Pessoa,
and Sylvic Romero-c-inc reascd rheir knov.. . ledge ami polished rbeir
manners.
O n th c distaff side of rhis cducarional picrure is rhc resrirnony of
Do na Virginia Cavalcanre (b. Pernambuco, 1879) . Do na V irg inia
atrcndcd primarv school in a public csrablishr nenr in rhe Rua do
Corovlo "H ere rhc mcthod of inst ruction \.. . as to recite aloud and
ro rncmorizc lesscns down ro the lasr com ma. The wcekly arirhr ne-
tic tests, complete wirh p"l71l.1tri.t, w er e th c terror of rhc students.
. . . T hcrc was also rhe punishmem of remainng st anding wirh
one's book open for long pcriods of t ime.. . . T he rextboo ks
wcre rhe grammar of j oo Ribeiro. the arithmeric of Castro Nunes,
rhc geography of Elcut rio Ribeiro. and rbc gcomcrry of Ahlio
Csar Borges. \Ve copied English callg rap hy."
From gir lhood she amused hersclf by " making doll' s clor hes wirh
a skill and t asre t hat camed admiranon at home" and made ir unnee -
essary for her late r ro rake lcssons in dressmaking . A hv ays an ad-
micer of France, shc raughr herself rhe Freneh language and carne
ro read, nor only magazines and fashion books, bur rhe works of
,\ t me de Sracl. Hossuer. and .\ Ime de Svign . " 1 did not leam a bit
of English o r G erm n," shc confcs."es. " 1 kno\\' rha r rhc~e cOllntr ies
were very power ful and fa r ad vanced, bU[ rhey sim ply did n't m er
esr me." She reg rcts lhar she did nor attcnd rhe t heatre as a girl, but
her g rand fa t her " "(luId not allow it. T he idea of a trip ro Paris "was
 Edu caton and U rban Cultu re "7
rhe dream of my yourh" and shc also notes hcr prcfcrcnce for rhc
romances of J ules Vcrne.
T hese l'ery romances uf j ulos V crnc, widely rcad by c hildrc n
and adolcscenrs of t hc time, pcrhaps did rhc mosr ro dcvclop a Bra-
xilian tasrc fo r invc nrions end an enthusiasm for rcc hnical marvels,
particularly f OT balloo ns and rhc so-callcd "conqucst of the air."
T his enthusiasm, car ried into marurc years, had irs repercussions in
rhe Brazilian Congrcss irscl, wh crc rhere was considera ble ro-do un
the part of imagi narivc rcc hnicians to reac h a Braxilian solution to
the problcm of aerial naviga t ion. Two of rbcse public figu res inrer-
csred in whar was known as t hc "Brazilian secu lar problcm" we rc
Jos de Patroc inio ano A ugu sto Severo de Albuqucrquc ,\ l a-
ranhiio. T hc lan cr, a congressman from Rio G rande do N orte, had
sincc 1894 cxpcrimcntcd unsucccssfullv in R ealengo wirh a balloon
of his invention named t hc "Bartolomeu de G usno? A sccond
balloon, "l'az," also failed larer in Par is.
T his urge ro sclve the problcm o f acrial navigarion was an irnpor-
tanr aspec t uf Brazilian c ulture during irs ycars of transirion frcm
slave to free labor in irs at tempt to consolidare t he Rcpublic and to
colonizo t he country t hro ugh thc cmployrncnr of new mcthods. It
was as though, in rhis absorption wirh such a dramaric means o
transporration, th c count ry was try ing ro make up for lost tim e
afrer t he cxt remcly slow-moving cconomy o t he oxcarr and rhe
N egro slave.
Aeronaurics absorbed Augusto Severo from early yourh, whcn.
w irh his cousin J os Amtmio Gonsalvcs de ,\ i eHo, he tal ked con-
srenrly of fl y ing and, 0 0 Sundays, wcnr to t he cnunay te Ay kires
nor mercly for diversin but ab o in an cndcavor tu solvc the prob-
Icm of aerial conques t.
Thc dcsire ro acbicve narional unification was w har absorbed
Commander Lus G omes. w ho belicvcd rhar Recife should be rhc
srarting poinr of a rail line link ing the At lantic with thc Pacifico
And it w as rhe commandcr's son Eduardo. born near the end of rhe
ni netc enth century, w ho would carry much of this enrhusiasru for
Brazilian progres.,'i inro t hc field of ac tual aer ial t ransporto
A nr nic Carlos Pachcco e Silva {b. Sao Paulo. 1898 ) attendcd a
kindergart en connec ted w it h [he !'\ormal Sehool, w hose instatl a ~
rion, he bclic\'cs, "was t hc work of ,\ Iiss BrO\\"n anu Cesrio ,\ tota,
two great re orIllers of pu blic instruction in Sao Paulo," ;\ Ii!'.s
Bro\l,'tl \v as an American and heT ye ar-cnd cercmonies were an
118 arder and Progress

evcnt. with recirarions and exhibirions of manual arrs. Thc proceed-

ings were presidcd uvcr by Dr. Thom pson. director o public in-
strucrion in Sao Paulo at a rime whcn llames of A nglo -Saxon origin
wcre in all parts of Brazil almosr myst ically associarcd wit h educa-
tion in t he minds of rhosc who ho pcd shon ly ro makc o Brazi!
anorher United States o Amcrica. This accounrcd for (he " oguc of
so-callcd "Amer ican" schools. and ir was in suc h an American
school thar Anr nio Carlos, an clegant young Car holic bey, wenr ro
srud y under a dedica rcd Prcsbyrcri an rnissionary he refcrs ro as "old
Lanc." O ld l.ane approached his reacbing duries with apost olic
zeal: "Toleranr bu r cncrgeric. rhc old cdu caror, f1 ankcd by his son
Rufus and a plciad of professors, almosr all graduares of Xlacken -
zie.' kn ew how to maintain an atrir udc of discipline wirhour hindcr-
ing our frccdom or adrninisrcring severe punishmenr." On clear
day s, classcs "wcrc givcn ouedoors under t hc rrees or in open
shcds," an American cust om verr popular with th e cbildrcn. T ext-
bo cks, sorne wrirten by membcrs of rhe faculry , were furnished by
{he school ami we re almosr al! printed in t hc Un ircd S U tes and illus-
rrated with attractivc picrurcs. Thc grammars were by j lio
Ribeirc and Edu ard o Carlos Pcreira, rwo Brarilians whc ,rum ed
Proresranr and wh o, possibly in compensarion for having aban-
doncd the \ Iot her C hurc h, devored th cmsclves Iikc Carbolic priests
to rhc prcservarion of t he rnorher rengu e. Thc arirhr neric book was
by anorhcr Brazilian Prorcst anr, Trajano, and fro m ir th e srudcnrs
" werc givcn dail y problems which rhc rcachers corrccrcd w ith
fright ening rapidity ." This effi ciency was another American att ri-
bure which was beginning to have its cffcct in Brazil, the ofren heard
pedagogical cxprcssion "T ime is money" was rransfonning Brazil-
ians of rhc rniddle and upper classes into champions of effi ciency
and speed in cont rast ro thc "Have paticnce" or " lt will wait unril
romorrow " so rraditi on al in Brazil. In geography, th e rexts werc by
Lacerta and Scrosoppi. bur there werc also pracrical classcs in
which th c pupils made eheir own maps, "locaring t hc rivers, moun-
tains. and principal cties." Another American innovation w as a
class in manu al rraining under a master car pente r . ~
f ,\ h cken e College, fou n.led in S~ " P mlo by American .\ terhodist missionarie'>.
is still o ne of the best insrirutinns of highc r k arn ing in Hrn il. (T ranslator.)
~ T he Amer il'"a n & hoo! in Sio Paolo was irsdf "exce",iYely American" in Iha!
it was of "piain red bric1r like Ih.. majoril}' of AID<.'" ri..an ",hu"l. and un;...n irie."
In Reci (e, howeYe r, both th.. Prt'Sbyterians and Ihe Baprisr'>. though following
A merican sYl<ICmS o( im.lructi"n, foundcd rheir loC hlKlls in olJ patr iarchal house s.
former residences of impo rtant families o( rhe eiry. T he Cesirio .' Iula of Reci!e
 Edttcaton and Urbm Cultu re " 9
In rccrcarion pcriods. rccalls Anrnio Carlos, rhc {a vorire gamc
was foorball, wit h a hall ma je of clorh by the pupils rh crnsclvcs.
O ehcr garues were " barra J CC{a, barre-nuntcga, acusado , bread
jurup, sele, hopscotch, bot nbss, biiboquet, diablo, top spinning,
cte." Bur dcspirc the rapid Arnericanization and Iralian izarion of
Sao Paulo. Anr nio Carlos's chilJhood conta ined much that was
purcly
Brezilian . rhc bonfires and balloons Juring S30 j oo [csti-
vals, rhc water bcmbs, c onfcrti, and srrcarucrs dllring Cernival , rhc

capoe ro wrestling. rhc to ps. k ues, sling shots. and bean shooters,
"rhc lasr [\\"0 rhc terror of t he ncighho rs. whose cracke d windows
restified ro cr rant-c-and somctimes pu rposcful-c-marksmanship." Ir
is surprisinp rhar in rhe case of garues and toys rhcrc was an almcsr
complete uniformiry bcrwecn the north and sourh of rhc eountry
and am ong child ren of all classes, altbough as rhc uppe r classes de-
velopcd linguistic ally [he)' addcd European elements-c-French,
C crrnan, or English-to the rradirional Ponuguese am usemcnrs, a
rcndcncy inc reased by the emplovrnenr of Europcan go\'er nesses.
Thus rhey play cd ecnnis and rodc velocipcdcs and bicyclcs.
G enn an go\'emcsses were part iculer ly in dernnnd and often
r nai nrained relarions with-and cven a ccrtain dom inarion over-
formcr pupils long aftcr rcturning to G ermany. The lives o f rhese
govemcsscs in a Brazil which had only r eccnrly abolishcd slavery
was no bcd of roses. Often prcny, not at a1l old-maid t ypc, thcse
girls ofren suffcrcd as much from rhc insclcnc c and stu bborrmess of
rhcir chargcs as rhcy did fro m rhc unaccustomed tropical sun. T he
fru srrarions arrend anr upon supc rvisinp spoilcd an d ill-marmcred
linle boys or imperious lirrlc girls. toget her wir h rhc phvsical dis-
com forr cngend ercd by an ovcrabundanc e of sun and ra in, is indi-
cared in the lcrters of sorne of t hem ro D ona Feliciana de Barros,
who when a young srudcnr of music and French literaru re had
known and likcd Illany of rhese Eurcpeans adrifr in rhc Brazilian
rroplcs.
T here was, for examplc, t he case of ,\ l lle Ida, w ho fo r many
years had becn gove rn ess ro a family in rhc interio r of rh c srare o f
Pernambuc o. In 191 z this G crman lady wrote fro m Engenho X 'I ro
her " dear D ona Sana" : " In this solitude not a day passes t hat l do n't

was Alf redo Ah'e~ d3 Sih'a Fren e Jn ior, and his .\ Ii,." Brow n wa" a ,\ Ii"" Eli",
Reed, a cultivared and prcny ""uman in happy com n ,t ro Ihe Luck -I<>othed
ho rro r" Brazilians gene rally saw as Ame rican mi'Sionaries, caricatures uf Ihe Ihin,
angula r, sexl~ olJ mado
6 The aurhor is prcscn- ing rhe anun p niry of rhe plantariun dled. (T n nsla to r.)
12 0 a rder and Progress
suffer from mal du po] r. 1 :1.I11 furious wirh these stupid rains. . ..
N ow I am srudying much wirb thc giris, t hc besr o wh ich are .\ 1.
and L., but all of whom are as unmannerly as ever 1 ccrtainly
won'r rcmain here afrcr my cont raer runs out.. . . Are r ou prac-
ricing rhc piano? 1 am now Icarn ing rhe waltzes uf Chopin. which
are prett y but t oo difficulr. . . I would likc t o rcad a loe o
Frcnc h, E nglish, and Portuguesc, but 1 arn always so ti red ami not
as strong as I was at first ; 1 don'r know what makcs me so list-
1ess . . ."
On rhe beach ar Boa \' iagcm .\ tIlc Ida felt bct rcr. In hCT lerrer to
"Dona Sana" on (Icrobcr :7. 191 1. she rells of enj oyi ng rhc sea
baches "sometimcs rwicc a dar" and o rhe "nighely music in a
neighbor's housc." H ere she ruct one of Dona Fcliciana's ncphews,
who, in hcr romanric eyes, was "vcrv, very inrell iqenr" and pos.
sesscd of "mue h talenr." Sccing him dra wing and even painnng, she
gave him sume lcssons in wate r colors. "Dona Sana" should speak ro
his fa rher and cncourage him ro send rhc bey ro srudy in Germany.
In 1 91 _~ ir w as an English go\"erness. ,\ Iiss Ella Ircson. who wrorc
ro Dona Feliciana in virtually the same tone; she was much obliged
tu rhc Brezilian lady for havin g madc hcr acquainrcd with several
English families in Per nambu c o, in addirion ro persons nativo ro rhe
rer rirory . I lcr indcbrcdncss was "great and dce p" , she no longer
felr hcrsclf a srranger in a strange land, under a brutal tropical sun.
This sensc of isolarion in rrurh rnust have been terrible for rhe
G erman and English go\"ernesses w hc carne ro Brazil around the
ru m of the eentury, un familiar as they were wit h tite counrr v, tite
tropical climare, or evcn wit h tite N ew \ Vorld as a whole. Srill,
thcsc things did not preYCnt sorn e of rhcm from making good rnar -
riages.1
T he grcater pan uf rhc culrural movemenr of rhe time. ir scerns,
stemmcd from Rio de J anciro, Recife, and Sao Paulo . Conservativo
Sao Lu s de ;\ laranhao, dcspitc an cphemeral re volu rionary move-
ment impelled by Alusio de Azevcdo.s was already in decline; and
P n o Alegre. a futurc leader in regional and narional culture, had
not as )'Ct begun irs rise ro importance. Bur rhcre was also Bahia,
1 The same Ihiflg uftcn happcn cd with thcatre anists whu. like Ihe singer
C..c run i, Idl Ihdr e<JIlll'anics lo m arrr and scttlc in Bra l. Somctimes they hdped
their hmhand, financl~lJy hy l e~ching ,i nging. piano, mandol in, "iolin, or harp lo
well-w-do )'oung ladlC' , o f wh om Ihere were m~n y who perfonned u n th,"-C in-
Slrumems, their fi ngus hea,'y wit h ring' and thcir an ns eon reo in b raeclets.
8 Alusiu de A~C\"edo is a "ellkno wn no.-elist. I lis principal works are A CUol
de l 'cm Jo (The BOol rJi"Xbou-se) and O Corrito ( T hc T m en/enr) . (Translnor. )
 Education and Urban Culture 12/

which d uring rhis pc riod haJ as its m ost cloqucnr re volutionary

spir it t hc great Ruy Harbo sa. A rcwering narional figure, Ruy
ncvcr ccascd ro he a Bahian in his habits anJ particularly in his pro-
pcnsiry, very rypical of his region, to adopr a conscrvarivc "l "
proach cvcn when advocating rhc most witdly liberal ideas. Thus it
rook him unril 19 19 ro disccrn t he importancc of t he "social qucs-
rion," an issue agirared half a centll ry earlier by t he Positivists of
R io, Sao Paulo, and Rio G rand e do Sul, as wel l as by his old law
school collcaguc j oaquim N abuco.
N obody was more Bahian t han Ruy in bis liking for oraror)' or
for rbe eloqucnr and ofrcn m rel)' r bctorical cxprcssion of ideas and
scntirnenrs. And nobody was more conservarive in bis regard for
rhe puriry of th e language: a Ianguage which he fclr should shicld
irselt against rhc increasing flood of Africansms, Indianisms. Teu-
tonisms, lralianisms. Oallicisms. and modcrnisrns ro remain even
more Porrugucse than rbc Pon ugucsc of t he morhcr cOllnt ry.
T hese rwo rendencics in R uy-c-conscrvarism and a passion fo r t hc
langu age- seem ro have bccn more ry pical of Bahia than of any
orher pan of rhc countr)'. In t he lig hr of this, ir sccms paradoxical
rhar the city had no high sc hoo l com parable ro Pedro 11. rhc Pcr-
nambucan Gymnasium, or rhe Ma riana Scm inary, and no law
school on the levcl of [hose o f Recife 0 [' Sao Paulo. Rath cr, it
gained its acadcmic famc through its School of ,\ Iedicine, in which
thc scienrific study of this subjecr was ofren subordinarcd to rhe
study of classical literatu re, oratory, r het oric. clcgancc ami purity
in spcaking and ,....r iring, ro debate ovcr quesrions m ore grammarical
rhan physiological, and ro dissccnng problcms d oscr ro rhc pat hol-
ogy of lit erary stylc [han human anatomy.
T hrec foreigncrs and one Brazilinn from .\ Iaranhao in rhe lasr
years of rhc monarcby had the rcmcrity ro intrudc upon rhis Bahian
tradition of c ulrivaring the classical and liber al arrs bchind a faca de
of medica! srudics. T hcsc wcre t hc E ngl ishman Parte rsc n, rhe G cr-
man Wuc hcrer, rhc Portuguese Silva Lima, and rhe Brazilian Rai-
m un do ~in a R odrig ues.
Before considering t he comrihurion of t hese fou r scientists to t he
cultu ral progress of Bahia. I sho uld poinr o ut rhat t he cul ture they
revolurionized in i[s inrelIeerual habirs w as aIread)' considerahly
com mercial and (unlike rhar o f Pernambuco. R io de Janeiro. or Sao
Paulo. w hic h wcre suffering froIn rhe evils of l1Ionoculru re ) en-
joy ed a g reat n riet)' of prod uc[s. as nOl ed by t he Austr ian
,\ la urcio Lamberg in a study w rinen d uring the early years of rhe
121 Order and Progress
Republic." Bcsidc sugar, thc statc of Babia in rhc late nineteenrh
century produced cacao, cotton, robacco. coffe c, hidcs, wood. or-
namenral fearhcrs. rare birds, and fruits, ir alsc wo rked mines of
diamonds and orher rninerals. Irs po pularion was ahout 1.8 million,
more rhan half of which was black oc mcrtiro. les cu isinc was na-
ric nally famc us {oc its dclicacics, and its capital co ntained tWQ rhca-
tres, ene for opera and onc for operetta and drama. There was a
public par k and rwo horels o sorne impo rtance. lrs religious art was
nota ble for rhc haroquc splcndor of irs 1 1 0 cburches. and for its
maoy monastcries in which more rhnn 100 monks from sout h Ger-
maoy and BcJgiu m wcre nu mbcrcd among the membcrs. The Au s-
trian visiror also nored wir h int crcsr rhc brightly colorcd shawls and
immacularely whitc tu rb ans of th e market womcn , whose srands on
rhc srrecr corne rs or in the churc hy ards offcred a surprising and
lovely variery of native fruits. panicularly thc eno rmous nave! or-
anges for which t he city was world famous. In thc roba cco shops he
saw t he local cigars ami roll s of native leaf eq ually famous in Eu-
ro pe. I
But from rhc cultural poin t of view, no local art or product,
wharever its Eu ropean fame, aroused che pridc of rhc rru c Bahian
more rhan irs Academy ( not "Faculry'' or "School," bur "Acad-
emy" ) of Xled icine. In irs vasr amphirhcatres Lamherg learned rhar
"profcssors of g reat knowledgc and abiliry " ga,c lessons ro "happy
and lively'' you ng men from rhe wholc rangc of Brazlian
proVlnces.
In short, says Lambcrg in a celcbrarcd passage, Babia was rhe
inrellccrual inferior of no orhcr province and had given rhe narion
"sorne of its most emincnr statesruen." Inrclligcncc was certainly
not lecki ng among Brazilians, conrinued this astu te observcr. \Vhat
was lack ing-c-and hcrc he must have been t hinking of rhc Bahian
doctors he had rnct during his visir-c-was " profound seriousness.
fi rmness, paricnce, and cc nsrancy. and also rbc scienrific passion ro
lcarn everyrhing abour a c hosen field ." 2

t '\!auricio Lamhc rg : O Brasil (R io J~ j aneiro, Ill') ), Pp- 1911.101.

t A G erman merchanr named .\ \a nn. who during (he reign o f Ped ro 11 was in
Brazil arrang ing fu r Ihe expon uf Brazilian tropical p ro d u c e~ to G ennany, could
nut resist he charm uf anolhn empical proJucl: a lo" dy "Bahian" miSIl wie h
romantic black eyes and pos~ibly ,ume Indian bl"od. He mauic d her, and Ihe re
sult uf (he uni" n wa, one uf Ihe gre.t G erm.n n.,\'(lists of .11 time" Thomas
.\ fann.
2 L amberg: " p. cit., pp. >0 1, 10 3, 19)-4-
 Educat on and Urban Culture "3
T he Medica ! Schoo l in Rio de J aneiro sccmcd ro him bett er or-
ganized rhan tbar of Bahia. with studenrs "d rawn from .111 parts of
the Repuhlic and diffcring litde frmn t hei r c ounterpart s in the most
civilizcd Europcan counr ries ." Thc same co uld have been said for
the students (man y of t hem of mixed b!ood) of rh c schocls o f medi-
c ine in Bahia, t he law schools of R ecife and Sao Paulo, and the
Polyrechnic Insriturcs of Silo Pau lo and Rio de janeiro, as wcll as of
rhc scminarisrs of '\lari:ma, Iru, and Olioda. AH werc well culrivatcd
in rhc humanirics and cxccllcntly prepa rcd fo r higher cducar ion.
T he greatest defi ciencics of rhe Brazilian university sysrelTl of rbc
rime. in comparison ro rhosc of Europe and the Unircd Srares, lay in
rhe rncrbods of reaching and in rh c resources availablc for applied
study. Rarely did foreign scicnrists find Brazilian schools well
equippcd ,virh-or even aw arc of--cerrain reaching marcr ials.
Lamberg nored that t hc Polytcc hnic Sc hool of R io de J aneiro had
had a G ermao chemisrry professor " hig hly regarded by his pupils,"
so much so rhar afrer his dcath "his innumerable Brazilian admirers
had his busr in marble placed in t he c eremonial hall of that schcol."
But t his ' ....as an cxccpric n: "rarely docs one find such an arrirudc
ro wa rd rhc illustrious fo reigners living hcre." 3 The prevading arti-
tude in rhis mattcr wa s generally une of sufficiency : why ha vc for-
eign reac hers when rhcr e are so maoy brillianr lirazilians? Brazilians
so eloquenr. so clegant io speech and so correct in rhe art of wrir-
iog? Ir is rrue rhat Brazil-c-or Bahia, ro be precise-had prod uced a
jurisr of suc h hig h q ualiry as T eixcira de Frcitas, a doctor suc h as
Torres Homem , and an en gioeer like Reboucas. But meo of t his
calibcr w cre not suffi c icnrly numerous to jusrify t hc luxu ry of
downgradiog rbc science of Euro pcan-bom professors.
Perhaps Sao Paulo was an exccpron in this respec r, sincc it wa s
superior ro R io de J aneiro in energy an d rh e practicaliry of its
rcaching. Lamberg atrributed this " ro rhc facr thar they ha'"e a
better appreciarion of t he Germao language and G erman culture."
In So Paulo he Oler " Olany Germaos io eharge of prac tic al scien-
rific estahlishments whieh. fo r r hl~ reason, giye exc ellent seryic e.
T his would he impossible io Rio, where they do oot look favorahl)"
upo n rh e employmeor of Gennans in pub lic senic es. even in sec-
onda ry positions. .' la ny Pau lista families have Genoan teac hcrs or
rutors, and o thers. of grearer mea ns, send their sons ro Germany
""hen they are still yery smal!. H er e rhey r eceive an excellent edu
3 l bid., pp. 1</ S, )14.
 arder and frogress

carien and cventually rcrum as wcll-trained men." This was writ-

ren, uf course, hefore American educational mcrhods had pushed
rhe European systcm asidc in Sao Paulo and elsewhere.
In Recife roo, Larubcrg had nored this "grcar vcncration for Ger-
man science," and "rhe dcsire ro impan it to cthcrs'' 00 rhe pan of
the besr students of Tobias Barrero, who had gaincd renown "in the
scicnrific world of Europe, thanks ro his encyclopcdic knowlcdgc
and his Olany publishcd works." 4 He was "particularly known in
Gerrnany, whose culture inreresrs him greatly and \vhose mcn of
sciencc hold him in high regard," says Lamberg, wirh a ccrrain eX4
aggeration as ro t hc Europ can irnpacr of Harrcto's works. Pernam-
buco-c-and Par as well-c-secmed ro him ro be trying ro make up for
losr rime in rhc study of rhe arrs ami scicnces, wirh rhc scienccs "in
better conditicn rhan the arts" in t his proeess of recovery. "The pro-
grcssivc spirit of rhc rimes" was perhaps more notable in Recifc than
in any other ciry of rhe nort h. Reside the Schoo1 of Law, rherc was
an lnsriture of Archeology, H isrorv, and G cography rhat ccnraincd
" many . . . rru ly learned men" but which so far "has produccd
not hing of universal importance." T he samc was rruc of rhc School
of ,\ Iedicine, although one of irs members, j oaquim de Aquino
Fcnseca. as early 3..<; thc fi rsr half of t he ninereent h cenrury had
bccn n-ained in medicine ar rhe University of Paris and had bcen ef
fecrivcly inrcrcsred in problems uf urbanizarion and public hygiene.
The reason for thc lack of scicnrific works "of universal impor-
ranc e'' in bor h nort h and sourh Brazil seemcd ro Lambcrg (w ho
overlooked ccmpletely such men as j os Bonif cio, Teixeira de
Freir s. or j oo Vieira) ro be an ributablc not ro "lack of intelli-
gence and good inrenrions.' but rather "ro rhe nature of inhabitants
of rhc rropics, who lack rhc capacity of learned men in cold er cli-
mates ro devore rhcir cnnre exisrence ro rhc cxamination of a single
scientif ic problem, even whcn sucb a coursc r neans rbe sacrifice of
many of rhe comforrs of life." s Tobias Barrero was ro him an eX4
ccpricn ro rhis rule. Unforrunarely, Lamberg lnck ed knowledge of
many Braxilian works far more systemaric than rhose of Ba rrcto. ~
Among rhese I would include .\lorais, author of the first dictionarr
of Brazil ian Portuguese, writrcn largd y in Pernambuco; rhe legal

4Ibid. pp, ll, 3:5 .

~ Ibid, .p , l l ,
8 T he Amc ric~n ecunu mist Ruger 8 all'>o n, whose The FUlUte Qf South AmericJ
wa.~ publi>< hed in B" mm in ' 9' 5, sho werl (he sarne deficiency .
 Educston and Urban Culture

studics of the Bahinn Teixeira de Frciras; the hisrorical studies of

j oiio Lisboa of ,\ 1a ranhao. Then rbcre wcre rbose in borany by Ar4
ruda C mara and j oaq uiru Jos de Serpa, rhc larrer for sorne time
director of the Horanical Laboratory at O linda- the fi rsr Hrazilian
elfort ro make a sysrema tic srudy of tropical plants uscful in medi -
cine, a ficld which his preceptors ut t hc Baha Acadcmy of ,\ Iedicine
hall complerely neglecred,
Thc Reverend ,\ Ir. Fletchcr, wriring of rhc Rio de j anciro ,\ ledi4
cal School during [he rcign of Pedro 11, noted rhar rhere were sev-
eral doctors rraincd in Europc on its faculty. Thc school had an
association wirh rhc ,\ 1iscricrdia I Iospieal, a "vast fi cld for rnedical
o bscrvario n." He ha" virtuelly [he same ro say of rhc school in
Bahia, staring rhar lIlany of irs profcssors, both forcign end Brazil-
jan. were "mcn of ralent and lcarning," so rhar their courses werc
probably eq ual ro rhosc given by good profcssors "in any medica!
schoo l cm rhe Cominem."; He was perhaps rcferring ro such men
as Pau erson. \ Vucherer, or Silva Lima, whosc wo rk in Babia, if no!
contrary ro academic con venrions, was al leasr on the borderlin e of
cstablished pracrice. Ir is hard tu know, howevc r. whcthcr anothcr
of bis obsc rvario ns should he taken scr iouslv or ironica llv. t hat rhc
library contaiacd "Iarge and cosrly volumes on anaromv in the
R ussian language." These books had reccnrly arrived from Sto
Pcrersbu rg and werc of cxcellent appearance-an appca ranee they
would probably preserve for a long time, unless violared by tro pical
msccts.
As for sru dcnr c bscrverions on thc hospirals of rhe time, we havc
no in formation at al]. Wharcvcr smdy of this type existed seems ro
hace been insignificant. In his Jl e1Jlria Histrica da Faculdade de
sedicnu da Babia R catiua ao Al/Ode / 89 / ( publishcd in 1893) t hc
candid Lus Anselmo da Fonscca notes that thc teaching in rhat
school was hampercd by a numbcr of "lamentable rcndencies":
"verbosity." "thearricaliry," aod a tasto for "rherorical em phasis"
and the "rcfi ncmenrs of classical g ral1lma r." Osear Freir . in an arri-
ele enrirlcd "Evclucio da ~ I cd ie in a no Brasil" publishcd in rhe
newspaper Estado de Sao Pauto of Septcmbcr 7. '922 , complains of
much "book learning" te rhc sacrifico of "pracrical studics."
Kidder in 1839 had wrinen tlta[ the library of lhe Law Scho01of
Sao Paulo. [ilen ins[alled in a former Franciscan eonvent. was defi-
7 James C. F1etcher and Daniel P. Kiddcr : 8r>lu l JIIJ Ihe Brali>l1lS Cth ed n.,
B" "ro n, , 1179 ) . pp. ' 110, '<JO.
126 O rder and l'rogress

cient in borh scientifi c and lircrary works and overloaded wit h

bocks of a rhcological narure. ~ The courses werc also antiquared
and followcd rhc model of thosc of Coimbra. In bot h 1855 ano
1878. however, Flcrchcr found rhar rhesc courscs hao bccn mdem-
ized and followcd the pattern uf rhose in rhc United Srarcs. In Sao
Paulo and also in Rccifc. he observed, furure sratcsmcn were heing
prepared under conditions of juridico-hu manisric instruc tion supe
rior ro those exisring in Spanish Americe." H e might also have oh-
servcd rhat in thc Academy of '\ledicine in Babia, rhanks tu rhc
broadly humanisric approach re medica! insrrucrion (dcspirc rhc
" fine laboracory" norcd rhcrc by Lambcrg ), srudents also devcl-
opcd ralems for parliamenrary carecrs, though wirh evideru sacri-
fi cc of rhc practica! aspects of their medica! training. N or a fcw
medica! graduares during the Second Empirc bccame rivals of for-
mcr la w studcnts in the polirical fi eld, sorne even achic ving notable
srat ure as polirical orarors. A good cxarnplc here is Manuel V iro-
rino, almost anorhcr Ruy Barbosa in eloquence. O rhers brought ro
their political acrivitics an objective approac h to social problerns.
particularly rhose rclared ro hygienc, in which ficld they often sur-
passcd the acbieve r ucnrs of graduares of law, engiocering, and theo-
logical instituricns.'
Ir was rhc dccrors of Rio de J aneiro and Recite who showed
rhcmsclvcs as mosr active in thc st udy of rhesc problems of hygiene.
nor on ly through publishcd works bur also in rhc realms of social
acnviry. In examining the doctoral and postdocro ral thescs of sorne
of thesc men, one finds a preponderancc in rhese citics of works on
social problcrns, though it is true rhat srudics of nurrinon or racial
problems, or of rhc practice of hurial bencarh rhc floors of
churc hcs. wc rc ro he found in Babia as wcll. T he lan er, howcvcr,
are characrcrizcd not so much by rheir zeal as by th eir carcful atten-
tion ro linguisric elegance and or hcr purely academic virtucs.
\Vhen Professor Agassiz made bis criricism of Brazilian medica!
training, he did nor lirn jr himself ro the Acadcmy of ,\ Iedicine in
Bahia. T hroughout rhc coulltry, he fclt, the program lacked the
scienrific preparatian indispensable ro preparing good medical prac-
titioners: "Xot enough importance is accorded by schools of medi-

" lbid., p. 71.

" Ibid., p. 371.
t A nmng he puhlicatj,,,,, uf Ma nuel Vitorino hi M l l igicne das ~nlu." pub-
li\h cd in the G<l~el" ,IfJJic.. J .. 8 ..hi.., XX I, :""0. 7, i parti cularly impurtant.
 Edu cation and Urbon Culture -,
trt

cinc ro zoology, ccmpararivc :matoITlY, botan)', physics, or c hcmis-

try. T eachi ng is accomplished through books insreed of through
ac tual practico." In rhis. he was rouching on rhc sensitivo ncrvc of
rhc siruation , rhe slavc ccollomy of Imperial Hrazil made applicd
insrruction difficuh in all fi clds-c-in engineering and agronomy. as
well as medicine. As Professc r Agassiz obscrved: " In sbon , so long
as prcjudicc aga inst ma nual labo r cxisrs in Hrazil, applicd instr ucrion
\ViII be badly done; so long as students of natu re fcel t bar ir is not
ap propriarc for a gentleman ro carry his spccirncns or his geologisr's
harnmcr or ro make bis own prepararions. they will ncver he more
(h an arnarcurs in thc subjccr . T hcy can lea m admirably t he acts
discovercd by orhcrs, bur rhcy \ViII nevcr Jo any original rescarch
. nwn. " 2
on t herr
The truth is t hat, ro Agassiz. rhe Brazil of Pedro 11 was dcficicn r
in intcllccru al progress, particularly in rhe scnsc of nccding a
great er atrcntion ro experimental scicncc. a greater use cf t hc labo-
ratories, and a greater amou nt of manual work on the pan of borh
profcssors and studcnrs in Brazilian schools of higher cducation. So
marked was rhis lack of inrellccrual prog ress thar ir affccrc d the en-
tire lifc of t he country. sbcwing a lack of subsranrial achicvcmcnr in
al] fi c1ds. Howcver, in a parriarchal slavocracy suc h progress is
cnormously difficu lr ro attain. Thc dilcmma of Brazil, ro put Agas-
siz's rcacrions inro mdem sociological rcrms. lsy in the incompati-
biliry in Brazilian life berwecn rhe substancc and rhc forms, and in
rhc rendency of Brazilians ro co ncludc rhar "inrcllecrual progrese"
could be achievcd in rhc samc way rhar independcncc was gaincd
from Portugal: Iess t hrough hard work than mere volirion . lo his
words. "As a desirc, so to speak. rhar givcs birrh ro a st ep fo rw ard
toward somerhing rhar is not as yet a Facr." 3
This "srep forwnrd" in r nodcrn exper imental scicncc could have
bccn madc in pinces like t hc Rccife law scbool or rhc Pol ytech nic
lnstitute o f Sao Paulo more casily (han in inrcllcctual cc nrers like
Hahia w hich rcmaincd imprisoned by rhc t raditional soci al order.
The most conservativo of all cirios, Bahi;l maintaineJ an almost or i-
ema ! zcal, similar ro t hat long preserved in Co imbra, foc t he purcly
dccorati vc aspec ts of learning. \ Vhat w as reall)' lacking in nine-
t eenth-centur), Brazil w as (he desire ro ac hieve-not by means of
individuals, hut instit utions ac ting coocertedlY-5ome evidence of
~ :\1 . and .\lme Loui~ Aga,,~i z, VQy~l(<' ~u Hr b il (l'aris, JIl]1 ) , p. l -+9.
3 [bid., p. l4].
I z8 arder and Progress

rhis "srep forward'' in rhe form o [he ascendancy o experimenta l

mct hods over th osc purely r nncmonic or rherorical, evidence o thc
dcsirc ro h e in rhe modero \ Vcstern world insread of tryi ng ro
rcmain in rhe splcndid days o an archaic humanism devoid o scien-
rific inrcrcsr or r nerhods o rescarc h.
Thus Baha had rcached th e end o t he ninctcenrh ccntury wirh
ao Academy o Xl edici nc more notable, a1l in all, for irs old-
fashoned "acaderruc" manncr t han for irs modero spirit of medi-
cine. Hehind rhc rimes in cvcrr way, ir rcacred ro t hc forcign pro
fessors and rhc Hr azilian [rom ,\ 1aranhao w ho attem ptcd ro rcform
ir from top ro bonom as rhou gh rhcy were rrairors ro an almost
secrcd Bahian rra dirion . For rhis rcason, rhe cffo rts o thcse oursid -
crs musr be considcrcd mese praiscworthy in dcveloping intellectual
progress in rhe facc of clerical and acadcmic arrophy. Similar at-
ecmprs wcrc madc by ' Fobias in Rccifc, Pcrcira Barrero in sao
Paulo, and Alusio A zcvedo in ,\ laranhao. But even more than in
Rio de j aneiro, or Sao Paulo or Recife, in Babia it requircd a spirit
of virrually hcroic pro porrions ro ti y in thc face of an inrellecrual
order rhar was gcarcd ro prevailing social, cconornic. and relig ious
clemcnrs. co nsrirunng a socicry dedicercd ro a type of "order"
which mca nt only rigidit)" rourine, and the prcvalcnce of rhc mys.
tique of rradinon ovcr the charisma of irmovaticn. Xlore than any
orher province in che nation ( alrhough ,\ laranhao w as a clos c sec-
ond ) , Bahia rcprcsen red a rcsisrance ro cultural progrcssivism of all
types in irs quict affinnarion, rbrough a somctimes healrhy inertia,
of purely Luso-Brazilian valucs in rhc facc of bizarro inn ovario ns
and daring foreign "isms." Posit ivism, for example. nevcr found a
notable champion in Babia. thc T eutonism o 'Fobias Barrero
would bave been impossiblc in rhar ciry . the ver)' abclitionism of
Joaquim X abuc o, advoc ated as ir was in rerms more sociological
rhan orarorical. would have bccn out of its elemcnt in [he province
of N abuco de Arajo,4 Beeause all t hcse ideas were prescnt cd ro
4 j os T ho mu S~ buco de Ara]o, " ne "f rh e m",r Jislinguished staresmen of
eh e Empire. Ior a rime represen tod the p rovin ce of Ra h i ~ in the Imperial Senalc .
H e also served as ,\ l ini,tu of j usticc in the I Il.~O" . A plonee r uf the abo lilioni.r
movemcnr, Sabuco de A rajo w as ~ Uf hor of the Law uf rhe Frce \ \'umb enacred
in Scp tembcr, . H7 1, w hich provided Ihar al1 chilJren of ,!a,'c m<>l hc n; eould be
fr ecd by thcir owne rs (in cxchange fur an in dcmn ity f rom rhe gu\" ernmc nt ) ar
age eight l l f ,,"uuld he automatically fr ee al !wcm y-onc. lI is biogra phy, ",r itre "
by b is eHn more fam "u~ ~n, j uaq uim Sabuco, is (lne of he ~ documc ms u n
[he Emp ire (lf Pedrn II- V 1II ESlid if/;: Jo lmpi rio: S~ bu(o de Ararjo, Sua Vida,
S''''1 O pi>Jes, S'lJ Epoca (3 "015., Pari" '9'JO ) . ( Tnn~l a[<>r. )
 Educet on and Urban Culture 12 9

their Brazilian sudience in a languagc rhat was something Icss rhan

pure Portugu csc. rhcy would have failed [O w in the Bahian public.
Bur thc ideas thcmselvcs would also have failcd ro art ract: Bahia n
tastes, oourished on tradinonal Luso-B ahian dcli cacics, w ould have
r cjecred the inrellecrual rare hccf and sausage of British or Germen
clCIgm.
O ne of rhe last provincial prcsidems of Bahia srared rhar "thc
area could ncver be properly developcd economically so long as
rhcrc wcre no gcographical. topcgraphical. agric uhural. and trans-
po rration survey maps," an c mission which a carcful contempora ry
srudcm of Bahian culture, Durva t Vieira de Aguiar, attribured ro
rhe Bahian indiffc rence ro progress in a province " so vasr and so
unhap py. so sadly unprogressive arnidsr irs natura l G od-givcn
w earh, so poor in irs ind usrry , comrnerce, ami agriculturc dcspire its
size, its riches, and irs ferrili ry . , ," r,
T his w as so, in his opioion, bccause rhc Bahian fo rgor his prov-
incc in fa vor of t he court, "where all of our rcsources, both ma te-
rial and inrellccrual, coO\'ecge and where, if ir wcre possiblc, our
pure armos pherc irsclf wculd migrare in cxchange foc rhe pesrilent
clim arc which prevails rhcre in cc rta in scasons." He need only
havc addcd t hat rhis "purc arr nosphc rc'' in Babia was a gift of na -
rure, and not rhc rcsuh of an)' syst cmanc efforr on rhc parr of irs
docrors to extend their pracrice ro orhers rhan thc ric h or ro esta b-
Iish hospirals or dcvelop programs of public health and sanitarion
based on ecologieal st uJ ies. H e could also have mentioned t hat,
wit h few excep ric ns. priests werc conrenr to say rnass and ro marry
and baprize thc rieh; only the m osr leam cd engaged in scrmons of
extensive cloquenc e on rhe re1igious fesrival days so numerous in
Babia. Bahian citizc ns werc indignar a w hcn rhey learncd rhat priests
of foreign exrraction werc preac hing t rhc poor in whar one c riric
of rhc period called "rn urilated. almosr unintelligib le langu age'': a
presumptuousness intolerable ro Hahian ears. Ir was equally irriraring
ro thosc sensirive ears ro hcar foreign physicia ns speak of illncsses
and fevcrs in sorncwhar lcss than rhe elcgant Portugu cse expccred
of members of the profession, and parricularly of gr aduates of the
local A cademy of ,\ l edicine, w hose langu age ""as almost as sacer
dotal as t hat of rhe ptiests. O r, for that marr er, [O hear ahour social
iIls o c c ultural backwardness from a Joaquim Nabu co or a T obias
4 Dun a! V iein de Agui~ r : D u cr jp'if'S PrticllI dll Prrn :j71cill dll Bllh jil (B~ h i~.
1888), pp. 1-6.
lJO arder and Progress

Barrero. or a Percira Barrero. nonc of w hom was scrupulous in {he

ruorhc r rengue. (X abuco was Gallicizcd ano Anglicizcd; T obias.
Tcutonizcd . ano Percir a Barrero corru ptcd by a long sta)' in EU 4

tope, from which he hao rctumcd a Posit ivise. )

"\ Vhcn onc mcnt ions (he provinces in which the abolirio nist
movemenr had irs grcetcsr irn pacr. onc has ro inelude Pernambuco,
Ro G rande do Su!' C ois, and latcr Sao Paulc ano Par," ,vrore
rhe Hahian physic ian Anselmo da Fonscca in the t wilighr o the
Empire; " wh en. 00 rhe con t rar)'. )' ou wish ro indicare (hose in
which slavcrv has irs grearesr suppo rt. you have to cite Xl aranho,
Ro de j ancirc, Minas. Espirito Santo." 6 And Bahia? Accord ing ro
rhis unorrhodox Bahian physician. Bahia had ro be considcrcd
" ult raslavc-conscio us" in its attirudes. Ir was a provincc in w hich
public scnt imcnt alwa ys bowcd bcfore rhe " nohiliry," rhat is ro say,
rhc patria rchs of rhc hig bouscs of the interior and rhc town houscs
of rhc capital, rbosc whosc "privilcges are respccted" and w hose
intcrests were considcrcd more sacred rhan t he general welfare.
Baha was arrachcd ro r his cconomic and social castc as rbough the
word of rhc privileged was its own voicc, cloq uear. sacerdota l,
dcvot cd to rhe mysriquc of ordcr and nearly always suspicicus of
progrcss. Ir is t rue rhar sorne celebrared Bahians of rhe ninereenrh
centllry had freed rhemsclves fro m thc bonds of rlns mystiqu e:
Teixeira de Frei rs, N abuco de Arajo. rhe firsr Rio Bran co. ' Lu s
Gama, Castro Alvcs. R uy Barbosa. BUI rhesc acr ed under rhe sn mu-
lus of orher elem cnts, in coojunct ion with other Brazilian enviren-
rncnrs, in which rher r peculia r Bah ian rcndencies could he ccmbined
wirh other factors, panicularly dynamic, ro produce results. There
wcrc, for cxamplc , sorne magni fi cent comhinat ions of con t rasring
aspecls of Bahia nnd Sao Paulo, sccn in rhc scient ific reformers of
t he turn of rhe ccnrury-c-Manuel Vitorinc, T eodoro Sarnpaio, j uli-
ano ,\ Ioreira, O sear Freir , Afr:inio Pcixoro-c-mosr of whom opc r-
ared outsidc rhc state of Hahia and probably none of whom would
6 An",lmo da 'o nl.'a: A F.scrad djo. o Ctero. e o A bolicio"ismo (Bahia. , 1I11 ),
pp- ' J ~, ' 7l .
7 Freyre i, rderri ng ro thc Viscount of Rio Branco, a d kringuished sraresman
o( rhe middle ~'nrs uf thc E ml'ire and Prime .\ ti nister ar lhe time nf [he enaet
men! of rbc Law of thc F ree " 'omb. Kno wn as the " Rio Hrs nco I.aw." Ihis de.
cree was actually du wn up by S abuco de Ara jo. The \'i~oum uf R io Bu nen
was lh ... fath ... r of th e Baron do R io Braneo, Bu ;o;il's Olo't edebuted " nreign ,\ 1ill-
ister. T he olher Bahian5 Olentiuned in [h is paragraph we re writ ers generally as-o
ciated with hbl"ral OlOVCOlcnlS. Ca,no .-\lves, of eouThC, s inlanalionally falTlous aS
the great pOl"t of th... anti-sla,e ry caU'C. (T ran[ato r.)
 Educat on and Urban Culture 13 1

have con sidered bimself a reformer hv Bahian srand ards. T hc case

of Nina Rodrigu es is. of cc urse. rruly impressive. Bur Nina was
fl ecing fro m a socicry as staric as rbar of Baha and cvcn lcss cxposcd
rhan Bahia ro thc reform ing winds blowing from t hc cou rt ; he saw
his position as ncwcomcr as an advantagc. The prcvailing disap-
prova l of our landers qu ic kcncd his aud acity . his consciousness of
bcing an immig ram placcd him in t hc sanie siruarion as rhat of Pat-
terse n, Wucbcrcr, ami Silva Lima, and raiscd him ro a level of dar-
ing he ncvcr would havc at raincd in his nativo provi nce. T his spirit
also must havc motivarc d t hc oursidcrs Pattcrson, Wu cherer, and
Silva L ima in founding their SCh (Xl I of t ropic al medicine. \Voulel
rhat rhis schocl had spccializcd in t he diseases of a near -sociological
narure prc dominan t in Hahia! T his would havc bccn rruly revol -
rion ary and would havc reac hcd to rhc hearr of t he Imperial soc ial
order: parricularly of rhar uf rhe pro vincc characrcnzcd by Agassiz
as rnosr rypical of Hrazil.
"1'\0 orhcr city so visiblv represents rhc physiognomy or mani-
fests so salienrly rhe caliber of rhc nation ro which ir bclongs," he
wrore. T o which [he physician Anselmo da Fonscca. wirh his pro-
grcssive prejudices. addcd : "Wc are not unawa rc of rhe fact rhat
th c causes by which we explain rhe backwardncss of Babia have
also operatcd t hroughour che rcst of rbc coumr)'. Whar ' ve are
st ressing is rhar herc in Bahia t hcsc causes havc had a more pro-
found, mo re acccn ruared, and more inrense effccr.''" 1'0 rhis fanae-
ical disciple of absolure prog rcss. ir secmcd rhar Babia, likc Spain.
"shculd dcst roy rhat usclcss pasr" rcprescnred by "slavery, rhc
pricsthood, and t hc nobiliry." Babia. says Fonscca. adorcd rhe past,
ir "Jovcd rhc statu s quo and derest cd al! movemcnt forward." Ir w as
a provincc in whic h " ro be ccnsidcrcd aman of good judgment, a
person oughr ro avoid public affa irs and arfccr ignorance and a cer-
rain disdain for t he affairs of rhc provincc and o f t he narion." ft
T opics to be avoidcd by "meo of good judgm ent" in Bahia were
nor ooly rhose re!ated ro slaver)' bm also rhose of cd ucarion and
public health, addcd Anselmo da Fonseca.1 In sho rt, rhe a'"cragc
Bahian \Vas "essentia ll)' reaerionary " and whocver did nor conform
ro "t he mainren ance of srabili ty " ",as considered a " ,"ain rheorisr."
Thus rhe baek ward ness of Bahia was manifesred cver)"where: " in
~ L' .
runsct:3 : o p. en., p. 173.
ft Ibid., pp. 17)~4.

Ilbid. p. ' 74.

 O rder and Progress

cust oms. in buildings. in strcet-clcaning, in public hygienc, in

f inance. and in cducation." 2 As :1 physician, Fonscca was particu-
larly conccmcd abour public hygiene, an arca in which Baha,
dcspire irs " pu re atmosphcrc," was ar the time notable for its lack of
interese, particu larlv in rhc indifference of goyernment and inhabi-
tants alike to the sanirary mcasurcs ncccssary to meet the increasc in
urban po pularion. measurcs already raken in many other tropical
eities, iocluding Rio de Janeiro.
In d:l 75 a graduare in physical scicnces. marhcrnatics. and civil
engineering uamcd Lus Rafael Vieira Souto irwad ed a ficld hith-
erto considcred rhar of rhc docrors whcn he wrote his O Metbora-
mento da Cidade do Rio de [aneiro (Tb e l m provemens of tbe City
of Ro de [aneiro v. \Vhat he says of Rio pcrhaps applics cven more
dircctly te Salvador da Bahia: "T hc inreresrs of bumaniry. of deco-
r umo of nanonal pridc, an d of narional progrcss urgemly demand
rhar living condirions in rhc cuy of Rio de j anciro he improved,'
for "in saying 'ciry.' we are also saying 'civilization.' " ~ It was high
time for rhe city or rhc sratc t o intervcne in matters of domcstic
hygiene as well. a responsibiliry which. in Imperial times. rcsred tra-
dirionally with thc hcad of rhc family. Ir was rime. as Vieira Somo
poiarcd out in anorher book. for rhc city ro eodify rhc rules con-
cerning rhc bcighr of a building in relarion to rhe width of the
srrcer: rhe spccificarions recomrnendcd by thc Court Planning
Commission in chis respecr sccmcd to him exaggcrated! If in 1875
thc dcwntow n arca of rhe narion's capital was still a "maze o
crookcd srrcets, badly venrilated and wirhour drainage facilities
against rhc rainfall". if rhe " houses are crowdcd beyond rcason,
wirhour lighr, vcnrilarion, and orhcr condirions necessary to healrh.
and urterly lacking in archirectu rc or alignments"; if rhc water-
fronts call for wharves. the swamps for filling. rhe markcts for
bcncr Iocarions. an d rhe scuares for trces ami pavernent, just imag-
ine what ir musr have bccn like in Salvador da Hahia. a cry far more
indiffercnr than Rio de Janciro ro problcms of public hcalth and tO
thc t)'pe of progress manifested in improvcments in lighting, pav-
ing, venrilarion. tree planting. sanitation. and building alignment.
The stare or the eit)' should also exereise sorne cont rol in the marter
2 Ih id . p. 176.
" L us R afael V ieira Souto , O M elho' iunm lO J " CiJ"Je do R io Je !" nei, o (R io
de j ancim , 187S J, p. 6. ( H l'fu ftcr refcrrcd ro as O M elh(JroTmemo. )
1 Lus Ra fael Vlc ira s.,uto: O M d bo, m U!II1O J.f CiJ"Je J o Rio de / aneiro:
Refutar;jo d" Ra posf" . Crilic" dos T rab.flbos da Rel pet:lM:Q Comissiso ( Ro de
j aneiro. 1876J. P1 31.
 Education lI11d Urban Culture '33
o f domcsr ic archirccrurc, so rhar throughour rhc cOllnt ry emes
would dcvclop in hannony wit h tropical condirions. Tbis W3 S pa r-
ticular ly importan! in san irarion. w herc it was not enough re imitare
rhc progress of European citic s in cmploying modera urban tech-
niqucs in med icine an d cnginccr ing tech nolugy . On thc co nt rarr,
fo r moderare progressivcs suc h as Vieira Som o. ir was ti me, evcn in
1876, "[o ccase the pcrnicious pracrice o f molding ou r const rucrion
alo ng fo reign lin es, w irhour the sligh tcsr atrention to rh e climare.
wealrh. o r c ustoms of t he country." ~. V ieira Somo accused rh e ar -
chirects and officials o f t he courr o f using art ificial sronc and rnarble
slabs, d cspire rh e fac r rh ar rhe coumr)' posscsscd rhe "fincsr g ran-
ires.' Nor was rhis all; in R o t here were building s servilely c opicd
from modcls fumished bv archirccrural handboo ks and reviews."
AH of t his causcd him ro ho pc rhar t here would be un eventual
"adoption of a more r ational, more Brazilian ry pe o f archircc rure
instead o f t he s),stem followed by sorne imi rat ivc buildcrs w ho
c ar ry t hcir scruples o f 'fidcluy ' ro thc poinr uf including false fire -
placcs in t bcir buildings. ccrtainlv rhc extreme of atl nonsensc in a
c ity as hot as ours." ;
" A nd whar shall w e say," thc criric contines, "of rhat well-
known form of chalet , so appropriatc to thc suburbs b ut so absurd
for erccrion in a business strcct, as SO!ll C are presently doing ?" 8
T he vogu~ for rhis type of imponed const ruc tion, cvcn in business
st rccts, was not confined ro R io de J aneiro; ir was also rampant in
R ccifc, a ciry which in crhcr rcspecrs had bcncfirred more fr om
privare initiarivc in fo llo w ing Eu ropcan rcchniq ucs of construcrion
and hy g icne rh an eirhcr Babia or Ro d e j aneiro. This w as duc te
rhc prcsencc in Pernambuco o f a tec hnical mission lcd by rhc cngi-
necr L. L. V au thic r an d by both prcvious and subscquenr contacts
with orhcr Frcnch rech nicians w ho had rhe gocd scnsc ro adapr
Europcan mcrhods ro fir rbc peculiar tropical siruarion in Ik17:i1.
Thus, for a per iodorhcre exisrcd in this part o f rh c Empirc a hcelrhy
conciliation bcrwcen rh c past en d rhc furur e rcp rcscnrcd by thosc
Europcan innov ations in u rban archirccmrc, saniraricn. illumina-
rion, paving, ami streer alig nment.
These reehn ieal infi lt rarions also had much to do w irh rhe g rear
~ Ibi d., p . [ :1.
~ In l hi, m~f1er rhe more ('" n",n alil-e <';Iie, " " 'h a, S~ h ad"r, O uro Prclo. an d
Si" Crisrvio (Scrg ipe l , ""ere {u more fairh{ul !O Ihe; con lideral;on s uf cli mat..:
and Incal u,te than were t he more I' rogrl..~,\"C cc nters.
1 " iera Souto: " p. cit., p. 1:1.
~ Ibid.
'34 arder and Progress
infl ux o foreigo terms inro th e Porrugu esc language. As on c Brazil-
ian engi nccr wrotc, in defense o rhe use o ncologisms by himself
and his collcagues: " In rhc matter of rechnical terms, ir is well
known rhat rhc Port ugucsc dictionaries are as incomplete as one
cou ld possibly imagi ne. Whocver looks Ior a rcch nical term in one
o OU t diceionarics cit hcr will nor fi nd ir oc w il! fi nd ir incorrcc rly
defincd. . . . In rhis rcspcct our langu age is srill in irs infancy .'
The same crit ic gocs on ro sJ.y tha t rhesc conJ irions would bccomc
evcn more backward if rhc professionals rhcmselves failed ro take
rhc iniriauve in resolving t he problem o linguisric defi cicncy.
using, if ncc:cssary. rhe bomely rcrms invcn tcd by common laborers.
A case in peine would be rhc word f?11I b llSJ mCm O {foun dation} , a
corru ption of thc mo re classical enoasonemo ( base of a column)
uscd by su me Imperial archirecrs and alrercd by workers w ho tradi-
t ionally had troublc with the b-u disrincnon . Such c orruptions
wcrc hideous ro conser vativ o Bahians or lcarncd citizens of Mar an-
hao. who rradirion ally kept rheir distanc e from rnembers of t he
working cla ss. Hur rhcy became tolerable in Rio de j aneiro, Sao
Paulo. and Pernambuco, largcly because of the presencc in rhose
ciries of che master tcchnicians, who had to cruploy such terms in
arder tu he undcrstood ar al!. \ \'o rkers-Portuguese and snesticas
in the nort h and oftcn Italian, G ennan. oc Swiss in rhe sout b-ccm-
ployed rerms like etnhasantento, su/i pa (rail road tic or "sleepcr"),
brequ e (brakc ), had u na ( locomorive) . and pcrhaps ellcre71ca
(difficulry, from German Kri nk e (?) ) as rhougb rhey we re cur-
rcnr Porruguese ando by means of popular sovcrcipnrv-c-or prole.
rarian preponderance-c-managcd ro incor porare t hese expressicns
inro t he vemacular.
This sorr of assirnilarion also roo k pla ce. narurally cnough, in
o rher c ircles less adhercnr ro Lu sitanian t radirion. The assimilarion
of t hcse foreign rcchnical rcrr ns has occupied rhe arrention of Pro-
fessor Aurlio Buarq ue de H olanda, an expert wcl l qualified t o
evaluare rhc phcnomcnon in tcr ms of the cultural and rechnical
progress of Brazilian society . A numher of assimilarions are lisred
below, along with ot hers introduccd not by rechnicians o r laborees
but by wcalrhy Hly agers. t ravcling salcsmen, nrodistes, wrirers o n
w orld affai rs. SpOftS chroniclcrs, or publicists in t he ficlds of law
and finan ce. "'t ost of che following terms, used in ethcr rhe ir origi-
oal Eng lish or French form o r slightly alrered ro confo rm w ith Bra
7.ilian pro nu ncation. are still currenr in present. da y Brazilian Por-
tugucse:
 Education and Urban Culture 1] 5

Madame (or madam,l) , fve-o'ctock tm , jquei (jockey), rurie,

sptecn, snob, cettsenr, ~"',1g01l ( or 't'.lg,io ). doglle ( dog) , toilette, bife
(beefsrcak }. 1111.' 1111, reJtallrme, (1II1dillg, impescbmenr, t lbur, ce-
briol, /,mdd ( landau }, cupe (eoup ), declr, S111<1rt , r,lgll (r'lgotit) .
len, 'u;arrant.tg l.'111 ( var r anty). casse-t te, torcnon, cberrene, r d
quete, pince-nez; tagere, etiqueta. c1ube, clich , pegnoir, reporter,
tb e-J-tte, bonde (st rcctcar, from [he bond issuc floarcd to cnn-
srr uct rhe rrollcy lince in Rio de j ;lllciro ) , bulevar, -uiarer-closct , 't',TU-
devle. eme op pe, lite, comit (com mirrcc ), ckn u/I, bureau, iole
( Yawl) , tete (yacht) . [eisand , trust, msple, bufete, box , rosbie,
roasr, tb lis, pule ( poutet) , lncbsmemo (tvnchng). corere, bgb-
life, sabotagem, ho tel, nucadamc, bornbom, (est'JI, baste, ateier,
meeting, echarpe, banquet, ab.ljllr ( ah,lt -j011r ) , soirc, nuronene,
[{arfon , r camer, stlmU!ll.lge , groJtue (g rog), chal , vimne, turista ,
cbaise-Iongue, breque, misc-en-scenc, vaet, iieux rose, 1fIdrr 01fl ,
budget , lider, groom , cacbe-nez, gare, pastel, detalbe (dhai/), apache,
escalope, pur, g,l/fe, cmsrd, placard, enrourage, dreadllougbt, scout.
destroy er, tender , boycott, boulauger, conbaqtte (cognac ) , N ocl,
p ne ( po nv), larde, btsgue, m ire, omelette, billff, tme, tro noir, de-
tectoe, 1!IatJttette, msvonnaise, instinuricc, dossier, mtsine, manteau,
beige, [{ris perle, dseuse. passe-psrtout, marquise, f{uichet, for fait,
film , gallcherie, mat n e; {uidon, croquis , mgnoll, [{i[{olor, dem-
monde, croch ( c rochet), creche, debutar ( to make a d hur }, 111l-
ance, cocone. cbam tunba (chempagnc) . gendarme, bors d'oeuvre,
bijoux, joujou, fin-de-siecle, (rapp , fa neur, robe de chambre; tsblea,
ts tlcur, otastron, rrissere, rendezcous, lanche (lunch) , bihelot,
crm, plate<1lJ, demerchc, com plot, rat, caiten, micar me, macb,
goal, troupe, tourne, quipe , cr,')'011, t'emiH,lge , aplomb, bijuteri,7
(bi jousere v, boudor, earllet , mervie-ui; and many or hers.
The word bO H scems to have heen used for rhe firse time in Brazil
in 19 1 2 by the then reporter Assis Chat eaubriand." Foot ng scems lO
be a Brazilian invcnrion, S11l0 k i11[{ an adopriori from rhe French use
of t he term. Thcre isn't a single one of these "barbarisms" without
irs sociclogical imporrancc in inrcrprering rhc period o
And this is so dcspirc all rhe protests of purjsts and g ram rnarians
who in rheir Iasr srrongholds-c-in liahia and Xlaranho. as well as
clsewhere-c-nevcr ceas cd ro exe rcisc vigilance against w hat sccmed
10 Ihem a peril lo rhe nalion al language, an exprcssion of a cultural
order t hey wishcd ro kccp pure, undefilcd by such unnecessary
v T he late As..is Chateauhr iano.! was onc of Brazil's I1lUst inrluential pu bli.hers
ano.! ow ner u f a national c hain (I ( ncw'l'apcrs k no wn as Diirios A ssocJJ os. (Trans-
latOr.)
 Order and Progress

ncologisms and barbarisms. \\'hy sa)' mcnu when rhcrc is the

vernacular cardpio? Why abat-jour for quebra-lmt Why pince-
nez when you could S3Y nas culos> A significant work in this re-
spcet is N eologismos l ndspens veis e Barbarismos Dispensveis
(lndspentab e N eologisnts md Dispensable Barbarisms) by tite
master lcxicographcr Castro Le pes, pu blished in irs sccond edition
in Rio de j anciro in ' 9 9, "t he f irs t cdit ion having bcen qui ckly
sold out." "Ir is unfortunarely a well-known face th at there is a
decline in good srudies in cur ccunrry." says Lepes in his int rodu c-
rion. "Neverrhclcss, wc c hear ourselves wirh our Ialse methods of
srudying the hurnaniries and rnakc studcnrs believe that th is indis-
pensable lircrary knowledge is gencrally adrmnistercd." le is a pity :
ene studics the fun dam cntals "mcrelv in order ro obr ain admission.
ofren through illegitimarc rneans, 10 courses in higher education and
ro obrain, withour having rhe neces."ary talcnr, rhc degree of doc-
tor. . . . In th c agc of sream. clccrricity, and aviation'' ir is no
longer possible to run ; one r nust y. And as a linguist, Ca stro Lepes
regisrers an obvious ehange in rhe Brazilia n social clirnare: " \ Ve are
in a hurry : nobody wanrs ro go slowly. . . ."
One neccssity rccognizcd by Lepes in the facc of accclc rared
rec hnical progres." was rhar of creat ing ncw words. Out these should
be crcated wit hin che framcwork of classic Portugu esc and not by
adopring cxonc tcrms. Ir gave him grc ar pleasure 10 announcc in rhe
sccond edirion of his book rhar some of his suggested neologisms
hall "already bccn adoptcd by rhc press and by peoplc in general."
The presoS, he feh, could conrinuc [ O be an influ ence in this matt er,
and he called upon rhe "worrhy dirccrors of our journals" ro rakc
pan in crcating rhc good neologisms rcquircd by Brazilian progress,
and, ar che sarne time. ro hclp in "eliminating forcign blemishcs"
fram che Ponugucsc languagc. '
In general whar was happcning was that, so far as languagc was
concomed, anarchy was bcing confused with progress; under the
pressure of ncw ncccssirics. sorne son of order musr be introduced
inro this progress. " Progress is confused wirh perversin,' Castro
Lopes believcd. In rclation te language, rrue progress is maje by
"crearing terms presently lacking in Portuguese by tr anslating rhe
foreign expression," ~ lI e was in no way "antagonisric to inrerna-
I Ca~tro Lopes: N I!oJog1IIos InJispl!m.it'fis e Ho1rb.zrismor lJirpem.in :ir b nd edn.,
Rio de }aneiro , ";l( 9 ) , p. xii.
~ bid., p. xiv.
 Educat on and Urban Culture 'n
rionalism," bu r rather concerned r nerely ro prese rve "Iircrary
order" in th e languagc of Hrazil in line with rhc effecrive aurhority
of philclcgisrs, grar nmarians. and r nasters of lirerary sryle. Thcse
aut boriries "should be respccrcd by the insurgenr public" , other-
wisc "cnly anarchy will prcvail." A frer all, if " popular usage" w ill
pcrmir anyrhing in rhe wav of usage and spe lling, what use are the
diction arics and the rules of onhography > In Brazil, however. one
sees ver)' litrlc respeet for philological or lite rary aurboriry, com -
plains Castro Lepes. There are countries wherc rhc arts and scienccs
form "a serious branc h of public adminisrrarion," hur whar Mi nis-
rer in Brazil who "srill has sorne pretense ro lcrte rs" is able ro free
himself fro m "polirical int rigue long enough ro consider suc h baga-
rcllcs">
Cast ro Lepe s confcsscs in the inr roducrion ro his significanr boo k
t hat du r ing rhc Em pire he had already proposcd compiling an "Or-
t hographic Cede for rhc Brazilian Empire'' and rhat rhis proposal,
whieh would nor have bcen exccssivcly expcnsive, had bcen pre-
senred ro rhc go \'crnment by a disringuished man of lctt crs, bur
nothing ca rne of ir and th c proposal had nor even bccn rerurned ro
rhc sendero This, in a country "w he re many of t bc minstcrs have
rhc honor to he lirerary masrers . . ." but where rhc only t hings
that counr seem ro be "appcarances and thcarncal rricks.' 3 N cvcr-
theless. the discnc hanred philologist. faithful to his mission, at -
tcmpted re exerr his in flucnce rhrough t he press and bis book . Un-
ab\c ro counr upon rhc hclp cvcn of fr iendly minisrcrs, he no longer
cxpecred anything fr om govcmmcnrs. presenr or fururc, menar-
chist or re publican, cven rhoug h he rcalized rhar thc only roed re
t he eonquest of official circlcs (ay in "bccoming a politic al pam-
phlerccr and sclling oncsclf rhrougb one's wrirings." i
T o Castro Le pes. (me of rbc mosr irriraring of Gallicisms used
constantly by [h e daily press w as [he word r clame (in t he sensc of
advcrrisemene), w hich Moris unfortunately had incl uded in his
dicronary under [he Portugucs c from reclamo, R ctame in Freneh
has, among or her rncanings, rhar of "an an nouncemem in which
somcrhing is praiscd or built up ; une re/ame is therefore a (a..'or-
able ann ounc eme nt." Inst ead. Castro Lopes suggcsted rhe neolo-
gi<;m preconcio ( La[. precon, "oice of rhe preachcr and nuncio,
ne'...s, announcernem) . Such a word " has a lca rne d basis and a legir-
3 bid" p. ~ xlt i lt.
4 bid. p. xl.
I)S arder 1Jd ProgTess
imare der ivation." Unforrunarely, che suggcsrion was nor rcceivcd
sympathct ically by the " won hy dirccrors o the prcss.' lt may \VeU
have hccn thar chis lack of enthusiasm on rhe part o t he prsss, sorne
of whosc leading figures were meo o considerable prcsrige and
lcaming. lay not so much in t hc love o rhc G all ic ncologism as in
rhe pcd ant ry o rhe suggested subsritute. In faim css to rhe grear
ncwspapcrs of rhe pe r iod. ir rnusr be admirred rhat thcir use of lan-
guagc rarely fell short o corrccmcss and at times artained a cerrain
e1egance in thc ir edirorials ami lircrary, political, and scienrific ar-
rieles. So mc o rhesc joum als, dircctcd by such meo as .\Iach ado de

Assis. even employcd language o osrenrarious pcdanrry.
Bcfo rc ccns idc ring t his aspect o f a jou m alism which at rh c tim e
played so active a parr, for bcr rer or worse, in t hc developrncnr of
t he coun rry's culture, let lIS loo k ar rhose nonhtcrary sections of thc
daily prcss which so cbaracreristically represem the crhos o f a na-
rional characrcr : t hc advcrriscmenrs. noriccs, com plainrs. and wan t
ads, scme of which, accor ding ro t bc splcndid custom o f t he day,
evcn ap peared in ve rse form. If tite inclusion of rhis sor r o f mat erial
in a srudy rhar profcsscs concern wirh " cu ltu ral progress'' is ques-
rioncd , rhc cxplanation is rhar sueh material re vca ls rh c prescnce and
participation in Brazilian life of a lcvel of socicry which, rhrough
incrcasing lircracy and an ctfectivc press, was raking a g reater part
rhan its anc cstors had in shaping rhe cu lt ural paueros o f its c ou m ry.
True, tlIaTly of rhcsc announccmcnrs and wanr ads werc inscrrcd by
illircrares t hro ug h the officcs of a third party . Suc h professional
scribes. kno wn as testas de ferro (i ro nhe ads), existed ar rhe time
and werc cmployed nor only hy illitcratcs, bur also by persons w ho
wishc d ro evoid having ro answcr for rh c al'cu racy o r effcc r of rhcir
own words in prinr.
The influence of rhc illirerarc. however. was thc srrongcr, and
tite classified material ap peanng in Brazilian ncwspapers o f rhc pe-
riod is intercsting for its lively and spo m ancous suggcstio n o f
cycryd a)' spo ken Portugucse, in contrast to (he mo re erudire, aca -
demic. eyeo artificial rone o f thc cd itorials. In psychosociolog ical
tcrms, rhe fo rIller eoul d bc ea Bed D ionysiac and rhe larrer w(Juld
represcor the A pollonian element. Ao expert study of rhis material
is mu eh nceded ; sueh a st od y w ould probably sho \\' [hat in lan
g uage ao d substa oce t hese aonouneemcnts aod ad " ertiscmcnts were
far mo rc gen uincly Brn ilian t han t he mo re erod ite sec[ions of t ite
newspapers and c{}oi" alcnr almost lO fo lklore in thci r freshnes.<;,
 Education and Urban Culture 139

rough-and- ready lang uage. humor. an d rheir often rudc m crbods of

wi r, sarire. or c aricatu re, as wcll as in rheir o ft en immodcrate criri-
cism o r approbarion of conrcmpo rary and rradirional soc ial values.
T he more pict uresquc announccm cnts are ro be found in t hc
ncwspapers of tbc firsr half o f rhc nineteenrh cemury . For example,
the following from rhe Di rio de ['eT1lI1JJJbuco of J u ne 28, 1838 :
Whoe ver, either as a joke or in camcst. pickcd up a sunhonnct on
.\ Ionday , the ~5 th inst o in the ccll of Far her Jos in Sao Fra ncisco
r nonasrerv.

should rcrurn the anide ro t he same localit v.. if he doesn'r
want ro see h s name pub lishcd.
The person advertising for a vol urnc of Pope may di reet himsclf
to the Rua das F lores, Iast hou-,e, be sidc the shop wirh rhc large dcor.
where he wi ll find such a volu mc with t ranslaricn at t he side.
Scnhor C.F.Y. r nust rcclaim t hc an id es he pawn cd within t he
space o f three day s or these anides will be sold in payment of prin-
cipal and intcrest, the last th ree paymcnts of which havc nor bcen
mad e.
Foreigner, cxpericnccd farm overscer, wanted: bachelor or mar-
ried man wit hour familv prefcrred.
For sale: One rcpearing watch, exccc nt eime keepcr, onc finch,
and ene Imperial canary .
Esca ped, onc black namcd Ant nio, of Congo stock. abour 25. wit h
rhc follow ing charactcristics: no far, thi n Icgs. small fect, short face,
scars on his neck, bald crown, lively evcs, accustorncd to going wjrh
fr ee ~egress narncd Paula and he also ca lls himsc lf free when he goes
abour seJling cloth, is kn own ro many unde r t he nic kname of Pcddlar
or \Van . . .
Similar announccmcnrs may b e fo und in an}' n ewspaper of (he
perio d o
T he spomaneiry of t his humor ami the picturcsque lang u ag e JiJ
nor disappcar du ring rhc period o f rransition from slavery ro fr ee
labo r. Rarher, t hcy con tinued into rhc Rcpublican pcnod unril aftcr
rhc Firsr World W ar and servcd ro implant a sensc of proletarian-
ism amo ng work crs lo ng removed from the parteros o f slavery. In
fact, d ur ing rhc t ransition pcriod suc h material incr eascd in volumc
and , in ebolit ion isr papers in particular, gained in picruresqucncss.
somerimcs te thc poinr of becoming d ownright abu sivo in its trear-
m cnr o f respcc rable. evcn vcncrared persons and institu t ions. In
F cb ruary . 188 2 an ab o lirio n isr paper called Club 33 pub lishcd a1\
ext ended attac k on pecsons w ho continued to sp eculate on t he sla\'c
market. N ames w ere named fredr , as, for exam ple, that o f a certain
14 Grder and Progress

"Haron of - - , wh osc titlc was choscn ar random from rhc name

of a Ilebrew ciry and for whom Ilell, if rhere is suc h a place, is
w aiting wirh widc-opcn docrs. .. ." 5 N cverrheless, this traffickcr
in slavcs cvcntually turrted ebolirionist, "pcrhaps in arder to risc
more casily ro rhe hcighrs of provincial polirical office and ro prove
once ami for all rhat he had succeeded in fooling borh God and th c
Dcvil." In che samc article. we leam thar "Licurcnanr-Colonel . ..
Cavalcanri d'Albuqucrque is still in hcalehy activity, rhanks [O rhe
milk from his own cows (va cas), lt is said t hat mese of t bc stock
( cr ias) he posscsscs is of his own brecding, giving him thc doublc
disri ncrion of bcing borh lord ano farhcr! If ir weren'r rhat we wish
to avoid otfense ro rbc pon r slaves. we would call him ' Boss Stud-
borse' ( ['.Ji d'A guas)." "
Fqu ally inreresring for rheir revelation of rhe social life of rhe
late Fmpire are the nc ws repor{S and arriclcs in abolitionisr papers
dealing wit h rclations bctwecn slavcs ami rnasrcrs. The following
nortee. for cxamplc. appearcd in thc Cidade do Recife for October
1, 1888. "T hc slaves freed today, gratcful te rhosc who have
workcd so hard ro free thcm from t he y oke of scrvu ude, are adopr-
ing rhe namcs of Dam as, Prado, crc., in conrrasr ro rhcir rcndcncy,
bcfore Emanciparion, to rakc t he narnes of rheir ruasters cven when
rhosc rnasrers wcrc rhcir c ruclesr tormentors. A shorr rime ago rhc
parries to a marriage in Piedade. ;\ linas Gerais, wcre Casimiro "in-
ccnte Das Fcrraz Clap and Severiana Jos do Patroc nic Nabuco
de Ara ]o Prado." At rimes master and slavc rclarionships wcre
made rhc sou rce of sardonio humo r. as in rhe O Binculo for J anu-
ary 18. 1883. w hich conrains rhc following dialogue hetwecn a Fa-
t hcr G ama (pcrhaps Friar .\ Iiguel do Sac ramento Lepes Gama.
abour whorn man)' jokes wc rc circu lared) and a "certain haron of
.
our acq uamrance ";
"So you made your form nc in hidcs>" and rhe Harn . "T har's
righ r. but rhere werc pcople insidc thcm."
Thcre were also llIany ircms in the want ads, personal columns,
or norices which test ifi cd lyrically ro purcly privare evcnts: " H ail!
lIail! lIail! W irh my heart full of joy, 1 sm d alfectionate eompli 4

~ Alrhough !he polemicisls apparemly named names. rhe aUl h"r is mute discree!
and ,eil, rhe idem iry of rhe ,-icrims uf rh i, abolirioni,! bb ,! . (T ransb to r.)
6 .\1uclr of the po in! of t his canard is lnllt in ln n ~l ui"n. The Porruguese word
t 'aCJJ could he Innsbre d h.. ,,1t a~ "eo ws" and "",enc ites:' and crWJ (n i....:!! or any
young anil11alsl is alw apl-'lie d 10 fuundlinp and illegiti11lale chil dren. l'"j J'A gIUJ
is an ill5uhi ng terrn equ l in force 10 "su n of a blrc h.' (T n nslu or.)
 Educas on and Urb an Culture

mcnts ro my beloved cousin A.p.Cn. on her birrhday and hope

thar rherc will he lIIany more days like rhis one." Somerirnes rhe
message w as more scrious: " \ Ve request rhe presence of rhc student
A.F.No in the patio of Building No. 8 to dcal wirh a rnarter which
he had besr no t try ro forgcr. (signcd) The Vicnms." And t here
were rhc numcrous c om pla ints of tradcsmcn, particularly railors and
hat rcrs, against rhose srud ents wh o hall ncglecrcd to pay for the
clegant dress coars and rcsplcndcnt high hars which were thei r badge
of officc.
In t hc samc O Bmculo rherc was a humo rcus section cntitlcd
"Bincculared Advcrtiscmenrs." which reproduccd advcrtiscmenrs
from various [oumals of the pcriod, along with often spicy editorial
ccmmerus \ Iany dealr with rclarions hcrwcen master and serva nrs,
.t

one, in rhc issue of j anuary 11 , 1895, under thc heading "Maidserv-

am W enrcd" was vrrually Fcscennine in irs audaciry. The original
norice read : "Wanted. a r naidscrvanr t O rakc charge of bird s . . .",
ro which O Binculo addcd :
I have a lovely little bird ( pdmIro )
Of brighr romaro-rcd
\ Vhich, being very coy.
Necds a place to hide its hcad.

A sccond announcernent read : " \ Vet nurse nccdcd, musr fu rnish

character references . . .", ro which O Binculo responded Iyri-
cally.
I also nced a nice yc ung girl,
A girl as fi ne as silk;
She needn't be a wcr nurse,
But shc must know how to milk,"
Ir was as though, once the cmancparic n euphoria had passed and
t hc barons and rhc slavcholdcrs had beco sufficiently roasred in rhe
press, a ccrrain dissarisfacrion wirh rhe ne w order of labor grew up,
a dissarisfacrion which frcqucntly found irs ourler in the wam ads
and paid noriccs of rhc newspapers. Rcflccring rheir disdain for rhe
womcn who advcrtiscd their dom esric scrviccs. sorne householders
felt it necessary ro remind prospecrive applicanrs rhar, as free crn-
ploy ces. tbcy would srill be expecred ro assume rhc same sexual
1T he do" bl~-em ~ndr~ nf t h~ l-'<>rtuguese wv rds fo r " bird" and "milk" needs no
explanation. (T rm sb tor.l
 Order and Progrese

subser viencc as in ehc old days of slave ry. Thus. in rhc heme, rhe
cmancipation was nor accomplishcd as immediatcly as rhc lyrical
cnr husiasm of rhe abolinonisrs lcd one ro belicve ir would be. A
significanr passage in O Binculo for j anuary 1ft 1888. srarcd rhat ,
in t hc face of municipal regulat ions req uiring "rhc regisrrarion of
nu rscs and c rher privare scrvanrs. sorne inconvcnicncc has bcen
causcd by rhe ill wi ll of scrvanrs w ho throu gh ignorancc refusc ro
obey this law, alleging it [() be a new fon n of slavery ."
But rhc O Binculo alsc ran an edito rial ackno w lcdging rhc inca-
paciry of former slaves ro ad just satisfactorily ro t hc role of free
domesrtc scrvanrs: "Ir is preved thar rhe slevc is an elcment incom-
pnnble wi th OUT socia l st ruc tur c. In t bc face of rhc grcat law of
social evolurion and cvcn in considcration of capit al or mercant ilc
vales, t hc slave is an impossible clerncnt. nonsusta ining and in dis-
purably absurd , , , red uccd for so long a pcriod ro a condirion of
ser vility, he now dcscr ves mcrcly ro be classcd as usclcss."
T he dissate..fac rion was intcnsificd d uring rhe early yea rs of free
labor. and calls fo r good cooks, maids. and nu rscs mulriplicd in t he
pages of rhe ncws papers . But cven befor e abolirion. rherc had beco
calls in t hc classitied sccrions fo r free servants wbc would live with
t heir cmploycrs. In rhe D rio de N oticies of Hahia for J uly 19.
188+. fo r examplc. was an adverrisemc nt for "a cook who w ill live
in" and another for a " nurscmaid ro rakc ca re of children," w ho
muse be of "ad ult age," have "good background ." and he w illing ro
.
" ]'rvc 11\, "
Ir is in t hc [ornat do Connnercio of R io de Janeiro-- a newspapcr
w hic h ar the time conraincd m ore advcrtising t han any journal in
rhe world wirh thc cxccprion of T bc T imes of London (a nd rhe
N eui Y ork }-[ erald) ~-r h at rhe devcloprnent of thcse tensions in
hiring domcsn c help are secn mosr cle ar ly. From 1890 on int o rhe
new ccnr ury. rhcre was a great wave of dernand for foreigncrs.
som etimos dcsignared spccifi cally as Germn, Pc rt ugucs e, Span ish.
or j apanesc. In rhc S5UC of Scprcm bcr 3. 1909. we read: "Wanred
- a rnaid of all work for a family without children, forcigncr pre-
ferred. apply Rua do Resende. ::"Jo. 180" ; " \ Vanr ed-a good G er-
. ..
mao cook for rcfi ncd fam ilr. good pay. apply Rua e nsille V elho.
_' 0, 1 1 3 " ,
,.

~
Fll.'tchl.'t :ln,] KidJ l.' r ~falc in [ ~i 9 lha r lhe JO rll~1 do Com1/1ercio ~ h a~ Ihe
honor (Jf hn ing rhe l'reall"'f numo., r uf a<l \'eni-.eml.'nt. uf an)' oum al in Ihe
world, except the l o nJ un T im es anJ rhe !\lew Y ork H er,ld ," op . cit. p. l H .
 Education and Urbon Cultu re '43
Nor was th cre any lack of foreigncrs 10 611 thcsc positions. Thc
same issuc carrics lllany applications for "Siruarions Wanrcd":
"Portugucse wet nurse with rhrcc momhs' milk. married, good rcf-
crcnccs, apply Ru a G eneral Polidoro, X o. 177, Ap artmcn t 1\'0 . 1' \
"Port ugucse wcr nurse, fi ve months' milk, hcalrhv nnd affc ctionatc.
wil l submir to examin arion, Rua da Oamboa. :\:0. 117, upsrairs" ;
"Porrugu ese wcr nurse, scvcn monr hs' milk, refcrcncc from Dr.
.\l oncorvo, apply R ua "larech al Flori ano Pcixoru, N o. 191 (ncw
numbcrinq}, upsrairs", "Spanish girl wishes cmplcymenr as dry
nurse, reccnrly bom child prcferred. apply Rua do Santo C risto,
N o. 1 12 " ; "Available. wirh ene monrh's milk, Portugucsc, Rua
,\ Iacedo Sobr inho, No. Z 1, sccond door, Largo dos Lcocs" ; "Portu -
gu cse gir! sccks employmcnr ro wasb and iron for a reliable family,
Rua de S. Crist vo, N o. 36, apt o 1.+,' ; "Porrugucse maid-of-all-
work; Roa dos Invlidos, N o. '45. apr. No. 11 "; "Reccntly arrived
Portugucsc girl available as c1 eaning wom an, live out, Rua da lm-
perarriz, N o. IZ O" ; "Pcrfccr laundrcss. Porrugucsc, fore ign family
prcferred ; Avenid a lpiranga. 1'\0. 6, l.aranjeiras": " j apancsc chef,
cook. and bakcr, Rua Sao Clemente, N o. Z 16 "; "G ood Chinese
cook ami bakcr. Ru a do Lavradio, No. 53 " ; "Iralian cook, knows
French and Brazilian cuisinc. pastar, and dcsscrt s; Rua da Lapa, No.
1 2, bakcshop" ; "Good Port ugu ese landscepc and vcgetable gar-
dener, gcod-conducr card, Largo da '\liseracrdia, No. 15."
Thcse "Siruations W anrcd'' advcrt isemcnts inscrrcd by Portu -
gucse and ot hcr forcigners appearcd in fa r grcarer numbcr rhan the
rare: " N egrcss for Iigbr work for ccu ple or ro rake chargc of a
child, Rua da ,\ l iseric6rdia. No. 75" ; or "Colorcd hoy wanrs sjru-
ation as cook, rcfcrcnccs. Travcssa de S. Francisco de Paula. No. 6,
rnd floor" ; or "Colored cook ro Iivc in, small family preferrcd. Rua
"-liguel de Paica, N o. 13. Carumbi'', or, fin ally, "Colored rnaid,
spcaks some Frcnch, boardinghouse expericncc. apply Rua das Pal-
.
metras, ~....."'0. 75, "
In rhe middle of thc mnctcenrh ccntury. rhe proportion was in-
verted and ad verriscmenrs for foreigners fi gurcd rarcly in noriccs of
rhis t)'pe: "Need servanr. free or slave, ro wash and iron for small
family . . ."; "t v ill scll a pretty slavc girl, strong, docs laundry.
sewing. cooking ; Rua das T rinchciras, N o. Z9"; " In rhe Rua Es-
rrcira do Rosario, No. 25. fi rsr floor, N egro gir! of ao for sale,
pretty figure, does iron ing, cooking, and scru bbing, and ancrher of
35 with the same abiliries" ; or "For sale. a mul atro boy of :2, good
/44 arder and I'rogress
railor and coachman, Negro of rhc same agc and a middlc-agcd ::'\c-
grcs.~ who cooks \"Crr well and sews, o "cr)' good conduce . and
anothcr Negress of zz who cooks ver)' wcll, Rua do Livramenro,
:\0.4" ; or, finally . "T wo pren y mulaero girls for sale. agcd 16 and
2 0 , skilleJ, " and "twc pretty rnularro childrcn. 1 1 and 12 "
In t he pc riod immediately before rbat covered in this bock-c-the
hcyday o slavery and agrarian economy-rhe Europcans most
soughr afrer in rhe classificd cclumns were rhose who undersrood
the durics o sugar-mill ovcrsce r in rhc north or plantarion in rhe
sourh. \ Vhcn for eigners elso began ro be cmployc d in domesric
servicc in rhc mo re eleganr middlc-class homcs. rhis acred as a repu.
diarion of che rcccnrly liberarcd Negro w hc carne from thc country
mansions [O seck cmployrne nt in rhc ciries.
O nc inrercsting dcrail in rhesc advertiscmcnts for domcstic scrv-
ice is thc appearance of rhe word senhora applicd ro forcigners seek-
ing employ mcnr as laun drcsscs, nurscmaids, cooks, or scrving
maids, thus using a tcrm of dignity hirherto inconccivablc t Brazil-
ians in associarion wirh domcstic labor. T hc dissarisfaction of rhese
samc Brazilians wirh the new type of free Negro ser vant seems also
ro havc incrcascd the rush to hire whir e foreigners. even wh en it
was necessary to par thcse ncw servanrs ,vages which. for rhe pe-
riod, wcrc ver)' hig h indced. W cll-ro-do familics in Rio de Janeiro
or in thc provincial capir als considcred ir most clcgane to make a
show of scrvanrs who werc nor only whire, bur ofrcn blo nd as well
-c-perhaps G erman- and who would be addrcsscd as senhora. O ne
of thcse G ermen senhoras, after severa! )'ears of scrvicc in rhc home
of onc of the wcalrhy fami lies of Recife, marr icd a hard working
Swiss of cqually modcst origins, a ship's chandler in Salvador end
larer in Rccifc. who became a millionaire during rhc indusrrialization
of the north in rhc early Republic. At che same rime, the descend-
anrs of rhe family of mcrchant princes she had servcd as a r ouog girl
wenr downward in the cconomic scalc in a complete reversal of so-
cial status. 5uch re'ersals \Vere freguent in the period and came nO[
so Oluch from the change in government as froOl the revolution in
working conditions; Olan)' of the foreign senhoras who had started
as servants thus bccame leaders in societ)', often acquiring the
jewcls of somc impoverishcd famil)' through rhe medium of the
pawnshop.
If it is tfUCthat some of the upheaval in fortune and social status
during this period was due ro the sudden change from slave to free
 Edncation and Urban Culture '-/5
labor. ir is equ all v exact to sIY that in tnany cases forrun es were
revcrscd by rhc fin ancia! policies of rhc ncw Rcpuhlic. Cr iticism of
rhcsc policics was not lacking in the press: " In rhc Federal Capital,
spccularion on the stock marke t, prornorion fcvcr. and th e sceking
of lucrativo conccssions rhat cnrich rhc holder and impovcrish rhc
Treasury havc bccn t bc ccn tcr around which t he cnrirc Rcpublic
has bccn rcvolving," compla incd the publicatinn of rhc Rcpublican
Club of Boa Vista, Rccifc. on Ap riJ 7, 189 1. For such Republicans.
thc govcrnment was follow ing an crroncous course: ir wes "falso
progress'' ro favor " a half-dozcn bankcrs" on the onc hand, whilc
"inund aring rile counrrv wirh dcprcciatcd currcncy'' 0 11 rhe othcr.
\Vh ar could be rhe outcome save rhe enrichmenr of the fcw at rhc
cxpense of thc manv? The nation had lose its scnsc of vales:
".. . individuals whosc dreams in Imperial times ncver excccdcd
rhat of becoming secretar)' to a minor burcancrar'' wcrc now being
appcin tcd te "posts beyond thcir abilities." In go"crnmem officcs,
in rhc courts, and in the universitics rhc game of polines 'lis com-
promising rhe "ery instirurions of whieh the counr ry cxpecred rhe
mcsr," by the appointmenr of the "dullcst mcdiocnries'' and the
"mosr incompcrcnr and prcrcnnous pclit icians'' ro high offieial pcsi-
ncns or to professorships in law.
Authoritics of thc new rcgimc wcrc apparcn rly not slow to an-
swcr this criricism in rhc press wirh "bearings and personal repris-
als,' for thc Jornal 'eoueno (Rccifc) of April 7, 1891 . complained :
"Whae progress can be madc if rhc governmem answers irs crirics
in rhe prcss wit h blows and personal atracks>" and rhen procceded
ro arrack violcnrly sorne of its Republican co-religionairics. whom ir
considercd pervcrtcd, and re accuse "Sr. Luccna" of "conrinuing
rhe discredirable work bcgun by Ruy Barbosa," classing bot h
Luccna and Ruy as pcrsons " whose incapacity is cqualled only by
thcir infatu ation."
Personal reprisals wcre certainly nor lacking. The Gazeta de
N otcias (Rio de Janeiro) of Fchruary, 1888 published a letter by
Jos de Carapebus in reply ro a previous letter publishcd und er [he
epigraph "Fidalgo de Lama " (Baron :\1uck) challenging the aurhor
of the fi rsr to " declare his name so that I may gi,'e him a proper
answer whenever I mec[ him," V iolenr langllage was always to be
found in the Brazilian press. hur never \Vas ir so l'ehement as in the
squabhles which took place among the Republicans [hemse1vcs. On
Dccember 11, 1889, the Recifc L m ch a srated that the attack
 O rder and Progress

against Jm ,\ !ar iano appca ring in anorhcr Recifc pa per had bccn
t he work of "mcrccnarics . .. capablc of tak ing rcfuge in ano-
nymiry and rherc bv cscaping t hc horscwhipping th cy dcscrve."
The ed itor of thc paper in qucstion " o ug ht ro be sufficicntly scru-
pulous ro rcfusc ro pubhsh such sru tf. for rhc press is not a gutrer
fo r rhe pu rrid wnrcrs of dcfama rio n and cal umny ." 13m ir was rhc
same Lanc ra whic h on .\ fay JI, , 890, could at tack Ruy Barbo sa,
rhcn Trcasu ry ,\ Iin isrer. aggrcssively and maliciously for un otfic ial
pronouncetncnt considered unfavorable ro loca l business . Thc min-
isrcr, ir stared. "s hou ld lcam how ro trcar an honcsr group," w hich
"lived hy its ()W Il cfforts" and was not accusrorned ro "rhe parasit-
isrn of otlicial administrarion." " Thcrc is no bigger bullv among
ministers t han Ruy Barbosa," t hc joumal connnucd, in rcrms only
silg htly lcss agg rcssivc rhan rhc insinuatio n of " parasit ism ."
Bu t such languagc in Recife was norhing rmusu al. Al art ins
J nior, a narive son, was accuscd of effcmina cy, along wirh an in -
sinuarion o f pcderasry. \Vhen a lawyer fricn d of Xlartins's at-
rempred ro sue rhe dcfamer. rhc lat rer dernandcd a rnedical examina-
rio n ro pro\"e or disprovc tbc t rut h o f bis sratcmenr. lt was in rh is
arnosphcre t hat rhe first Barbosa L ima forccd a ippant [our nalisr
lircrally ro cat the words he had wrirrcn about a rnembe r of t he
family o f rhar irascible politician ; thc o tfen ding articlc was rcduced
t o a ball of paper and swallowcd by its unhap py aurhor.
In rhc case of married politicans. insinu arions we rc made abour
rheir wivcs' fidclity. but thc mosr frequcnr accusat ion was that of
improbiry. and nobody was a more frcq uer n rargee of such abuse
rhan Ruy Barbosa." Thcre were rimes, ho we vcr, whcn rhcsc at-
racks werc rum cd back on rhc at tackcr . Ruy Barbosa had bcen a
jou rnalist an d had livcd in rhc anuosphcrc of anti-govcrnmem jour-
nal ism since h irt h. Perhaps ir was chis backgrou nd which inspircd
his occasionally violcnr language. On ,\ lay 15. 1869, in a paper
called A Ordem-l'eridico po/itico, i1llp.lrciJ/ e lIoticioso (O rder
-A l'o!iticJ/, /1J1pJrtiJ/, and News'V.:orthy / ournnl) pllblished in
Santos. he \Vent ro such extrcmcs in his criricism (Jf rhc Empirc as ro
call rhe p rO\'incial presidenr " rhe n oro rious jackass o f I[ana, the
I110sr accom plishcd pimp for Sao C risrd.o [the rcs idc nce of Pedro
II J, anJ the IT10sr shamcless prcsidcllt rh e s[inking co urr has c\'er
~An equally frequent aecusali" n was lhal lhe Ba hian stalesman ""as lhe son or
gnndso n o f a ~l a\C wOl1lan. tho ugh Wilh lhe lCceplance of Silo Pepnha and
G eneral G lye io, b<>t h "f Segru hluod , sue h "sinuu iu" s ""on loSl cheir force .
 Education and Urban Culture 147
senr ro contaminare t his provincc.' O n anorher occasion. he quered
articles from t hc Rio-Grandense in whic h rhe southern newspaper
atremprcd to dcfcnd t hc D ukc of Caxlas under thc head ing "De-
lenda Caxlas. ' 1 T aking advanragc of thc slip in Latin gendcr, Ruy
ann ounccd rhar "r hc Rio-G rendense has discove red rhat Cax ias is a
woman! . . . 1 don'r wonder thar Brazil has a fcmale genera l and
sen at r, becausc Re me also liad a female Pope who cnj oyed grcat
success in [he Vatica no Pcr baps rhis cxplains t hc rapid r isc of ccrtain
officers closc te the General." \ Vhe n he published rhese insulrs
againsr a m an of Cax as's starurc he was an impressionable youtb of
t\vcn[y, but it is no w ondcr th ar he later bccame so cffective in his
arrac ks againsr govcrnment oriicials. Ir was cqually prcd icrablc that,
once Trcasury ;\ Iinisrer o rhe provisional governmcnr. this journal-
sr. w ho bad nearll' always bccn numbcre d among r he o ppo sition.
sho uld have bcccmc rhc rarger of anacks sim ilar ro rhose he himsclf
had pcr pctrarcd as a yourh againsr courr minisrcrs, provincial prcsi -
dcnrs, scnarors, and counsclors, against rhc D uk e of Caxias, Bisho p
Dom Vita l. and evcn t he Em pcror himsc lf. Sorne o the arracks on
R uy almosr stigmatizcd their vicrim Ior life, and it was only in old
age, rhrough his rriumph ar thc world cou rt in The 1Iagu c and his
distinguishcd civ il campaign, t hat he was able tu clear himself of rhc
sta in o dishonesry cccasioned by press auacks in rhe carly days o
rhc Republ ic.
Litcrarurc in t he pcriod up ro 1900 was no r unconn cct cd wirh
rhc q uasi-Iirerary acrivities of rhe press. nor did t hc press ignore
lircra turc. T bc pu rely journalistic fu ncrion of rhc prcss was, o
coursc. ca rricd e n ar a mucb mo re vigorous ra te t han rhc produe -
ricn o books and, all in all, had a grear cr impact upon rhc rcading
public. Bur in irs quasi-Jircrary aspeets. t he press acre d ns an inter-
medi ar}' bcrween journalism nnd lircr at ure. R are were rhc aurhors
whc did nor make their prcsence elr th rollgh anicles in t he news-
papers and magazincs, who did not cxt end beyond their pu rely lit-
era ry creari\'ity ro take an int erest in nat ional Jife, ro participat e in
polities, or ro take a hand in infiueneing publi e opinion 00 t he prob-
lellls o t he da)'. SlIch p:m icipation \Vas ne ither purel)' journalistic
nor purely lirerar)'. and the best j ou rn a l ~1:s themselves-Quintino

1 The D uke uf Caxias, B ra~ilian cumma nder in chief during t he Paraguayan

\ \ 'ar, is I'ruhabl y the great~t Hrazilian hero tlf the ninCleenlh cenru ry. A charac-
ter uf irreproachahle nohilily, Cnia, aft<' r Ihe war aho attaincd distinction a, a
eo n-.enatin : ~taresrnan. ( Tra n~lat<lr .)
 arder and Progress
Bocayuva, Carlos de Laet. .'.teJeiros e Albuqucrquc, Ruy Barbosa
(during his great days 0 0 the Dirio de N oticias), Aleindo Guarra-
bara, young Fl ix Pacheco. rhc firsr Jlio Mosquita. Ncstor Rangcl
Pcstana, Tobias .\tomeiro, and joo do Rio-all had something rhat
distinguished rhcm from cvcryday jou rnalisrs, not only in rheir su-
perior knowledge and ralenr hut also in th eir written sryle, which
fell somcwhere berwec n cornr non journa\ism and crear ive art. Raul
Pornp ia. for cxample. was sensirivc, artistic, and literary in his role
of man of lctrcrs, bur he was also a ralenred joum alisr and man of
action. Ind eed, alllong journalistic lcaders, pure newspapermen
were rareo One such was Jos Carlos Rodrigues who, upon rerum-
ing from New York whcre for )'cars he had published the Novo
Aundo, directed rhe l om a! do Connnercio from 1890 ro ' 915 as a
journalist pure and simple. (Only ar th c end o his lifc did he
beccrnc inrcresrcd in histoncal rcscarch. bur he never considcred
himself a lirerary man. ) Another was Ed mundo Bttcncourt, whose
only intcresr was ro influence presem op inin incisvcly and vigor-
ously . in a ncws paper alwoys in more or less violenr opposit ion to
rhc governmenr."
Even during an earlier period the polirical and literary press had
playcd an,impon am role in rhe cultural developrnen t of the cou n-
rry. Sincc rhe hegioning of rhc E mpire, rhanks ro the fre edom of
puhlication, thcrc had bcen "inrcnsive press activiry rhroughour rhe
counrry. in whic h Iiterature aod politics wcrc rnixed rogerher in the
manner so rypical of rhc pcnod." ~ This mixture csrablished a bond
betwccn wrircrs and t hc Brazilian public aod preved as favorable ro
bellcs-lcn rcs as ro rhc more occasional rypes of wriring, parricularly
in helping ro break down rhe rigid divisions bcrwecn the two sryles,
as well as rhose of a racial or sexual narure. Nevcrrhcless, this poliri-
eal and Iitcrary [usion, usc ful as ir was in rhe developmenr of a
coum ry still sub-Europcan in its culture, also had its unfavorable
aspeCfs. Thcrc is no doubt thar ir "dcveloped rbe rype of wrirer
known as 'publicist': a mixtu re of joumahst. politician. and man of
leners capablc of Aitting from one subjccr ro anorher wirhout iden-
tifring himself clearl)' '''' ith any .. ," . giving rise to "the ascend-
aney of rhe dilettante o"er the proCessionai writer. with grave con-
sequences upon rhe qua lity of both [he literature of imagination
2Another such figure W2S Furej ra de Anujo. (T n nsb tor.)
) Afranio Coutinhu, et ~I. ; A Lj er~tur" no Br~Jil {Rjo de J aneiro. 19S5 >. l.
No. J, 579.
 Edncaton and Urban Culture '49
ami t hat of ideas." In ao)' case. ir was throu gh journalism,
"whcrhcr lirerary or polirical. whethcr in rbe news colurrms or
through rranslarions" t hae "rhc rarcficd incipient Hrazilian cultural
atmosphcrc mainrained irs spirituel contact with che grear foreign
centcrs...
By rhe ru rn of th e cemury. rbc prcsrigc and inuence of journ al-
ism had surpasscd rhc earlicr supremacy of rhe pulpit and was chal-
lenging rhar of rhe tribunal, Ir was ,H rhis t ime. rhanks ro rhe devcl-
opmenr of a considerable reading public, rhar rhc posiricn of rhe
wrirer atrained a new digniry and indcpendcnce. T his had airead)'
heen anricipared ro sor ne cxrcnt by rbc populariry of rhc romances
of Macedo and Alencar, but ir was th e French publish er Batist e
Lou is Garnier who really broughr abour a ncw relarionsbip be-
t ween wrirer 3n J pub lico Brazilians had alweys had so rne sense of
hrcrary values. gained t hrough scrmons, lccrures, thcarrcs, and po-
lirical o rarory. At heme, within rhc parrern of pat riarchal dcmcsric-
iry, rhey had hcard subsranrial books rcad aloud, Don Quixote, for
examplc, or rhe X cgro slave womcn 's ralcs of T rancoso or orher
legcndary figures. They had evcn done sor ne reading on levcls com-
mensurare with rhcir cducat icn, intelligcnce. or cconomic siruarion.
Bur rhe rrue phasc of lirerary appreciarton carne ar rhe end of th c
monarchy wirh rhc appearance of rhe Gamier pubhcarions.
The fi rsr Frcnch-sryle papcrbacks ro be publishcd wcrc the
standard Brazil ian authors of rhc day : Ah-ares de Azevcdo,
Concalves de \ 1agalhaes, Por ro Alegre. :\Iacedo, Alenc ar, Ber-
nardo Guimares, "bnue] de Almcida, Percira da Silva. Canon
Fcrnandcs Pinhciro, j oaquim N orberto de Sousa, " telo \ Iorais Pai,
rhcn carne rhe newer wrircrs whosc y ourh brought ncw values ro
rhc Brazilian sccnc. E...cragnollc Taunay, Lu s Guiruares, Tavares
Bastos, A ugu sto Teixeira de Freir s, j oaquim Maria Serta. Pimenta
Bueno, rhe Viscounr ci Uruguay, Bincncourt Sampaio, C ndido
Mondes de Almeida. t hen. larer, Machado de Assis. Melc Morais,
j r., Sy lvio Rome ro, Alusio Azcvcdo. j oaquim Nabuco, Alberto de
Oliveira, ,\ l edciros e Albuquerque, Ncs ror Vi tor, Afonso Celso,
Olavo Bilac, Clvis Bevilaqua, Domicio da G ama, G raca Aranha.
j lia Lopcs de Almeida, Jos Verssimo, Antonio Sales, Laudelino
Freire, lon do Rio (Paulo Barrero) . and many othcrs: all issued by
Garn ier.
T hus Ernesto Senna was nut exaggeraring ",hen he ",rote (in his
bid., p. 519.
( 50 arder m d Progress

book on rhc formcr commerce uf R io de Jancirn) t har "rhe scrvice

of Garnicr to Brazilian lircraturc was highly signific anr. despirc his
sringiness in rcgard ro fccs. I Ic publisbcd a great roany naticnal au-
rhors, ami t he num bcr o tirles by t bcsc wrircrs surpassed 665. not
count ing t he nu mcrous rranslarions aIso malle by Braxilians." ~ O ne
of t hcsc rranslat ions was Soutbey's H story of BrJzif, a work o Iun-
damenral inrcrcsr ro llraz.ilians, in rhc Porrugucsc

of Lus de Castro .
And in fairn css ro G arn icr ir musr be pointcd out rhat, rhough t ight-
fist cd wir h bis aurhors. "rhcrc was nobodv likc him in his cnrhusi-
asm ami good will in undcrraking rhc risky business o publishing
national authors," cspecially aut ho rs o suc h weig hr as C ndido
.\ Icndes. wi rh bis C digo Filipino and his codifica non of arrcsts in
rhc old Co un of R clarions (T ribunal da Rclaco) , or A. J. Ribas.
wir h many juridica l ritlcs. or. for rhat matrero rhc Holy Iliblc, t rans-
larcd by A nr nio Pereira de Figu ciredo. in an cdirion illusrrared
wirb 30 srcel engravings and prinrcd in Par s by Blot.
G arn ier also int roduccd Brazil ro rhe 7-point and r a-poinr long
[ormats madc po pular in Francc by Calrnann -Lvy, and esrahlished
the magazines Rers ta Popular and [ om al das Familias. His press
dates from tbe 1870'S. when, wir h mo dern machines imponed from
Europc. he publishcd rhc so-callcd Uni versal L brary in octavo and
thc Pocket Library in duodcimo wirh Portuguese rranslarions of
rhc wo rk s of Musscr. Droz, G autier, Sardou. and Julcs Vem e."
T hesc publicarions camed him 30 comos . Priding himself 00 his
knowledgc of t hc Brazilian marke t, G amier once said ro a regular
cusromcr who had advised him te reduce rhc pricc 00 a book which
wasn'r go ing wcll: "Thar won'r wo rk; rherc are sorne books which,
no matter what rhcir pricc or critica] acclaim. won'r scll mo re th an
300 or 400 copies; wh ereas wir h rhe popu lar on cs ir is easy ro scll
600 ro 800 [he fi rsr r ear. . . ." 1
Everyrhing secms ro indicare t har G arnicr was fort unare enough
ro hegin his pu blishing activities just when improv ing economic ci r-
cumsranccs wcrc crcaring a dcmand rhroughout th e couot ry for
pr ivate libr aries of favorire authors, bor h national anJ European.
Even so. ir is ro rhe credit of "Jew" Garnier, as he was somct imes

~ Ern o:sto Senna, o V e/hQ Comrci{) d& Rio de .meirQ (R io de Janeiro-Par is,
n.d. ) , p. l Q.
GIb id., p. 11.
' bid., p. H. Se" al", O la,"" Bib ~ : C" it iclI r Fllm.u ;" (L isb" II, 1yt4). who surcs
rhu at Ihe m m of Ihe ...emurr edirions u n ti> bl'twccn 1.000 and 1,500 copies .
 Educaton and Urban Culture 15'

called. thar (despirc a nature more prudent rhan daring ) he had thc
good sensc to puhlish a wrirer of rhc quality of Machado de Assis,
who was ccrrainly no rruckler ro popular tasrcs. Thar rhis "daring''
mar havc been simplv good business sensc. howcvcr, is suggcsrcd
by the facr that rhc firsr work of ;\ lachaJ o published by Garnier
sold Soc copies rhe firsr year, a good sale for thc rime and cqual ro
rhc record of the works of rhe surc-firc j ulcs V crne.
0 11 the ot her hand, G arnier was not abovc exploiring rhc inrcllcc-
tua ls of his day. Le pes Trovo, for cxamplc, was used mcrcly for
editorial du ries, parricularly rhc monoronous rask of proofreading
manuscriprs . N cbly rcpublican in his ideas and a bit of a dandy in
his dress-which includcd rop bar and monocle likc an)' Brit ish lord
- Lopes Troviio had bccn forced ro makc bis living by giving Por-
rugucsc lessons ro rhc childrcn of rhc rich and by rranslating labcls
an d prcmoricnat material for Furopcan patenr medicines, O rhcr in-
rellecruals of thc caliber of Salvador de Mcndonca were paid be -
rwcen 150 and 1 8 0 ntilrcis for rbc rranslation of an enti re wo rk by
Verne ur Alc nrepin.
H owcvcr srrong his business sense, it was srill ro he cxpccrcd rhar,
in a counrrr govcrncd by an Emperor who was devored ro books
and friendly ro authors, Harisra Lus Garnier should havc bcen dec-
c rarcd with rhc Ordcr of rhc Rose. I le dicd a Commander of rhe
Brazilian Em pirc for "sc rviccs rendercd to Brazilian lcncrs," ~ a
scrvice which rangcd from rhc publicarion of works o f thc mosr
practica! urihry to rhosc of lircrar v staru re which, if nor ovc rinrel-
lecrual. at lcasr had a positivo ctfccr on thc devclopmcrnof Brazili an
cultu re."
Among che aurho rs of nea rly 7 0 0 Brazilian works publis hcd by
old Garnier in rhe lasr decad cs of thc nincrecnth ccntury, mosr
would bave becn plcased ro considcr rhemsclvcs professic nal au-
rhors on thc strcngth cirbcr of their srylc or their highly literary
sub jccr mancr. Unforrunarcly, save for Machado de Assis, and a
handful of works by T aunay, J oaquim Nabuco. Alusio Azevcdo.
O lavo Bilac, Alberto dc () [i\'cira, Juan Ribeiro, or Joao do Rio.
very fe\\' of rbese 700 wo rks becal1le c1assics. T he last.nalllcd, writ-
8 Senn~: op. eil. , p, : 5.
9Gamicrs pu'1il'~l ifm > ranged fr<JI1l d Ie I ol)" Bih1c tu thc C OtIl/ICpi, J os
S"l cs and Ihc MJ nll.t/ de D,,".t. Fu be il from me 10 deny the lirerary qualil Y
nf a boolc merdy uecausc ir deal, "'ilh the dance-or Wilh law O f mcdkine, for
rhat manee T he habit dnes not make the IIHmk. nm the subjccr maitu the lirc rar)"
"aluc of a 1,0010.
1)2 arder and I'rogress
ing audaciouslv in the 18 9 0 'S 00 sub jcc rs ostcnsibly ourside lircrary,
in facr carne closc r t producing rrue litcrat ure than many of his
more convencional collcagues who dealr wirh nob le rhcmes in a pure
srvle clcsely inurative o rbar of bygonc mastcrs. At rhc time, how-
ever. J05 0 do Ro was ncarly dcsr royed by accusations of G alli-
csm. o no t follow ing rhc stylc of rhc mast crs. and of dcaling wit h
ephcmeral rat hcr rhan noble subjecr man er. 1l e was a revolutionary
for his t ime, although buth j oaquim Nabuco ami Alusio Azcvcdo
beforc him had shown a tendency ro rebe l againsr Lusit anian PUf-
ism and to adopr daring new Frcncb ami English cxpressioos in
rhcir wTiring. Thc samc rcbcllion was taking place in Portugal
wi rb E~ a de Q ueiroz, whosc impace upo n Hrszil ar rhe rime was
alruosr rhar of a ncw saine, Hrazilians evcn pardoned his humorous
barbs againsr rhcmsclvcs in general and rhe Empero r in particula r.'
T hc Portugucse skill in caricature rcvealed by R afael Bordalo in
co nncction with the soc ial crit icism o Eca de Quciroz or Ramalho
Orrigc had irs counrcrpan in Hrazil in rhe work of A ngc!o Ago-
srini, Flc iu!>.s, Cnspin Arnaral de \'era Cruz, ando in rhc fi rst decade

l it i~ troc, howc vcr, rhar in , 1171, hall a cem ur}' afrer indcpc ndcnce, rh cre \Vere
an. Ponug ue-e move mcms in Para aud Pernambu co which were, In a pu int,
anti-Ec a. Ir is alsu tro e Ihar, bccause uf thc I'a" ioo n{ th i~ dehare uo rhe pan
nf cert ain infcriur writen;, 1'\'1 de Qucirn7. ca r ne tu thin k o f the pw\'ince of
Perna mbuc o as "b orha ruus: ' In rea lit\", it w as al rhe lime rhe mose intchec-
l ul ano a.h 'anceo of all par" u f thc Em pire in the man er of socia l rcfonn.
In decd. suc h suhec ls as the r clativc iruellige nce o f n x-n and WOllle n c ould be
d cb ated in Ihe state Icg islalU re hy lhe juri' l T ob as Ban ew an d Ihe physiean
.\ I aiaq uias G u n,,"I H s; a dchale pr".-., \;,<,.1. in c iJem all ~', by a redt i" n fo r gov ern _
mene ad un Ihe pa r! "f " parelll whu wa mc d lO ""nd h s ad"lesce nl da ughte r to
study medicin e in Ihe Uoile.! Sures.
These pm n ncial contlicrs nf 01'; nl.1I1 orer h a de Q ueirm. had funher repcrcus-
siuns "hen Fr." \ isile,l Hraxil ;11 I H ~ i. 111' \\'1, rcceived in Pernambuco by pm-
g r~""i\'e Lu sophilcs socf as j " allu im :">' ahueo , h UI a_ a stu dy by lhe Bn zilim w ritc r
Pau l" C:n- aleant; rne als, rhc \- i~il causc d am i-l. usilan ian out bu rsts in Pern ambuco.
particularly in Ihe c il}" "f G uiana.
E,,~ de Que imz e\-c ry whc re cmu inue d 10 eo ioy a popularity e'l "al 10 t ha! o f
Alcnca r and lIilae and acled in " way as a unifying force in tbe ctlu mry's in-
[e ll ectu~ 1 H i, toc racy. Similar c ule, had cxivc d prn iously io Brazilian hiwory.
From colonial lilJlc~ Brazilians from var ious regions h ad united aroun d Santo
Anl,,,,i,, .le Li,l "'a, Sn j " ,, . Si" Pedro, Si " j ,.... Sam'A na, thc V ;rgin " tary,
o r th e Infa nr j e'u ~ ~ in a secular ~n5C, simila r c ult~ were forr ned arou nd suc h
charismaric figure, as rhc Fmpe ror , Ihe D uke nf Ca,,;as, General Dsro, tbe
lIaro ll do R io Branc" , Ru ~ Barbo' a. Samo~ D umonl , j caquim :">'abuco, Castro
A b-es. Gonc alves D ias. Jos': de Alencar, and P rincess Isabel. 1 helieve it wss a
, inliJar eendeocy lO c ultsm Ihot artracted Ihe arise ocrac y and middle e1ass uf Ihe
period ro cerran lircra ry "s~ i n1S: ' bOlh nal ional 1nd foreign.
 Education and Urban Culture 15J
of rhe rwenrieth centurv, j oo Carlos and th e caricaturisrs of the
magazine O Maibo. .
Nene of che caricarurists of [he 1890'S. however, attained [he
starure of thc now almosr forgotren Emlio Cerdoso Ayrcs, a namc
bard to disassociare from thc rece prions ar rhc heme of thc much-
Europcanizcd Madamc Santos Lbo (known more familiarly as
Dona Laurinda) . Ir was in her home thar Emilio Cardoso Ay res
found an ideal vantage poinr for his cbscrvations of the social and
lirerary lire of the Firsc Rcpublic. Ed ucarcd in Franco, he was able
ro observe thesc figures wirh a con tinental sophisricarion and to
presem rhem in car icatures of grear psycbological and sociolog ical
value. lt is a piry thar Emlio did not find a wrirer-colleboraror in
Braxil for his prcscnrarion of a polirc society half European in its
tasrcs bur very Brazilian in many of its nttitu dcs."
Evidencc collccrcd bcrwccn [931:1 ami ' 950 frorn Brazilians ovcr
fift)" years of age from all pam of rhe eoumry ami of varying ceo-
nomic cond irions indicares a marked similariry o reading prefer-
ences during rhc late Empire and early Republic. Jos de Alencar
was th c favorito narional aut hor, wirh Eca de Queiroz rhe rnost-
rcad Portu guesc, ami Dumas and Jules Vcm c, fcllowed closely by
Zola and Anarole Francc. among thc Frene h. T he favorite poers
wcre Castro Alvcs and Goncalves Das among rhc cstablished fig-
ures. O la\'o Hilae from rhe younger gcneraricn. and G uerra j un-
queiro fro m t he Pcrt uguesc."
In a period markcd by rhe advenccd disintcgrarion of rhc old pa-
triarchal family sysrern, with irs cede of rclarions between meo and
womcn, bc rwccn old and young. and berwcen owner and slave,
rherc now bogan ro dcvclop a ncw Brazilian socicty markcd by a

2 Th~ credir foc sorne of lem lio Card uw Ay rcs's work should go tu Do na
Laurin da, who cntert~in{'d so man v uf his subjccts, hmh domcsnc and {o reign.
in hu elega nr hmne in Sama T eresa. w hic h ab ounded in Eu ropea n eomf"rts and
}'et was so charactcristic (lf rropica l Hrazil. Dona L aurind ~ , o r .\ Iadame Santos
Lho , if you will, furnish ..,1 a ge nui nd y Brazilian mee ting place u f tbc "Un.! J is--
ringu ished SO " for literary ligur cs. pu u dits, po lilic ians. d iplomats. and artisrs, bnth
local and Ioreign, uf thc J ay. Similar SiI /(}n, ex isted in orhcr r-o of the e" unt ry,
{(JO, wit h ladies as thcir o rganizers.
a Sc"enty-two uf theso: deposilions are Iistcd in thc Brazil ian cdition o f Ihis wurk.
hUI havc heen umin ed herc l>ecause u f lhci r similarity . O f Ihe e onside rah le num -
hcr uf authu t'S named as favot ites. onl~' rwo were American: .\I ark T wa ;n and
l o ng fcllow. eae h mcm ioncd twi ee. O ne pernm deplmed Ihe lac k uf F.ng lish-
language aUlhon; un h is li,1 and " lamed ;1 o n lhe inadcqualc leac hing of lhu
languag e in Ihe schoo k (T ra nslator. )
 arder and Progress
confusing admixrurc of sent imental Iondncss for rhc pase and en-
rhusiasm fo r a futurc ccnsidercd by rhe young as uf almost uulim-
itcd porcnrial. Tbis cnr husiasm wa s rcecr ed in rhe grcat vogue.
especiall y among thc young, fo r j ulcs Veme. wit h his fanrasies in-
volving thc possiblc dcvclopmcm of rcc hnical invcnrions already in
rhc disc ussion or drawing-board stagcs. As a publishcr, G arnier
well undersrood t hc inrensiry of this public inte rcst. and in publish-
ing tra nslations of V cmc he was pcrhaps rcsponsiblc in p,lrt for t he
number of Brazilians who rumed ro srudics of rhc incrcasc of man's
powcr uve r time and spacc, srudies which had grcar practica! appli-
cati n in a eount ry as vasr as Brazil. j\ lost of this research had ro do
wirh halloo ning, in which Jos do Pat rocinio, Augusr Severo, and
Santos D UlJ10 m we rc the principal pionecrs. le is no su rpr ise te fi nd
rha r Santos D umonr. thc most famous of rhc t hrec, confcsscs in his
mcmoirs ro having becn in fl uenced by reading J ules Vcrnc.'
Egu ally no table was the "ogue for th c romances of Alcncar. Thc
appeal of these works is arrribu rable partir ro nost algia for a past
uncuc umhcrcd by t he risks and possiblc cvils of a prog ress t oo dras-
tic in its ideas and rcforms, but ir is cven more clcarly attributable
ro rhc desire ro exalr t he virrue and sinccriry of rr adirional Brazil-
ian w ays of life. T o rhis was addcd an ovcr rone of conscious pro-
A mericanism, in the larger sense (an enthusiasrn which cvcn extended
to rhc Am erican ludian }. Al encar t hus ro sorne extent ncted
as an opposing influcncc ro J ules V erne. The samc effccr can he
anr ibutcd ro t he po etry of Gon~alves D ias, Fagundes Y arda, and
Casimiro de A brcu ; ro the roma nces of Wal rer Scorr, Dumas, A lcx-
and re H erc ulano. Alr ncida Garrcn. or Camilo Casrelc Brancc , to
the scr ials of Franca J nior; ro the c hronicles of ~ Ielo ,\ t oraisj ro rhc
pioncer srudies in folk lore of Cclso de ~ taga l h aes; and fi nally ro thc
notable apologies for t hc Empirc writtc n by Ed uardo Prado,
Afonso Arinos, C1rlOS de Leer, rhc Viscounc de T aunay, and
Afonso Cc lso. On the other hand, thc muc h- re ad po ctry of Cast ro
Ah-es. T obias Barrcto, and Guerra J ungueiro bore a message of
mystieal, almost lllessianic, prog ressivism, as did t he romances of
A lu sio de Azevedo , the popular Unc/e T om's Cabin (t ranslated
from the English ), the diseourses and essa)'s of Ruy Barbosa, and
those of Joaguim :\'abuco, along with extracts from Syh'io
f Henriquc Dumu nr VilIares: Quem Del' A J.Jr ,10 110111<'11/, A lberTO S~ nt Of DII.
m o nt. Sru V ida e SII.l G/ri~ (Si" Pa ul" . '9 n ), p. H . Se" al".;, All.ocrtn Sal\(lh
DUlI"'"( : Dam l'Air ( Pars, 1904 ) .
 Educaton and Urban Culture

Romero, .\Iartins Jnior, Euclydes da Cunha, Gra~a Aranha, Ingles

de Sousa, .\fcdeiros e Albuqucrque, and Araripe j nior.
A third category, ncirher nosralgic nor progressivc bur rarher
uniting rhesc extremes with a spicc of sometimos exaggcrarcd skep-
ricism, was ro be found in the storics, novcls. and cssays of Machado
de A ssis, in j oaquim Nabuco's M nb :o r1J1a ~ao and U111 Estadista
do tnrp ro, in the c rirical stu dies of J os Verssimo, and, natu rally,
in the much-read and much-imirared novcls of Eca de Queiroz. In
facr. one can attr-ibute t hc conremporary prcdilccrion for English
c ourr Jress among clcganr Hrazilian males to the inuence of Eca's
charactcr Fradiqu e, who also sccms ro have srartcd the fad fcr rhc
moncclc and spats: a case of Anglomana induced ncr by dirccr
contact , bur by thc worship of a literary characrer.
Ir has already bcen shown rhar Brazilians during thcsc years had a
grear 10\'e for rhe Iyric rbcatre, lmt it mu st be cmphasizcd t hat rhis
did not precludc ataste for dramas and comedies. Such works,
howevcr. werc usually rranslarcd fr om rhe Frcnch . thc purely na-
rive crcario ns of rhc time did littlc ro cnhancc the sta tus of Brazilian
litcraturc, and onlv rhc work of the hu morist A rtur A zcvedo is re-
mcmbered wirh intcresr by survivors of rhc periodo BU[ not cvcn
Azc vcdo, whose principal writing lay oursidc rhe t hcatre, could
produce a dramaric work which evcn carne close ro approximaring
rhc stature an aincd by Machado de Assis. Raul Pomp ia, and Eu-
clvdes da Cun ha in fi crion and thc essa),; by Carlos Gomcs and A l-
berto Nepomuccno in rnusic, or by j oaquim N abuco and Ruy Bar-
bosa in an eloqucnce which meers rhe challcnge of moving the
rcader evcn w hcn rcd uccd ro thc medium of cold prinr."
Thc memorable figures of the rhcarrc at the time were rhc acrors
and acrrcsscs, mosr f whom wcre Portuguesc and, during rbe scc-
ond dccade of (he Republic, French. Thc lan er, particularly (he
acrrcsscs, causcd considerable rcpcrcu ssions in both rhcamcal and
lit crary circles. Thcrc werc a few lralians as well. and rhere was
Isadora Duncan. whose dramaric dances captivated such )'oung
Brazilian wrirers as j oo do Rio, Gilberro Amado, and Oswald de
And rade."
5 Ot her muc h-praiscd crators of rhc time, such as Siheira M art ins. Jlill de Ca.s-
rilhos. Coelho Lisboa, Lo pes Trov;u, and .\ la n ins Jnior , do noe meee {his { CS{.
N o sa<:rcd o rato r, mued for his H{erar}' talents, cxisted tu matc h Frei Francisco de
.\I ont'A lverne in an carlicr periud; oor was thcre any Joao ~r.tano 10 grace thc
theatre.
~ In T be Bil{ Money. Jo hn d" s Pawl5 ,;lates tha! [,adura "pid ed up a 8 raziljan
 arder and Progress
T he dramatic surccss of somc of thcse arnsrs ofren extended inro
a social success as wcll. One rcscarchcr into the Imperial archives in
Pct rpolis' discovercd rh ar rhc "great success of rhc actress Luclia
Sim cs in O Anjo da M d a-N oife had resulted in her chrisecning in
HHo of a Pcrr polis emporiurn na mcd afrer rhe play ." This advcr-
riscd irsclf as " rhe onl y establishment sclling .. . to)'s. perfumes,
office matcrials. wax, snu ff sunbonners, ready -madc clorhing,
wi cker baskcrs. silks, linens, conons, thread, ladies' and children's
bats, fancy-drcss arriclcs. crc., ar rceson able prices." .\fan)' Brazilian
p ro duc es mad c of native matcrials too k rheir names from cha rac ters
in the romances of Jos de Alcncar. Others celebrarcd th c novel A
M oreninba; an d many wcre thc child ren bom in rhe period who
wcre named aftcr fi ctiona l h roes and heroincs, Machado de Assis's
I Iclcna being particularly popular.
\ " h:lt imprcssion did t his litcrature havc on rhc fo reigners of thc
pc riod> In concluding rhis chaprer. let us look at thc linle material
left by illustri ous foreig nc rs who visircd Bra7.1 at th c n me."
" In lite raru re, [he Brazilians alrcady can point ro many exccllenr
wo rks. particularly in lyric poetr), and in rhc novel," wrote
Mauricio Lamberg in 1896, in one of rhc bcsr books on Brazil in
rhc late nin ctccnrh century. "In rhe first place, ene r nusr c ite rhe
late poet Castro Alves, and in second, Jos de Alencar, also de-
ccas cd, lllany o f whosc books have be cn t ranslated into English.
Rcccntly anorhcr author has bccome wcll known th rou gh a r o-
mance 1sic 1 as disrin crivc as :ln)' thar has appca rcd in any language
in Europe. This romanc e is callcd l noc ncia and its aurhor is rhe
Brazilian V iscou nr de T onna- Isic]. desccndanr o f a noble French
far nily w hosc r nembers, sorne leam cd men and orhcrs most distin-
g uishcd arrisrs, cmigrarcd 10 Brazil at [he beginnin g of this ccn-
rury.' According re Lamberg . "Brazilian litcraturc movcs nirnbly
an d somcrimes ele ga nrl y on [he h igh Ievels o f jcst and fa ntasy."
T he cxar nplcs he givcs o f outsranding Brazilian aurhors include

IK>cI" on lh i, trip. G o" il' idc lltirics this " poct' ~, a handsomc young x.':lIlcho b w
'IUJCIlI, bler W l... co lllc famou, \Ulc"n. n : Osvaldo A ranha. But D ()!; Pas, ,,, , in
a c() n\'e ~at i" n wlh rhe aurh "r. wa, unah le 10 , uOsu m iarc rhi, ru m". an d con -
fesccd him -el f unawa re o f l he dcl~ ils o f t hc storv.
1 Guilherrne Auler. in m .n ide in lhe Tribuna Je PClr polis and e, pccially in
o ral inform~ tion to rhe author.
~ One uf lhc~. G ug ljellllo f erreru. " a, so enchamcd hy G ra ~ a An nha', C lIJa.
lhar hc \HUle [h e "rdaee lo Ihe F ngli\ h u~n\1ali"n o f lh~l nO\'eI. whic h w" s"
Iy p ieal of it, pe riodo
 Education and Urban Cuunre 157
rhc t wo Azevcdosc--Artur, author of "lirtle dramas and comedies,"
and Alusio, writcr of naruralisric fi crion-c-Valcnrim Magalhes,
Coclho N eto, and Sylvic Romero-c-ebe lasr-na mcd " pupil of rhc
mosr illusrrious and ralentcd man in Brazil. rhe law professor Tobias
Barrero." H e makes no mcntion of Xl achado de Assis or Ruy B3r-
bosa, hur lists severa! journalisrs w ho seemed ro have inrellccrual
value and narional influ encc. 1le also n arncs manr men of lcarning,
particularly in hisrorical rescarch. but states rhar " a classic work in
chis ficld has nor as ret appcarcd," wh icb cvidcntly shcws his lack
of intcrcsr in rhc works of rhnt illusrricus Brazlian of G ermen ori-
gin, Varnh agcn, V iscuunt of Porto Seguro. A mong rhe [oumalists
Lamberg includcs intellecruals who wcrc nur hors in cthcr ficld s:
Joaquim N abucc is namcd along wirh Afonso Cclso Jnior; Carlos
de Lact is cbaracterizcd as " a convinccd monarchist" writing in
" noble and well-choscn languagc .. . Iike a diamond," while his
opposirc numbcr, Jos do Patrocinio, is described as "a colored
man .. . always impassioned," but " ingenious" and appcaring ro
express himself "r hrougb a bursr of blinding fircworks." [Ic praiscs
Ferrcira de Ara]o, Pcdernciras. Quinrino Bocayuva. H e con siders
rhat Jos Carlos Rodrigues must he "a mnn of weight," judging
partly from the many enemies he has, "a facr w hich according ro
rhc German proverb bespcaks superior qualirics." and partly from
his bcing direct or of rhe lornal do Connnercio. which " can align
irself among rhc first newspapers of thc world." ~
In his 1879 cdirion of Brazil and tbe Bmzdims, rhc Rcvercnd
James C. Flcrcher had alrcady suggcsrcd rhar Hrazilian lircrarurc.
produced in parr by mestif os, was thc besr in thc Porrugucse lan-
guagc. "Thc only rccenr Portuguese writcr who cxccls rhosc of
Brazi l," he had wrinen, with sorne exaggcrarion. "was rhe late A I-
exandre H erculano of Lisbon. As a pr~e writcr, rhc late T orres
H omcm. a Brazilian sratcsman tinged wirh as much African hlood
as courscd in rhe veins of Alexandrc Dumas, was by thc admission
of Iirerary mcn at Rio their firsr prose w rirer." 1 Flctchcr did not
fa il ro poinr out that Brazil h;ld also shO\vn irs supcriority in produc-
ing aman of science of rhe staru re of Jos Bonifcio de And rada, a
statllre ne\Oer atlained by an)' Portuguese in thar ficld. In fact, the
Portuguese had tXlrrowed Bonifcio from Brazil for scn'ice in the
Uni,ocrsity of Combra.
9 Fletchet and Kidder: op. cir., p. 60 10
1 ' bid., pp. 60' - 30
1;8 Order and Progress
O chcr Brazilian w ritcrs w ho seemcd [O Flct cher ro be worth ar-
te ntion werc: O t raviano fo r rhc elcgance of his prosc; Alencar [or
his gOOlI rastc, bre ad visiou, and bis int roducrion of thc American
Indian , rhc Viscounr of P rtc Seguro and Percira da Silva for rhcir
abundanr hisrorical srudics; and rhose "well-kncwn lircran of Rio
de J aneiro," Prto A legre, ~ I acc do. N orberto, and .\ iad \:Hlo de
Assis. BUTir was parricularly in poetry rhar Brazil had the adva n-
ragc ovcr Portugal. wirh ;\1 agalhacs, Gcncalvcs Dias, Azevedo.
Junqucira F rcire. Castro Alvcs, and V arcla. Ir should 3 150 be nor cd.
says Flercher, rhat in rcce nt )'cars Dom Pedro 11. t hroug h his intcr-
esr in Brirish and Ame rican pocrs. had cxerred a considerable influ-
erice in encouraging yOllng Hrazilians ro studv rhcsc wri rers. As a
rcsult. rhcrc werc alrcady "excellenr rranslarions" of Longfellow
and \ Vhittier by Dom Pedro himsclf, by thc Ba ron of j apur . by
Pedro Lus, and by "Bin cncourt S. Paio rsic 1," T o Flcrchcr, rherc
was no reason for t hc prcvailing foreign prej udicc against the Por-
tuguese language as a mcans of lircrary cxprcssion. O n the contrary,
t hc classics of rhat languagc dcscr vcd sru dy and csrecm un rhe pan
of Europcans ano Americ ana. panicularly sincc. arnong modero
w rin ngs. rhey carne closcsr ro Larin ami rhcreby rerained ccrt ain
advaneages ovcr rhcir sisrer neo-Larin rongues. T he Portugu csc lan-
guage. Flctchcr fclr. prescrvcd t hc gravity of Larin, ro which ir
had added rhc sweerncss and Hcxibility of Italian wirhour the disad-
\'anrage of rhc harsh gurrural sounds of Spanish. \ Virh rhis lan-
guage, combined wirh rbe necessary genius and concentration of
force, it was quite possiblc rhat thc Brazilians would one dav creare
a lircrarurc thar would attract rhc respecr and adm ira rion of rhe
enrirc world. Dcspirc rhe ignorance on che pan of the literst of
Europc and rhe United Starcs of the language of Portugal and Bra-
zil, ir was a living language in all pares of the world wherc rhc Por-
tuguese had foundcd colonics: not onlv in Brazil, bur also in the
i~land s of the Atlantic. in India, froJ1l G uinea ro the Cape of Good
Hope. and from the Cape of Good I lope ro rhe China Sea. cxtend-
ing to rhe islands of rhc .\ b ld)' Archipc1ag'o, "How inreresting it
would be," cxc1aimed rhe enthusiastic Flctcher, "w see the light and
rhe rrurh irradiarc from Bra7.il {thrnugh the Portllg'llcsC lanb>1.lagc}
w evcry one of those d i~ta nr regions! "
Befo re this great eycnr could take place. howevcr. there would
ha\'e to be considemble changcs in rhe moral and rc1igiolls condi-
tinns of rhe Brazilian Empire. The "Iight ano lhc lruth" ro Flctcher
 Education and Urban Culture /59

m eanr cv cngclica l Christian itYi if Brazil was ro progress, ir would

nccd ro submir its Roma Chriseianirv to Anglo-Saxon modifica-
tio ns, w hic h he scmcwhat ingen uously idenrified with the " true''
aposrolic Chrisrianity rhnr cxisrcd bcfore rhc rise of rhe polincal
p(m'er of rh c Church of Reme. It di d noe occu r t o him t har rhis
modifi c arion, ra dically insrillcd, would havc causcd Rrazil to lose
rhc very Latin or Reman virtucs found in its literature and irs
general culture. Ir was thesc qu alities whic h wcre csscmial t thc
prescrvation of rhe Porrugucsc language and irs literary classics in
tropical America, in a siruarion invok ing new values, new social
condirions (order--or disordcr) ami new physical and racial influ-
cnccs, such as rhose of rhc American Indian rcfl ccrcd in rhc works
of Alcnca r and G oncalvcs Dias, or in muc h of t he music.
At rhc cnd of this pcriod of cultural rransirion. anorhcr Anglo-
Saxon studied rhc litcrary sccnc in Brazil and reaehcd the conclu-
sion rhar of all rhc varicus lircrary cxprcssions in rhc Ncw \ Vorld,
this was furth esr from being a branch of European culture, "because
tbis coumry has so largcly devcloped a series of wnters who rake
nativo Hrazilian life for thcir thcmc." So wrore rhc British cultural
geographer L. E. Ellion in his Brazit, T oday and T 0 1l10rrO'"<1)
( 1 9 ( 7 ) . ~ And he addcd, " 1 kno w no other S outh American coun-
try whcrc lirerature is so emancipated, not from Freneh srylc so
much as from Europcan subject matrc r." As for th c wrircrs he fclr
ro havc lcfr significanr " r cords of Brazilian life," he names T au-
nav. G oncalves Dias. Alencar. Coclho N eto. A lu sio Azevcdo.
Macedc, O lavo Hilac, j ofio do R io. Eu clydcs da Cunha, Xavier
,\ lart.ues, Rodolfo Tcfilo. Lindolfu Rocha, Afr nio Pcixoro. j lia
Lopes da Almeida, Jos Verfssimo. Ruy Barbcsa, Alberto de Oli-
veira. and. mosr importanr of all, ,\ Iad u do de Assis.
Ir is important ro point out that t hese "r cords of Hrazilian life"
cired by Ellion had a considerable social impacr. in addirion tu their
merely hisrorical or picruresque qualiries, and rhat many cultivarcd
Brazilians wcre dcdicared ro manifesting rheir frcedom from Euro-
peanism in thought and behavior. Such manifestations are gi\'en
epie expression in the vigorous pages (lf Euclydes da Cunha's 0 5
Sertocs ( Rebel1ioll in the Bck llld ), and in many (lf the works (lf
Sylvio Romero, Simocs Lopes :-':cro, and Lima Barreto-rhough not
in those of many others who remained part-Eum pean in their apw

2 L. F., E lliou, Br~zil , Tod~y ~nd T OIllf>",ou' ( ~c w York. H) [7 ), pp. 9] - 8.

160 a rder and Progress

proach cvcn when, as in the cases o Coelho N eto and B. Lepes,

rhey werc 1Ilestiro in appcarancc . This second group. inwardly.
considcrcd rhcmsclvcs. pcr haps too litcrally. as rhe "H cllcnes." or
"Aryans" oc "Larins" of rhe N cw World. T he facr rhar the pcriod
was cnnohlcd by rhc presence o various illusrrious philo1ogists,
sorne o t hcm int ransigcnt purisrs, can perhaps be linkcd wirh rhis
idenrific ation wirh a ll cllcnic. A rv an. oc l.atin hcrirage. Certainly
such idenrificarion was :U\ advaruage ro t hose who wished ro pro-
tect rhc languagc and crhcr aspccts of intellecrual bcbavior from
whar th cy felr ro he rhc crude adulrcrarions o nativists. nationalists,
or cabo clistas. Ir was also 311 advanragc. unforrunatcly, ro ot hcrs
who werc merel y simplistic. or to ignoranr youngsters who, wirhout
[he ralent ro compensate fo r rhcir lack of knowledge, placcd impro-
visarion above shccr inrellecmal efforr. Thc cxccsscs of this impro-
visation werc dcplc rcd by Europcans who visircd the co unt ry dur-
ing th e periodo
N everthclcss. th c purisrn of thc classicisrs in gene ral and of rhc
anrh ropo\ogis[s nn d [he soc ial sc icnrisrs in p an icular, w as o ften ex-
agge rarcd ro rhc point of being ridieulous. Some of rhe fi rst group
often losr rhcmselves in hurning conrention ovcr linguisric prob-
lerns of Byzanrinc proportions, orhers persisred in maim aining Eu-
ropean arritu des roward probl ems o the mixrurc of raccs or o thc
African factor in t he et hnie ccmposirion of Brazilian sociery. The
work of R uy Barbosa himself in connection wirh rhe rcvision of the
civil codc was affccrcd by thesc excesses. as we rc the studies of
Nina Rodrigues on rhe Afr ican Negro in Brazil. It would be many
years bcfore such studies would achieve a salurary equilibrium he-
rwcen the forces of classicism. Eu ropeanism, and Arya nism 0 0 rhe
one hand and of narionalisr n on rhe orher. Ir would be sorne rime
beforc Brazilians wo uld havc the couragc ro rccognize-c-if not as
vales, at leasr as aspccts in t heir cu lt urc-t hose clcments originar.
ing from the lndian or broughr from Africa. T he pionecrs who did
recognize rhe presence and importance of such c1ements were Syl-
vio Romero and J030 Ribciro at t he end of t he ninerecmh eentury
and j. B. de Lacerda and Roq uw e-Pinto ar the bcginn ing of rhe
t wem ie[h, ah hollgh earlier studies by Gonc;alves Dias and CO lltO de
,\ lagalhaes are flO [ to be scom ed aod some o Jos Bon ifcio's ideas
anticipare those o f Roquette-Pinto.
T he period co\'cred here came to a close wi[h Ruy Barhosa sup-
porting t he Arran myth by p roclaiming t hat Brazilians were rhe
 Education and Ur ban Culture

dcscendanrs nor of Guarinis bur of Latins, and wirh a young nestico

from rhc srarc of Rio de Janeiro, Oliveira Viana. prcparing ro cm-
bark on a notable series of sociological ami hisrorical tracts [Q sup-
port the Aryan thcsis and combar rhe nanvisr rcndcncics of other
young inrellectu als such as Gilbcrto Amado, Thc chicf aetenrion of
foreign observcrs was attracred more by rhese cloq ucnr and bril-
lianr dcfcnscs of a rhcsis rban by rhe ethnic siruarion irsclf or by rhc
aspects of that siruarion prcscnted in works by more realistic and
objccrivc writers. Such works would includc rhosc of Svlvio Ro-
mero. O MU/ato by Alusio Azevcdo. Pesca na Amaw ni; (Fisbmg
in tbe Amaw n ) by Jos Yerssimo, thc Amazon srories of Ingles
da Sousa. and rhc studies of Alberto T rres. J, B. de Lacerda, and
Roquctre-Pinro. T he gcographer Elliott , in Brazil, T oday snd T o-
1I10rTO'W, went for his information to literary and serni-sociological
works of rhis narure, which he considcred more authcnricallv Bra-
zilian. He dcvored cntirc pagcs ro a r sum of [he ideas of Sylvio
Romero on thc com ribution of the African Negro. in conrrast ro
rhe American lndian, ro Brazilian culture. T bcodorc Roosevclt had
rhe samc ideas as Ellion on rhis subjcct, and evcn Bryce admincd
their irnportancc in thc devclopmcnr of Brazilian civilizarion. This
includcd thc dcvc loprncnt of a literaturc worthy of Europcan at-
renrion in which Xcgroid mcn likc 'Fobias Barrero and "lachado de
Assis and coal -black Xcgrces likc Cruz e Sousa playcd a brillianr
parto Bryce. rcferring [Q thc Brazil he kncw at the turn of the ccn-
tury. wrotc rhar he had found among Brazilians a fa r greater affec-
rion fo r rbeir nanonal lircrary rradirions rhan in rhe corrcsponding
counrrics of Spanish Am rica."
Hrazilians werc notable. according to Brycc, for their "quick sus-
cepribiliry ro ideas. like thc French and rhc Russians." Dcspite rhis.
" rhcy have not to t his t im e rua dc any g rcar cont rib uri on ro scicnce,
ncirhcr in the fi cld of physical rcsearcb, nor in economics, philol-
ogr, or historv." However, [he young Brazilian Republic con-
rained "admirable orarors. clevcr anJ subrle lawycrs, and astuto pcl-
iticians"; also adminisrraeors whosc talents wcrc "demonstratcd
rhrough triulll phs such as the cxtincrion of yellow fcver in Rio and
Santos." In addition, the lo"c of what he calls " polite lerrers" was
collllllon among persons o the upper c1ass. "Skill in writing good
\"crsc is by no mcans rare, the Brazilians rcrain ing in their languagc
3 James Ren e: So uth A ma ica, Obu rt'ationf .Jnd /m preSionf ( ~e w York, 19 Q ) ,
p. ~ 18.
 arder and Progress
qualirics esrablished by Camocns in his Lusu ds, a poem which. in his
opinin, con rinues re con t ribu te much tcward rhc mainrenancc of
good rasre and Iitera ry talcnt amo ng th c Luso- Americans." i
In rcply is Brycc's stareme nt to rhc cffccr rhar Brazil had made no
conrribution ro cconomics, philology. or histcry it could be argued
rhar Brazilian cconomisrs hao just cn ricbcd cconomic scicncc wirh
rhe rechniquc of "valorizarion," rhar Anr nic de ,\ Iorais bad jusr
com plered his Dicionlrio, and rhar in hisrorical rcscarch Va rnhagen
had already produccd his Historia do Brasil, Syl vio Romero his
H istoria da Literatura Brasilera. and \ 1a n ins J nior his Hst ra do
Direto Nacional. In historical lircrarurc, two works of great au-
t hority had heen published in R io de Janeiro wirh Olivcira Lima's
D0111 l oJo V/ 110 Brasil, rnuch praiscd by British c ritics. and j oaq uim
Nabuco's Unt Estadista do Imprio. These hooks compare with t hc
bcsr in rheir fic1d publish cd in Europc or th c U nited Sta tes at the
end of the nincrecnth cem ury, t he works of James Brvcc himsclf
includcd. If in Brazil, as in other pam of Am rica, Brycc could note
rhar " m cn o undoubrcd ralcm" wcrc "ofrc n hcguiled b)' phrnscs,
and seem to prcfer words ro facrs' ' ~ (a referenee pc rhaps ro Ruy
Bar bosa. who since his days at The H ague had ofren been referred
ro rather unjusrly by Europcan diplomars and journalisrs as "D r.
Verbosa" ). rhe rrurh is rhar rhcrc wc rc ma ny Braxilian inrcllcctuals
who could have impresscd hin with their acure objecriviry and
their anti-rhercrical stylc : joo Ribeiro, Jos Vcr ssimo, Ca pi-
srrano de Abreu, Trisro de Araripe, Carlos de Leer, Ingl es da
Soma, :\!edeiros e Albuqucrqu c, jo.io do Rio, Xl rio de Al enear,
along wirh j oaquim Nabuco, Olivcira L ima. and Sylvio Romero, as
well as aut hors like Crmen Dol rcs and j lia Lepes de A lmeida
whosc fem inine sensibiliry did not in an)' w ay dul l t heir crirical
Spltlt.
Among orher foreign obscrvcrs, Garca Xlerou. in his El Brasil
lnteectual, ga\'e particular arrcntion ro the lrcrary scene. wirh spc-
cial cm phasis on rhe mestice ' Fo bias Barrero. l Ienr i Tutor dedi-
carcd rhc bcsr pages of his En A mrique Latine ro Brazil and di d
nor hesitare to sca ndalizc Larin Americans of orher arcas by saying:
"Brazil is eonsidered ro be thc only l.arin-Arnerican counrry pos-
scssing a hrcra rurc," 'w hich he attributcd to rhe faet thar " in an or-
ganized soeict)', enjoying complere frcedom of specch. literatme
4 bid., p. 416 .
~ bid. p. 417.
 Edncat on and Urban Culture 16;

can expand an d fi ou rish at will. . __H ~ :O-:or was rhis dcvcloping

lircrature enrircly neglecr ed by Brazilian socicrv . Turor norcd rhat,
in m ore than (me Hrazilian city. mon umc nts ro arrisrs. roets, and
orators exisrcd alongsidc thosc dcd ic ared ro m ilit ary and polirical
fi gures. T o.'.1. T uror, poet r), and oratory sccmcd ro he rhc partic u-
lar Brazilian fo rre in rhc ca rly days of rhe rwcnricrh centu r)'.
In his A l Bresiie, Alfo nso Lomonaco was imprcsscd by the fact
rh at in Brazil there scemed ro be mo re poets t ha.n p rosc writcrs wor-
rhy of Eu ropcan attc nt icn. I Iowc vcr. t his did not p re\-enr him
from anricipating rhc recognition of Xla chado de Assis. whom he
refcrrcd to as "rhc grcarcsr Hrazilian wrircr o f the present dav, a
poet of rhc romantie school. a delicate novelisr and short-s rory
wrircr. and posscsscd of rhe mcs t polishcd stylc of any ro he found
ar prescnr in rhat counrry." T
1'0 G eorgcs Clem cnceau. w ho visitcd rhc c ounr ry in rhc ear ly
rwenrierh cemu r)', Brazilians of th c lire wcrc "passionarely intel-
lcct ual idealisrs," ca pabl e of p roducing works of g reat culture along
with man y "ungrareful srudics" o f a pracrical son . Thc e ountry
could look forw ard ro " a g reat litera t ure." so far onl v in irs ini tial
sragc." A nd in his obscrvarion rhar in Brazi! marerial prog re~~ was
being nccc rnpanicd by sim ilar adva occs in lircrature, m usic. and sci-
encc, Clcmenceau had been preceded by Eugenc de Robiano. who
had visircd the co untry in late Im per ial times and whosc book Dx-
huir Mois dans t' A m r que du Sud bad appcared in Paris in i 89 z. ln
conrrast ro the back wardness rhar Robi ano found in painnng and
sculprure, he was ahlc tu c ite rhc exccllcnce in rnusic. supported by
rhe F mperor, as wel l as in lertcrs and scicnce."
AH in aIJ. rhen. rhis literature, alrhough ir had not produced g reat
rcpcrcussions in rhe more advanccd inrellec runl circlcs o f Europc
and rhc Un ircd Srates, hall no r Failcd ro reac h rho sc ci rcles, jf in
sorne cases ver)' slowly throug h the m dium o f translarions. Sorne
of t hcse rranslarions were reccivcd with inrerest. if not wirh rhc
same cn rb usiasrn prcviously acco rded rhc R ussian novels or [he
wo rks (in Europe ) of .\ 1ark T w ain. \Valt \\' hirman, or even
Rul>n Dario. French and English ed it io ns of T aunay 's /nocnci.l,
of Grac;a A ranha's Callaa (Ca1U1<1J1 ) . ami of so rne o f the shon STO-
~ IIcnri T u rnf ; E n A mriquc L lIinc (Pari. , ") 08 ) , p_1o!l.
T A lfon " , LOll mnaco : A/ l/raJi/c (,\ 1ilan, , gg9 l , 1" H J.
~ G cnrges dClllenceau; ;.,'OtCf de V OYIIe dJnf I'A m ri qllc J r Sud ( Pa ri~, 19 11) ,
p. 1 16 .
Q Eugenc de R o biano : lJix-huit Mois J,llISr A miqflt' J I' SI. J (Pari., ll:l<J l ) .
 arder mu Progress

ries o Alacbadc att racrcd artenrion, as did [ater English and French
vcrsions o rhe novcls o Alusio and o Euclydcs's Os Sert es.
:":ovels by Alcnc er bad alrcedy been rra nslated, o coursc, and
R ichard Burron had rendered sevcral o Goncalves Dias's poems
inro En glish, bur rhis had rakcn place at an earlier periodo
Sorne wrirers o rhe t ime, with a ccrtain litcrary coquetry, w rcte
and lectu rcd in French: joaquim N abuco and rhc Viscount de
Taunay were among -rhcse. as was Olivcira Lima, perhaps thc firsr
Brazilian Iiterary man ro give lectures in rhc S orbo nnc. R uy Bar-
bosa, ae rhc beginning of rhe rwcnrieth ccnru ry. also indulgcd in thc
luxu ry of rcceivin g thc much-admired Anarole Franco w irh an ad-
drcs s in French ar rhc Brazilian A cademy of Lc rrcrs, though ncither
rhis discoursc nor Ana rolc Francc's reply madc any deep impres-
sien. Equally wit hout lasring irnp ression wcre t he lircrarv lecrures
givcn at A meri can universiries. in English, by j oaquim N abuco.
Still, t here was rhc statcmcnt by as responsible an inrellecrual as
IIenri Tu rot in 1908 rhar Brazil was t hc only Larin- Amcrican
country te havc a truc lirerarure. Pcrha ps the principal dirficulr y in
t rying ro ca pture rhe int cresr of European or American rcaders lay
in rhc tendency o Brazilian w rite rs ro imitare Europcan models in
thcrne, mcthods. and style. Forcigncrs, seeing norhing new in Brazil-
ian w riting--even rhat o .\ Iac hado--prcfer red ro en joy well-
known delig hts in lircrarurc of pu rely Eu ropean origino
O s Sertes was probably rhc firs r Brazilian book ro gin Europe-
ans a picru rc o ru ral tropical Brazil incorporaring (along wir h vir-
t ues rhar cxcecd irs ma ny dcfecrs ) arm e spirit o the pcople and the
sening which could be undersrood by Europcans as essenrially
different , bearing rhe mark of a c ulture and a destiny apan from
Europcan panerns. T he same effcct was produccd. wi rhout t he cm-
phasis or rhc oraror)' o Euclydcs, by sorne o the characrcrs po r-
trayed by .\ l ac hado de Assis. E.scaping rhe commonplacc t hrough
thc subrlcty of rheir portrairure. t hese c haracrers, crearcd by thc
"British mulatto" as .\ l ac h:ldo was callc d. emerge as the Brazilian
counterpans o rhe gcntleme n and lad ies of Victorian England.
Pcd ro 11 himself !lotcd rhis similarity, which is not surprising in a
monarch w ho has been describcd. as a tropical Quecn Vi ctoria in
ocard and black trousers.
Recame of t his similarity, it i~ understandable t hat Europeans and
i':ort h A mericans should havc cxhibited Iin le interesr in thc besr
Brai'.ilian author o rhe time. Im erest did grow modcrately , but
 Educat on and Urban Culture

onIy in the United Sures, afrer ir was discovcred rhar thjs "English-
man" was not an arisrocrar of the F mpirc bur a plcbcian of mixcd
racial stock, w ho, by his OWIl efforts an d inrcllgence. had managed
ro assimi lare t he most sophisricared literary and artistic valucs of Eu-
rope and ro use t hem (O supplcmenr his kccn insighrs into mcn and
society. Thc more informed view of ,\ tachado's background addcd
ro his sr arurc as a w rite r, panicularly among Negrees, wherc he is
apprcciatcd now pcrbaps no t so much for rus social analysis of thc
bourgeois sociery of rhc Brazilian Empirc as fo r his status as an
Afro-American. T hough this sort of appreciation does not affect an
aurhor's lircrary merirs. ir is hardly rhc son of tribute " tachado or
any of his conrcmporarics would havc foresecn or cvcn wa nred.
Political and Racial Problems

T o r ::"OVJ:!\1BER in Brazil was only a slighr t remer

H t; FIFTEL"'- TH
compared ro (he earthquake of thc thirrccnt h of .\tay, which
shook Brazilian cconom ic and social t radirions ro rheir founJ ations
nnd cnused profound cha ngos in rhc o rga nizario n o f Hrnailian soci-
ety . Sorne superficial observers havc arrribu red rhesc changes ro t hc
establishment of thc almost innoccnt Republic. But rbe fact is t hat,
as hithcrto no red, t he new form of go\'crnrncnr from its inception
maj e cvcry efforr ro conrinue rbc monarc hic princip ie of order and
parcmalisric aut horiry wirhin the framcwo rk of a democraric social
st ru cture c haract erized by a fl uidiry among tac es, c lasscs, cultures,
and regional populations. Ar times, in Fact, [he interpenerration he-
tween rhese anragonisric elcmcnrs had ro he controlled wirh consid-
erable pclirical force.
" Ir would he vain to expecr a consriturion mcdcled on rhat of
rhc United Srates to operare smoo rhly in Brazil.' norcd Brycc: for,
being a child of irs own pasr, its bchavior would necessarily be con-
ditioned by thar pase Tbus. in no pan of rhc wo rld of 19 10 was ir
morc impcranvc ro devclop whar Bryce calleJ a "consrrucrive
srarcmanship." 1 T his would ncccssirare rhe prcsencc of leaders ca-
pable of const rucring, crearing, and recombining- insread of
rn crely copying from other nations-in t hc manncr of rhe besr
sratesmcn of rhc Empire, who understood rhat rhc monarchical-
parlamcnrary sptem of Brazil was nor a dircct dcscendent of rhe
Hrinsh mod el bur rarher only a poor nnd disranr rclative of rhc Eu-
copean svstem. As a rcsult, rhesc st atesmcn had been obliged ro
I Jame~
,
Ilryce: Sontb A mtriclJ, O bltrtwions end lmprn sions ( ~' e w
-
Yurk, ' 913 ) ,
pp..., 8. ~1 9.
, 66
 Politieal and Racial Probems
adapr consranrly (O non-Europc an sit uations, siruaric ns physically
and ro a certain extent socially American and tropical, situarions
arc haically feudal or parriarc hal on rhc one hand and advanced ami
rn odcrn-c-somerimes more m dem than rhcir British cOllnterpart-
on rhe c rher. Such siruarions. nccdlcss to say, wcre not relarcd so
much (O rhe general leve! of culture as ro ccological facrors, ele-
rnents known in modero sociclogical terminology as "tropisms":
siruarions predominamly nco-Larin in rhcir cultural substancc. bu t
combincd wirh subcultu res of m cstico, lndian. or N egro partero.
In rhc facc o rhesc siruations. ncw ro a mcnarcbical-parliamen-
tary fOf01 of government, the Empire had funcrioncd as a sort of
Imperial Rcpu blic. favc nng almosr a syrnbiosis bc t wccn parriarchel
libcralism and aurhoritarian dcmocracy. The Ernpcror, rhrough his
famous "moderating pc wer" (a more sociological and polirical rhan
jurid ical desc ription and one which still aw airs compctcnt enalysis
ano inrerprcraeion) rcgularcd rhc pow er of t hc parriarchs, sorne of
w hom w ere alrnost rcpublican in t hc sense of bcing arisrocrars of
rhc Big H ousc."In ru rn, he had also been rcgulated by theru, not for
his excesses of mon arc hic auehorirv so rnuc h as for his modera lib.
eralism, which at times also approachcd rep ublicanism. N cver in rhc
N ew W orld had rhcre bcen suc h an intc rest ing, ano ofrcn paradox -
ical, polincal struggle bcrwc cn rwo opposites, dividcd more socio-
logieally then politicallv, with the patria rchs of each faction lining
up according t regional intcrcsrs but scldom diverging veey
greatly on purcly narional issues. and wirh rhc Empcror in the r nid-
dle rrying 10 sofrcn rhe shocks. T hcsc shocks. funber more. were
not limircd ro those berween rhe d itferenr facrions of arisrocra rs .
tb ere was also the opposirion of classcs : of arisroc rats againsr bour-
geois. againsr the wo rking class, and against rhe sla... e. rhc lasr often
being p ror ccred from rhe exc csses of rhc mastcrs by the C rown it-
self, whose own art irud cs we rc a confnsing combination of liberal-
isr n and supcrpatcm alisrn.
T hus the polirical ballet danced in Brazil was one disringuishcd
for irs consranr rnovemcnt: irs ad,'anccs and ret reats, its temporiz-
ing and compromises, its patern alism of rhe Crown on rhe one hand
and of the plantation on rhe other. Political1y, this dual patemalism
bccame a mere shadow of irs former sd f, the second rrpe disappear-

2 Tite Big H OU5C (C u.J-G r.m Jc ) is tite hume uf rhe large runl1andltoldcr and
serv es as che principal symbuJ nf Bra Jian plant arion eeonumy during Sia H ty
days. el. GiJhcrro Freyre : T hc M a1tcrr .J"d rhc SI..t'CI (Ca,.._G Ta"de l Setr.AliI ) .
che rst '"olume in ch is series. (T rans!ato r.)
168 C rder and Progrcss

ing with abolition and rhc fi rsr with rhc coming of rhc R epublic.
Sociologically, however, borh typcs survived rbe coming of tite Re-
pubhc, and rhc Presidcnr was thus forccd ro assume in sorne re-
spccrs the role playcd by rhc Emperor during the monarchy. T he
A rmy also carne ro play its paremalisric role in n sing abo ve part)'
srrife to acr as pacificr of Hraxilians divi dcd by facrionalism or sub-
narional anragonisms. And rhe spirir of parernalism survivcd too in
rhc so-callcd "colonels'' of t hc inter ior, whosc lcaJership preserved
a considerable pan of rhc hcrirage of (he form cr Im perial barony,
ano sorne of \v hom were vinually feudal in rheir parriarchy,
t hollgh arisrocratic-rcpublican in rhcr disdai n of Im perial power.
T his anitude was ofren passed on by rhesc men ro rhcir univer-
siey -brcd sons anJ sons-in-law who, like t heir cld crs. we re disdain-
fu i of Imperial po wer fo r irs Iim iting cffecr on t hc Big H ouse and
rhc int cllccr ual litc. Tbcorcrically ext remelv romam ic in rhcir Iib-
era lism, bur in practico nor always at tcntive ro the public good,
rhesc sons of parriarchs forrned a solid front w irh or hcr unicersiry
g raduares, pricsrs. and mi lita ry figures from cthnic and soc io-
cultu ral groups ccnsidcrably lcss adjusred ro tbe parriarchal socicry
of the Empire. which thcv regardcd as an archaic force in the N ew
\Vorl d quite incapable of making "P for time lost by tite Brazilian
pea plc. in comparison ro th c U nircd Srarcs or Argentina. in the
march of progress.
X evert hclcss, after rhc firsr t wc o r three )'ea rs of thc Rcpublic
had passcd wirhour ful fi lling rhe mcssianic promise of rhe fif reent h
of X ovembcr, SOI1lC of t hcse discnchanred inrellectuals rurned to a
vehement defense of the [ormcr Empi re and Emperor. One of rhese
intellecruals was A lfredo de Paiva. a narivc of :\l inas Gcrais. w bo
publishcd a pam phlet cnrirled Oneet es Polticas e So ciais in rhc
ciey of ju ix de Fo ra in I H91.
"Where, thcn. are the srarcsm en of rhis R cpu blic>" he asked.
And prccecdcd : " Ped ro 11. whc \....as accused of excrcising personal
pov,'cr. used ro say ro his rninisrc rs: 'You know rhar I was ncver an
cbstaclc ro any refonn dcsired by rhc nation .' '' According to
Paica, Ped ro 11 had lived "P ro rhese words and bad acceprcd rhc
wanrcd rc forms. \ Vhat had happened w as that " in Sao Paulo. in Re -
ci fe, the self-styled lite, " imbued with " dem agogic literature." w as
persuaded that the Brazilian mo narch)' v.as a uscless, mo rbil!. and
cven rortcn archaisl1l .3
3 Alfredo de Paiv. : Q lu ftet Po/lirM e Sociait (}uiz de Fora. ,89') , pp. I Q,

.'.
 Poi tical and R acial Probems

Sraremcnrs like rhis one r narked rhc ht'ginning of rhe so-called

"repenrence'' whic h has been srudicd in a perccpnve essay by Lus
,\ lart ins of Sao Pauln. ,\ Iart ins dcals principallv with the members
of thc pat ernal and inrcllcctual ansrocracy. mcn gencrally o rhc
white race (or wirh only a slighr rouch of Indi<111 blood) w ho wcre
considcrcd. howcver remot o rhc com paris on. as noble as th c Euro-
pean aristocrar. As wc havc scen, rhc Negro or 11/crti(o elemems in
rhc popularion, rbe fonne r slavcs and prcsem scrvanr class. had
nc vcr Leen scduced by rhe Rep ublic and acceprcd ir rnercly on r01-
erance. eonfonning wirh irs ncw \vays bur ncver rcally losing their
almosr myst ical vcne ration for Princcss Isabel. rhc Redcmprrcss.
0 0 rhe orhc r hand. rhc ano ny mous aut hor o anorher pampblct
cntirled U111 Estad sm da R ep blica (jo o1i]uim ,H/l rtillbo ), pub-
lished in Buenos Ai res in 1897, pointcd out rh ar during the mon-
archy, polirical off iccs had "boro successors," rhus favoring certain
familics. narurally of rhe wlnre race or nearly so; ami that rhcse, in
rhe exercisc of rheir officcs. formcd what was virt ually a casre sys-
rcm. "an :luguSt temple rarely pcnct rared by rhe profane wirhour
rhe dispcnsarion of spccial gracc."
T his apo logisr of rhe R cpublic exaggerarcd. however, in sraring
that rhe new gO\'cromcllt would acr as a demoerat izing force ro
allow Brazilians ro enr er rhe academics and ho ld importanr polirical
offi ccs withou r considcrat ion of racc or soc ial origin. There is not a
single foreign obscrver of life dunng rhe Empire-c-and foreign ob-
scr vers are rhe mose reliablc in th is case. bcing free from prejudiccs
and special int eresrs-who has failcd to point out rhar rhc der no-
erario pracriccs of t he Empirc hclpcd pecsons of humble descenr ro
rhe besr scbools and cvcn ro pofitical office.
In t he 1879 cdiric n of Brazil and the Bra=ili,ms, rhe Revcrend
James C. F lcrcher poinred out a fact per haps scandalous ro Arneri-
cans: rhar. according ro rhe Im perial Consrirur ion, cc nsiderarions of
racc or co lor could noe he eit her dircctly or indirccrly th e basis for
civil rigb rs. T hus, once he was free, rh c black or brown individual
could attain through his own talc nt and encrgies positions w hich he
would 110[ be permilred ro gain in rhe Un iled Sures, whate\'er his
abiliries and virtues, Consequently, the American c1erg)'man had
encounlered some of rhe most intelligenr mcn on e could possibly
kno w, men ed ueated in Paris or in Coimbra , who were "of African
deseenr , , , "" hose ancestocs were sla\'es." i In t he Brazil of t his
ij am..,. C. Flcl c her and Dan iel P . Kiddet: Bra:i/ .rnJ ,be Brr.i/.l m (4th edn"
Hostlln. , 879) , p, ' B
'7 Order and PrOl{TeH

pcriod, " if 3 lilao has frecdorn, moncv, and m erito no ma tter how
black may he his skin, no place in sccicry is refuscd him. . .. In
che coll eges, rhc mcdical, law, and thcological schools, rhere is no
disrinction of color." T hcrc was a cc rtain prcjudicc in favor of
rbc purel y wlure, Flcrchcr lloredo bur rhis was " by no mcans
st ronq." Ear licr in his hook, Flercher insists 0 11 thc fac r rhar in Bra-

zil rhcrc were opporrun iries for rhe adve ncemcnr of the N egro or
rhe mulano cnrirely lacki ng in rhe bighly Christian countt )' of his
( Flcrc hcr's) birrh: "whcn frccdom is once obrained. ir may be said
thar no social bindra nces. as in thc U nit ed States. can kccp clown a
man o merito" I l e an ributes rhis condition ro rhc fect that Brazil is
a Larin narion and rhc Larins, in conrrasr to t he A nglo-Saxons. rend
ro ser "morir bcfore color. "
Anorhcr A ngl04Saxon; t hc Englishman Frank Bcn nen, after liv-
ing in Brazil for [n ur dccadcs pu blishcd his Forty Y ears in Brazil in
Lodon in 191.+. 1 le poimcd out rbar. during rhe reign of Pedro 11.
severa! Brazilians of A fric an origin had rcccivcd dccorarions and
nrlcs." T he condition of " peoplc of color" was much ditferent
from t bat in rhe U nited Srares. T u illusrrat e t his. Bcr mcn cites tWO
srriking incidenrs: rbar of thc V iscounr of j equirinhon ba, a noble-
man of rhe Brazilian Empire who was refused a hotel room in rhe
U nircd Srates, ami that of a recent medical sc hool graduare of Afri-
can origin w ho, ar a court ball. w as asked by rhc Emperor himself
to dance wirh rhe Imperial Princess. In addit ion. Hennett observes,
rhe Baron of Ccrcgipc, g rear leadcr of th c conservativos dunng rhc
Em pirc. was a man of colo r ami rer so respc ctcd ar hom c and
abroad rhar during bis regime as presidcnr of rhe Counci l "rhc rate
of Exchange was ncarly always highcr rhan under rhe administra-
tion of any orhcr polirical leader." Since Bennen w rites "E x-
change" wirh a capital lerter ( as rhough ir were a god dess obcdienr
only ro her pricsts, whosc alrnosr supernatural p<Jw ers were exer-
cised in t har Mccca of inrcr narional fi nance rhar w as l .ondon ), w e
can sensc rhe irnportance that rhis long-r ime Brazilian resident
placcd on rhc moral influcncc of an individual over t he flucruarions
of t hc money markct. And in Bra7.i1 men ea pable of inspiring suc h
confidenee in forcigncrs eould he mulattos likc Cotegipe, t o w hom
rhe go vernmcnt would cntruS[ irs dcsrinies as rhough suc h mcn
we re dy ed4in4t he-wool Eu ropcans rraincd in rhe most conservar\'e
London School of Economies.
$ Fnnk Bennelr: 1'Ort y r e~rs in Brt:il (Londan, '9'.l. p. 6,.
 Potical and Racial Probems

In his book Vida l'ar/.memar,6 Antonio Percira R ebouc as poinrs

out rhat rhc Portugucsc munarchy had always distinguishcd narive-
born Brazilians from narive-bom Po rtugucsc wirhour considcrat ion
of racc or color, joaquim Nabuco, in his O Deuer dos ,\lo71arquistas
-Carta ao Almirante Jaceguay,; cites Rcboucas in pointing out rhc
tradicional ideruification of rhe 1JJestifo and the Negro wirh rhe
Empire and sraring rhar ir was royalty irself which had acrcd "as
much as anyonc could ro diminish rhc idea of r acial superiority' on
the pan of the whircs. A rracking the idea of rhc c untinuation of rhe
mon arc hy. j accguay bad stated: " By a phcnomcnon which I am
no! sure w ill sorne day be scient if ically cxplained. che dominanr sen-
rimcnr of thc mi xcd rac cs of Amrica is o nc of cquality . I low c an
ene rcconcile this scntiment wirh rhat of atfcction fo r the mon-
archy . w hic h is a gO\'crnmem of pr ivilegc par excellence! "
In answcr ro rh is lasr argumcnr. rh c futu re Brazilian Am bassador
to rhe United Seates had cited rhe w holc t radinon of dynastic scnri-
mcnr hcld by his mest to compatriots and noted by Rcboucas.
himsclf a rnan uf colo r. Bcsidc which, continued Nabuco, "nowhere
is the scnrimcnt of racial inequality so st rong as in a tyical republic
- t he Unired Sraecs." Whilc in thar narion rhc Negrees form "an
inferior casre," in monarc hic al Europc "ene finds thc Neg ro cvcry-
whcrc, living in tbe bcst hoecls, t ravclling in f irst-class c ar riages,
scared as an cqual on rhc bcnches uf t he g reatest schools of arts and
scienccs,' wit hc ur noticing "rhc slig htest signs of prcjudicc . ..
o n rhe pan of t he prcss o r in lirera rurc. . . ," It was not N abuco,
bur in fact the Rcvercnd j o ho Snydcr, who wrote this lase scnt encc
in the F OTlt1J1 fo r O crcbcr, dH19, But ir was N abuco wh o askcd if,
in tbc United Srares, "it would by ch ancc be possible for a mulano,
what ever his ge nius, ro art ain the ulmosr regal pc sitio n enjoyed by
an A lexendre D umas in Paris''> The same qucsrion could be askcd
w ith cqual vigo r of t he position held in che Brazilian Em pire by
Cotcgipc, or j equitin honba, or Rcboucas, o r T rres H omem, or for
thar occupied in rhe nacional lircrature by ,\ t ac hado de Assis or
G oncalves Dias.
There is no do uhc that t he fifte enth of N ovcm ber. fol1ow ing
after the t hirteenth of '\l3y, c arne to me an to Brazilians- and cspe-
cially ro colored Brazilians, who had um il then been somewhat in-
6 A nu)n io Perein Reb() lI~ as : V jJ , l'arlrm(l/f, r, 1, 5l ~.
7 Joaqu im N,.buco : o D" 1:e~ Jos M (J n,~q ll;stJs--C ..rt.. JO AI",ir..m " .. cegu.,',
p. 7,
'7' O rder and Progress

diffcrcnt ro rbeir rclar ions wir h rheir whitc superiors-t he fccling

nf bcing " as good as anyonc ." Henncu describcd how, at th e
proclamarion u f t hc Rcpublic. a son o mystical confidence dcvel-
opc d. cspecially Jmong rhc young. in rhe marvclous rransformation
t har was gaiog ro rake place as rhc rcsulr o a simple change in the
polincal rcg ime. "Srrangc norions of cquality" sprang up; cnthusias-
tic rcpublicans began ro talk not in rcrms o bcing mcrcly "as good
as anyonc'' but actually a lin te bc ncr. Hue rhe abohrion of titlcs did
nor seem ro end rhc "curious norinos o cqoalit y'' 00 t he pan o
ccrrain repu blicans who, in Bennen's eyes. seemcd co vcrous o (he
ridc o "doctor." This. in Brazil, could be uscd by anyone w ho had
complcted his undcrg raduate course in any instinnion of highcr
lcarning: law, medicine, cnginccring. or wharevcr. Ir was "nor un-
conunon for a lawy cr to oc styled doctor when he has only takcn
bis bachclcr's dcgrcc," said Bcnncn . And it was not long befare
Caprain-Dccrors. Alajor-Docrors, and Colonel -Docrors bcgan ro
rnakc their appcarance, an cxtravagancc roundly sarinzcd by Eca de
Quciroz in his " C lrima Carta de Fradique ,\ lendes." But Eca's sar-
re was ro nn avail, in rhis exaggcratcd sc ramblc for miltary-
ucad cmic rirlcs. not cvcn five Ecas. using all rhe powefS of sat ire at
thcir cornma nd, could havc succccdcd in making rhc slighresr im-
pression. Thc Posit ivisrs thcmselvcs. who should have becn rhc f irst
re ser an cxamplc of vi rruous rcnunciarion of rir lcs of al l kinds, were
as bad as rhe rcsr in rheir use of such honorifi cs: Captam D r.
.Alcxandrc Jos Barbosa Li ma, for example. " C rear is rhe power of
rhesc two lcn ers [Dr.] before onc's narne in a country rhar has
done away with rie les of fcudalism," nored Hennerr."
.\ Ioreovcr, ir is im portant ro stress thar the prestige acquircd by
rhe Army during rhc Paraguayan \ Var and incrcascd during the
proclamarion of rhe Repubhc gave military lides even greater pres-
rige than academic enes in rhc cr es of thc grcar r nass of Brazilians.
T his cxplains why Floriano had declarcd rbar rhc invcsdng of Ruy
Harbosa wirh thc titlc of Brigadier.Gcneral on ,\ lay 15, 1890, was
rhe "g rcaresr honor rhe narion could confer on her benefacrors."
T hc initiati" e in chis case had been taken by Dcodoro; according to
Rny himself, in a lener ro La Prensa of Buenos Aires published in
Xovcmber, J 890. rhe granting of such honors had bccn " an anom
al)'." In a "solcmn ccremnny," with alJ rhe military forces gathcrcd
on "rhe immcnsc 6c1d of Sao Crisrvao," Deodoro. "moved by
' Iknnett, op. C .lf . pp. 1' 9, I J I .
 Political and R acial Probiem s '73
cmotions which were ma nifcs ted by t he pallor of his ccuntenancc
and rhe trem bling of his voicc," declare d "amidsr the most pro-
fc und silcncc of rhe c rowd rhar in recognit ion of t he cxrr acrdinary
services his minisrcrs had extended in the organizarion of rhc Re-
public. he was irwesring rhcm fort hwith with rhe rit le of Brigadier -
General." According ro Ruy, his "recoil" froro assum ing "the
weighr of a disri nction so ineongruous" t o rhc narurc of his work.
his c harac rcr, bis ideas, and his past hisrcry w as "almcsr impossible
ro exprcss in words." Unaccustomed ro decking himself with rhc
trcphies of banlcs he hao never foug he. he srared he would accept
this title from no one, such honors bcing incomprehensible in " a
person so esscnrially civilian as myself, whosc life, in every w ay , has
bcen a radical negation of rhe arts of war. " Ir was in rhis samc exces-
sivc spirit of ci vilian squcamishncss rhar Ruy in 1909 rcpudiared rhe
csndidacy of l l crmcs da Fonscca, calling ir "militaristic.' and insri-
gating against rhc honesr Fonscca one of che most un jusr ca mpaigns
ever underraken in Brazil againsr a pub lic serva nr. Herm es da Fon-
seca was caricarurcd as a glorifico drill sergcanr deserving only rhe
contem pt of cultivared and c1ea rhcadcd civilians. The law school
gra d uares. from w hose raoks mosr of rhc republican politicians
were drawn, we re part icularly vehemcnt and groupcd thcmselves
inrc an arisrocracy if not of binh. at leasr of cd ucation, in maintain-
ing their alcofn css from orher Brazilians less academ ically fav ored.
In short, in t his glorification of rirles, thc Brazilian "docrors"
soon hecame legion, as did rhc "colonels," a rendency which ap-
pcared ro one French obscrvcr as "ver)' Larin." A ccording ro F a-
ther j oscph Burnichon, rbere w ere proportionately more ritlcs
spcrted in rcpublican Brazil rhan in an)' of rhe old monarchies of
Europe. \Vhen he visired Salvador in t 908, he nored rha r. among
rhc sixreen new mcm bers of [he ,\ l unie ipal Council, five w ere
"colonels" and ninc more "doctors.' ~
In T be Mstl.'TS and tbe Sleoes 1 anempred t O show that sinee
Imperial t imes acadcmic t irlcs in Brazil had bccn t hc means of socia l
advanceme nr w hich pamcula rly favorcd y out hs of humble or
m ixed racial origino Thcy w ere in effecr patents of sociologic al
"whirencss," which ru rned rhcir possessor inro rhc equal of Cauca-
sians of noble origin o In facr, w hen sue h dcgrees w ere linked to a
caree r in political science, law, medicine, divinity, or engineering,
~ Joseph 8 urn ichon : Le Rr siJ d' AujOUTd'b fl i (Paris, ' 9' ), pp. 149-50. Sce al:l
p. " .
'74 arder and Progress

rhey ofren accordcd a social prcstigc evcn superior ro rhat o f an

arisrocranc rirle.
T his process of upgrading meo o modesr origins O [ crhnic infcri-
oriry t hrough the use of academ ic ritles inc reascd wirh rhc advcnt
of rhc Republic. no r 00 1)' va civilian insrirurions of higher lcarning,
bur also va [he militar)' ami naval acadcmics. \Virh t he Armcd
Forces playing a more active poltica! pan in rhe affairs o rhc na-
tion, a military carcer offcred a grca rcr opport unity rhan cvcr fo r
rhc social and polirical ascensin of 1lJcstiros and humblc wh ircs.
And wirh thc founding of rhe Repu blic , the prcsrigc of thc milirary
w as grearly augmcnrcd rh rough irs ado prion of rhc rol e of noora r.
risan modcra ror in rhe narion's alairs. X or rhat rhe posirion of the
political "docrors'' had in an)' way diminishcd; ir was simply rhat
rhar of the milit ary had gained addcd impo rra nce . T his political
prestigc of thc Armcd Fcrces ( which. as we havc secn. had bccn on
rhc rise sincc thc Paraguay an \\'ar ) did nor. howevcr, dcvclop any
sudden martial spirir or liking for milita r)' acrivity in rhc Brazilian
people. Such feclings a re not and never havc bccn c hsra cr eriseic of
our socic ry. In his Le Br st d'Auiourd'bui, Farhcr Burnichon rells
of having witnesscd a naval parado in Rio de Janeiro in 190 8. The
sailors, "rnanv of rbcm da rk-skinned and a considerable number of
rbem aurhc mi c X cgrocs," wcre resplcnden t in newly laundcrcd
unifonns rhe immacularc w hircn css of which conr rastcd dramati-
callj- wirh their dark skin. The offi cials. w ho werc nearlv all whircs
in t his pcriod. werc "svelre, ncnr. irrcproachablc in appcarance.'
Bnr cvcryt hing scemcd " a bit too prctt y , pcrhaps" re be rcallv ma r-
tial. The hanner car ricd at rhc head of rhe line by a ma rin e infan-
tryman scemed bizarro ami incomprehensible, "a sort of C hincse har
or sraff of plcnry suspended wirh al! se r es of decorarive o bjccrs:
y ellow ho rses' tails, glass jewels, and goodness knows whar
else." 1 The typical Luso-Brazili an love of rhc baroquc blcndcd
wirh something of rhe orienta l ami expended int o a sort of militar)'
rococo.
T he imprcssion of a group more clcgant than martial would ccr-
rainly havc bcen decpcncd in Burnichon's mind if he had heard the
marehers singi ng rhcir military son s~ ami patrioric anthcms. The
period was r ieh in such songs, the " l lymn to rhe R cpublic" bcing
partic ularly popular. X one of t hese, how ever, \vas not ably ma rt ia!
in characre r ami still ess so in perfornlance, ro judge by my O W11
I lbid., pp.1 8, , 19.
 Political ,111d Racial Problenn ' 7)
carlv memorics of militar)' bands in thc carbcdral square or on pa ~
rade through thc downrown srrccrs.
A dmirtcdly. thcse milirary parados wc rc accompanied by wildly
dancing childrcn, high-spirircd roughhousing, ami evcn a lirtle
knife-play 0 0 the par[ of rivals in rhc cspoeirs. But this incrcasing
cnt husiasr aroused in (he pcoplc by rnar rial display w as less due to
feelings of raw milirarism rhan te un overflow of abundanr parriotic
lyricism. a substiturc. pcrhaps. for forrncr feclings roward the Pr in-
ccss Isabel. no", transfonned into a femi nine symbol in thc form of
an image of an lndian maiden rcprcsenting Bruzil. Or by thc idea of
the R cpublic irself regardcd wirh fili al rcodemcss as a son of pro-
tect ivc goddcss who, on rar e occasicns, might herself be in nced of
protectio n. Hur w hcn thesc rnomcnrs of nced occurred, as in rhc
Paraguayan \Var, thc many Brazilians who cmhusiastically carne ro
her dcfense did so more in rhe spirir of rhc warrior rhan rhe profes-
sional soldicr. No wondcr, rbcn. rhat in [he performance of milirary
music (he spirir rcgistercd was more lyrical rhan marcial, ami rhar
rhc singers assum ed rhe aspecr of w ar riors in repose singing le ve
songs, not jusr ro sorne mere girl callcd ,\ taria bu r to a more exahed
" Iaria- the N arion, (he Republic. t he mystical. vcnerared Super-
Xlo rher of us all. Thc words of en e parrioric song:
' Ve ate fairhfnl soldiers o rhe r nothcrland we love
and which loves us also.
are a typical lyr ic example of rhis spir it of reciproca! dcvorion, a
son of .\ Iariolarr)' rransfonned from rhe Carholic Ch urc b to rhc
altar of rhc Na rion.
T his cxplains Farhe r Burnichon's cornmcnt " hardly milira rv " as
he watchcd rhe parado fi le rhrough thc srrcers of Rio de J aneiro in
1908. " O h, 1 know \'ery well rhar suc h ideals vary wirh rhc rime
and wirh t hc climare," he w rorc. perhaps reme mbcring rhc plumea,
vclvet. and lace of thc gcnrlcmen of rhc COUr[ of Louis XIV.
It should be norcd. nevert heless. rhar rhe young Rcpublic. how-
cver civilian irs gO\'ermncnr, was rakin g grear pains ro st rengt hcn
rhc presrige of its Armcd Fc rces ami ro hclp assurc the cause of
pcace bo th at homc and in thc Am ricas. The N acional Congress
vorcd for compulsory military sen'ice, anJ in England supcrdread-
noughrs were heing constructed for rhe ~a v y of rhe still-young
Republic. There was no dcsi re anyw herc ro incur rhe same error as
had Pedro n in remaining indifferent ro rhe aspirarions and necessi-
 Order and Progress

ries of rh e milirarv. Xor. a ter rhc t ime of Presid cn t P ru dente de

,\ Io rais, ro ru n rhc risk of Leing once again crnbar rassed in sorne
rcm orc backland by che dcfia ncc o f anor her Anr nio Conselheiro
and his bullybo ys. Such incide nrs uot only dcsrroycd the cfficicncy
of rhc Army and rhc good llame of its lcaders. but also raiscd rhc
rcbcls. in rhe eyes o f fore ignc rs, ro rhc leve! o f hcroic warriors.
Warricrs thcy w ere, c apa ble c f g rear ami d cspcrarc de cds in arcas
which were, by rheir nature, rhc most dccply nationalisric of all,
arcas no Europcan or A merica n would cvcr prctend could Le con-
q uere d by m ilitar)' mcans. And rhcse back-ccuntry fi ghrers who
surprised foreig ners by their inconqucrablc spirit we rc not the only
ones ro rally ro t hc dcfcnsc o f a narion in pcril: thcrc wcre also rhc
mcsriros and dcsccndanrs of A fr icans along the coast, rh c fishermen
ami sugur-cane c ut tcrs who formed rhe Black Guard ro defcnd t hc
Empirc againsr tbc republican "agitators'' and "dcmagogucs'' in rhe
lasr davs of Pedro 11. \Vith rhc triumph of rhc Rcpublic, rhis Black
Guard c arne ro be treat cd casually o r conrcmpruously by official
hisrorian s (as we havc seen }. BU[ rhc t ruth was thar, in rhcir anr i-
republican cfforts. t hcy werc cxp ressing t heir passionate devotion
ro a cause and manifesring t hcir grenrudc ro rhc govcrnmcnt which
had g ivc n thcm their frcedom .
O ne of rhe principal w eapo ns used by rhcsc freedmcn in rhcir
cause w as rh c art of capoeire. Throngh t hcir expert ness in this arto
man y free Negrees in Imperial tim es bccar ne profcssional body-
guards. a g roup which in rhc cirics formed " a real power. co n-
rrac rcd by polirical fig u res for pe rsona l prorcction, whosc services
were cspccially uscful during clections." ~ In 1873 , Pclice Chief
Lud gero Goncalv cs da Sil va decl arcd t hcse cepoeras "a disgrace to
rhe capital of rhc Empire" rhey wcrc "inordinarely bold,' rhey
"prometed disorder," and often "comnurted assault and munler in
cold blood. somcrirncs merely fo r amuser nenr." T his "disgracc to
the capita l," howcvcr. sremmed not so mu ch from rhc capoeires
t bemsclves as fro m thosc "pclirical in ue nces" who cmployed rh ern
for elec toral p ur poses. W hcn they werc uscd, also by " po lit ical in-
fluences," in defense of (he t hrone against republican agita tors. their
actions (o ft en prompted by feelings o f g ratiru de row ard the go\'-
ernmenr "vhieh had been acting in t heir favor since the passage of
the Law of t he Free \Vom b) were interprered by som e :m alrsts as
a patriotic sen 'ice w orthy of r espee t .
~ Elsio de ..\ r:lj", F.SluJ(J lf irrd~i(() sQ b~e if p()I(~ Jil Cirpil.li FeJ erifi (Rio de
J~ ne iro. 1~Q8 ) .p .Il J .
 Political and Racial Problems ' 77
The Rep ublic is gencrally praised for having succeeded. rh rough
irs cnergcnc policc chief Sarnpaic Ferraz, in crushing (he cspoeirs in
Ric de j aneiro. T he rruth is that t hc re publican police seem ro have
acre d against rhis grou p-c-all of whom wcre N egrees or Illulauos-
with a rigor which sccmcd tu srcr less from impulses of police
order than of repub lican revengo against the group who had sop-
poned the E mpire through acrivity in thc Black Guard. Nor al! of
rhosc punishcd wcre malcfactors. lIlany werc malad jusrcd adolcs-
ccnrs and young r ncn rcgardcd as rhc sourcc of futuro rrouble, a
problcrn which larer carne ro be callcd rhat of thc "middle force,"
bcca usc of rheir cndu ring monarchism in a R epublic w hose status
was still wcak and insecurc.
Thc punirive anirudc of th c police toward rhis anci-rc publican
clemcnr was probably a ruistake from the narional poinr of view.
An orhcr erro r Illight havc bc cn rhe failurc of the policc ti) employ
rhc copocira, rhcn in irs ful lcst flowe ring, as a we apon in their ow n
arsenal fo r rhc prcscrvarion of crdcr. T he A n ned Fo rccs also could
have uscd rhe rcchniquc, borh in suppressing disorders and as an
cxercisc in physical eondirioning, un adjunct ro rhe imirations of
Swcdish and j apanese cxerciscs alrcady empl oyed at rhc time. The
j apancse wcrc said ro havc mnmphcd ovcr thc R ussians in 1905
largely t hrough rhcir greatcr agilit y and I lexibiliry . Srnall but vigo r-
ous, virtually acrobars. rhey helJ an adv anr age ovcr rhcir larger,
more stolid blond o ppo nems. Thc Brazilian A nny. cornposcd
main ly of m est cos and plc bians, could have devclopcd rhe same
virrucs as rhe j apanesc by adopting rhc cepoeiro and would ar rhc
samc rime have dcvclopcd a rcchniquc rhat was ecologically nanon-
alist ic.
Insrcad of looking inimcdiatcly ro the problems of rcpa iring rhc
Imperial neglecr of rhc Armed Forccs. rhc Republic appears ro have
takcn accou nt of this national deficiency only afrcr thc disastcrs
sutfercd by t hc line troops in the so-cal!ed " Federalist Campaign" in
rhe somh, and later in Canudos. In 1900, a tenaciolls monarchist.
Amlrade Figueira. spoke strongl), in fan)r of berrer organization of
rhe Anned Forces. part icularly after "r he rcsistancc of t he Canu Jos
hillbillies. anned more wit h fanaticism than w eapons of combat,"
had im pressively turned back " no fcwer th:m fo ur m ilita ry expeJi.
t inns," t hereb)' indicat ing, on the (lile h:md. " rhe effieaey of popular
rcsistance againsr unjustifiable m ilitar)' dom inat ion," ando on rhe
or her, the need for the Brazili:m natio n. no"," a Republic, to "guar.
antce rhe independenee and intcgrit )' of its rerritory agai nst foreign
 Crder and Progress

agg rcssion." ~ Hrazil was "s urrou ndcd by ),onng ami uneasy na-
rions. al! dominate d by rhc spiri t of expansionism natural ro yout b
and by rhc ty pe of go\' crnmem which wc too now unhappily pos-
scss.' Bcyond th is. wirh the COlltlt ry "agiratcd wit h t he rcvolut ion-
ary spirir of which rhe fifrccnrh of Xovcmher was rhc highest ex-
pression, moved by feclings t har werc in rhc best inrercsrs of peace
and public crdcr," rhc need for a "scric usly organizcd armc d force"
- no r only ro act as a bulwark againsr ou rsidc orces bur also 10
main tain domcsric "ordcr in rbc face of anarchy v-c-could nut be
undcrraecd. T o rhis rhc forrncr Imperial counselor could havc
added rhar rhc rhrcars tu domcsric order afrer ten rears of rhc ncw
regime no longcr carne from the capoerss or the loya l dcvcrces of
rhc Princcss Isabel. Rarher, rhey carne from rhe whire republicana
of Rio Grande do Su l in rhcir ditlercnces wit h thcir white republi-
can brerh re n in rhc federal capital. or from orhcr new rcpublican
leadcrs. now orficially "vs-hite and as goa l! as anybody," against
r hcir co-religionaires in c rher parrs of rhe cotl ntry .
Officially whir c, now tha t rhcy had beccrne prcsrigious lcade rs of
che Republic. wcrc such mestcos as Francisco Glyc rcio. wh o hcld
rhc ho norar)' ru le of G eneral. and Nito Pecanha. who cvcntuallv
bccarne Prcsidcnr of rhc Republic; and although sorne othcr ne...'"
lcaders. such as Campos Sales, rnutrercd about their not being en-
rirely Caucasiano rheir position amollg rhcir inccntestibly white
brcrhrcn was assurcd t hrough rhc force of rhcir polirical rriumphs.
N evcnheless. power in rhc ncw Rcpublic conri nue d to he held gcn-
er ully by pu re whitcs. jusr as ir had hccn in t he Em pire. A glancc at
thc photoprapbs of mernbers o f rhe rcpublican Consrirurional As-
sembly in 1891 rcvcals no ncw social lcvels rcprcscnred among pub.
lie figures, though an occasional N egroid ser of fcatures was vis-
ihle in cirhcr periodo Gradually, wirh sorne difficuh y, nonwhires
bcgan ro ascend in t hc political scalc. but rhc proccss of sclccrion
was rigorous and there \Vas always a certain discriminat ioll against
persons w hosc appearance, \",hethcr in skin co lor or facial charac-
teristics, was conspicuollsly African. As some rcpublican patriots of
the time pointe d ou r-Senator A nttm io .\ lassa among them-it was
",itally neccssary t hat A rgcntinians did nor come ro regard the new
Repu blie as a large-scale coun terpa rr of H ait i or :\,icaragua. T hus,
ir was (lnly gradllally rhar persol1s with :\'egroid fearures began to
3 Andrade Figucira , A IUc~ J~ Reflu b/;c;rlla-Cou sas d~ ReptbUca ( Rio d e
Janeim, '9'" j , VII, l W- j .
 Poitca and Racial 'robems / 79

risc to positions of importance in thc Army. rhc courts. thc clergy.

thc law, in jcurn alism, oc in Parliamcnr. Ano ir is possible that, had
rhcre heen a thi rd Imperial reign, rhis ratc of asccnt would havc
bccn about rhc samc as undcr t he R cpu blic.
During rhc presidcncv uf rhc Paulista .\ lanuc! Fer raz de Cam pos
Sales ( 1898- 1902) . howcvcr, rhcrc was much discussion of whire
supremacy. And wh cn. as Presidcnr of th c Rcpu blic. he rnadc a
naval trip to Argentin a wirh rhe accompanying vesscls marmcd by
pu re-whirc crcws. many accused rhc illustrious rcpublican leadcr of
open "hatrcd" nor only roward rhe African race but also roward
rhc ludian ami its derivativcs. This "ignominious select ion of
cree-s," as ir was tcrmcd by a monarchic criric, was incomprehen-
sible in rhc republican g()\"ernmetlt of a "nation popularcd by a gen
eralizcd mixture of taces whosc mcm bcrs havc alwavs affirmed rhcir
patriorism and moral ami inrcllccruul aptitudes in thc discharge o
rhc high est du ries of rhc statc in rhc Sonare and rhc Chambe r o f
Dcpu rics. in rhc gO\'ernmcnt councils, in diplomacy, in rhc Ch urch.
and in the arts and scicnccs. . . . For rhc firsr rime we may begin
ro snspccr m condcmn rhc regime which has dcclarcd itsclf ro he
bascd on the spiri r of cqualiry." This mixtu re of raccs is so general
in Brazil. rhis criric goes on. rhar "ir is difficult ro fi nd a single fam-
ily or a single individual free from rhe characrcristic odo r of rhesc
mingled races diffuscd t hrough rhc hcar of rhc t ropical climare." 4
Pcrhaps rherc was a ccr rain arr visn o O!1 rhc pan of rhcse me n
who suddcnly bccamc leadcrs after rhc prcclamation of rhc Repub-
lic th at lcd rhcrn ro att empt ro appear crhnically as accc pt ablc ro
foreigners as t heir Imperial cOllnter parrs had bccn. This dcsirc
probablv led ro a careful sclccrion of cnrourage, such as rhat of
which Campos Sales was accuscd. in official t rips ro foreign coun-
fries. If Pri ncess Isabel had chosen to be protected by a "Bl ack
G uard," thc ncw princcs prcfcrrcd ro rravcl wirh a "whitc guard"
in order ro give an ethnically arislOcraric tolle ro rhe ne\\' regime.
Anorher form of apparcnt arril..is1Jlo on rhe pan of rep ublican
leaJers ( as wc have seen ) was rhe urge tu make chemseh-es kn o",n
by rheir academic and/or militar)' ritles. This searc h for status,
prOlllpted by insecurity, nat urally led ro a gooJ deal of dispby o f
recem ly acquired Status symbols. The rendency was satirized by
fomler Imperial COllnselor Domingos de Andrade Figueira. an in-
rransigenr monarchisr criric, parriclllarly of ",hat he called "t he Ti
4 hid. pp. J'H-<i.
180 Order and Progress

diculous itc h for r nilirary honors'' duri ng rhc fi rsr yca rs o thc Re-
public. Acco rding re Figucira. "evcn well-brcd persons did not
escape rhc urge ro throw thcir civilian anire inro t hc ragbag and
disg uise t hemsclvcs w irh eaps and uniforms which lit propcrly only
00 rhe professional soldicr." A typical cxam plc o this rendency was
thc astutc po lirician Francisco Glyc rio, whose assumprion o an
honorary militar)' rirlc aod militar)' insignia betrayc d his desire ro
appear te [he populace as muen a p rincc of t hc Republic as oln)'
prcfessionat general smcehcrcd in gold braid .
If ir is though t rbat military fi gures who. since rhc Paraguayan
carnpaign. had "inclincd rc ward a republican solution for Brazil,"
wcre moved by thc llrge to gain status in rhc new go\'ernmem by
posing as acadcmic gradu ares. this idea. according ro A ndrade
Fig ueira. was crroncous: rherc never had bcen an)' m onopoly of
govc rnmem posrs on rhc pan of t hc collcge-brcd civilian. There
was onlv t he " inevit able" influcnce in a new counrrv of "cit izcns
trained in t he law and in social and political science."'In fact, 'many
milirary figures had been called by rbe Empire ro occupy "rhc
highcsr officcs, such as thosc of prov incial prcsidcnr. minist er, st atc
counsclor, deputy. and senators." It was also t ruc thar the old re-
gime had providcd four milita r-y schools "w here srudenrs werc
clot hcd, fed, cducarcd. and or hcrwisc rrained from preparatory
courscs umil gradua rion ar the cost of rhe state and with the soldier
r aid for his scrviccs, wirh addinonal half-pa v bcnefirs go ing ro his
farnily . . .." ~ This arrangemeru perhaps accounrs for rhc consid-
erable num ber of )'oung pco ple of modcst ongin, often of mixed
racial stock, who insrcad of srudying law or med icine or engineer-
ing c hose to follow a militar)' ca reer and ar thc samc tim e ro attempt
in rhcir srudies t o master not so m uc h the arts of war as a kno wl-
cdge comparable to rhat of t heir coumerp ans in more purely aca-
dcmic insritutions. \ Vith rhc acquisin on of such knc wledge it was
natural t hat sorne militar)' graduares should consider rhcmsclvcs
half -degree holders in law, or polirical scicncc. or enginecri ng, and
t hcrcfore as qualified as their civilian eom parriots to participate in
t he political life of t he counrry. Since the Emperor had never ac-
corded t he militar)' t he attemion they descf" cd, it is natural that
these half-aeademic soldiers should incline in considerable numbers
toward republicanismoSorne, likc Beniamin Consta nr, wanred to es
tahlish the new rcg ime throllgh Positivism; others lookcJ ro a di-
~ Ib id., VI, ::6-7. ::W.
 Politica and Rac a Probenn

rcct. nonpartisan in rcrvcntion hy t hc Anny in national affairs. D eo-

doro in t hc provisional go \'crnmcllt, for examplc. and also, re sorne
cxrcnr. Flo riano .
\ Vit h thc go\"crlllocnt in its early days led by mili tar)" figures
such as rhc Generalssimo, sorne of rhc acadcmic rcpublicans felt
rhemsclvcs incompleto in nor being half-rnilirarv, partic ularly whcn
so many of the ncw milita r)' leadcrs we re at lcast half-acadcrnic ,
hcncc rhc "irch for militar)' honors" found so ridiculous by Andrade
F igueira. T his qucst was parricularly absurd bcc ausc duriog the
Empirc, aecording to Figucira. legislators had exercised thc no npar-
tisun funcrion aspired to by rhe republican milit ary. At onc time,
sorne 90 mcmbcrs of thc Icgislaturc had endorsed "rhc incompati-
biliry o thc electoral and thc parliamenrarv functions. with rbe
larrer demanding rhc suicide of spccial inrerests." Such special inter -
csts cou ld be rhc business of orhcrs, bur it was t hc business of rhose
with an acadcmic degree ro devore thcrnsclvcs ro thc mosr prcsrig-
ious acr iviry of all rhe parliamcnt ary. An d Andradc Figucira. io
19 1, cou ld sratc t har the lawyers. successors ro rhe Im perial legisla-
toes. had ncvcr tu his kno wlc dgc vctcd for anyrhing rhar could be
con sidercd spccially bcn eficial ro thc inrercsrs of rheir own class."
T his sub lime ingenuousncss on Figucira's pan overtooks rhc facr
rhat w hen a lawycr-parli amenrarian casrs his vote. he is considering
not his profession bur rarhcr rhc cconomic and orher special inter-
csrs of t hc group who clccrcd him ro otfice. For this reason, ir
would scem t hat t hc milirary. sremrning largely from morc modcsr
social and econ omic levcls t han most of the acadcmically t rained,
would bertcr represent rhc narional inrcresr rh an thc law ye rs. many
o w hom wcre rhc sons or sons-in-law of powerful planrcrs or busi-
ncssmen. A lt hough ir is fair ro admit. with Figue ira, rhat in rhc Bra-
zilian Empirc rherc w crc many law schonl gradoaecs "who werc
ncver able to accuruulare t hc profits of thcir profession,' wc do nor
have to agrec wit h him in conduding rhar cvcryrhing fsvo rcd these
S;lm c graduarcs because they fo rmcd "a cl ass edueated at the ex-
pense of their families and not at (h c expense of thc state" w hich
"contains t he tlow cr, [he c rcam of Brazilian society. persons, who,
through their talents ami lheir po w er to inspire confidenee in their
fcllow citizcns. havc heeomc the rnost famous and mosr solidly re-
spccted figures not 001)' in local and national political life, w here
t hcy ha\'c alwa)'s ac[ed w irh the highcst prudence and parriotism.
~ biJ., p. ljO.
18:! Order 1l11d Progress
but alsc in journalism, in lite ra ture, and in various branchcs of ad-
minist ration, of go vcrnrncnr, and of polirica! economy . . .H , so
mue h so rhar "to lisr t hcir llames wou ld be ro writ c rhc general
history of Hrazil and of cvcry (lile of its ex-provinces." t
Ccrtain ly this is an exaggcrarion on rhe pan of thc forrncr Impe -
rial counselor and author of A Dcada R epubtcmu-s-Cousss da
Repblica, D uring rhc Sccon d Em pire there were Inan)' good ad-
minist rarors. gove rnmcnr rncn, ami legislarors who t hrough their
rrai ning in militar)' scicncc. medicine. di vinity. enginccring, C Olll -
rnercc, or agricu lturc rcndercd no table serviccs ro t hc narion in
"
public offi cc. One rhin ks of suc h llames as " tau, Viscount R o
Branco, ,\ Iorais n cora, Rcboucas, T aun ay, Caxas, Francisco and
Sebastio do R go Barros, Buarquc de Maccdo. Farhcr Pinto de
Cam pos. Anr nio Peregrino .\ b ciel Monreiro, Aqu ino Fonscca.
Rodolfo Galvo. "bnuel Virorino. Many of rhesc meo were also
educ arcd ar rheir own or rheir family's expense. Sorne. like .\ l aciel
.\ l onteiro. the R go Barros. and Aquino Fonseca, pursued t heir
highcr cd ucarion in E urop c in univcrs itics o( Iar h ig hcr c alibcr rhan
rhose of thcir narivc countr)'. [usr as had Jos Bonf cic de A n-
drada. Orhcrs. such as Irincu Evangelista de Sousa, were ed uca rcd
rhro uqh thcir ow n hard cfforrs and srill wcrc able to bccome pan of
t he "crcam" or "owcr" of socicry through the ir virtuc and ralenrs,
bcrh pro fcssional and cvico As we havc secn. ir was quite possible
during the Secon d Empire for Brazilians o rnodesr social and crhnic
origin ro receivc insrruction in militar)' schools at sratc expense and
t e be t raincd not on1y in purely rnilitary rnarte rs. bu r also suffi -
cier nly in law. med icine, engi neering. and t heology ro givc t hem a
ccrrain apt itud c for thc excrcise o public office. a facr rhc social
significance o which has still nor been givcn its propcr artcnrion .
T hus rherc dcvclopcd a rivalry bct wecn rhc acadcmics and tbc
gradu ates of milirary schools in the rnatt cr of planning the narional
reorganizarion a [rer the proclamarion o rhe Rcpublic. Posirivism,
formerly thc virtual monopol y of rhe lawvcrs, now bccame-c-ro an
exrenr which still needs ro be examincd-c-rhc ideological iosrrur nenr
of conquest for the poliric ally ambinous militar)'. In addirion, rhesc
rnen had t he ad\"antage of profcssional disinrerest, since [hcir mil i-
tary sen"ice had removed t hem fro m con siderarions of pro fi t or c1ass
im ctest to a degrce rarely auaincd by pe rsons of acadcm ic training .
Ir was [hrough Positivism t hat Ben jamin Const ant Borelho de
1 Ibid ., p. l JO.
 Political and Racial Problems
!\1agalhics, a ma n of humhlc binh. bc c arnc rhc principal figurc in
ehc provisional gO\'crnmcnt w hich organizcJ the Rcpublic. A c -
cosed by his advcrsarics of bcing an Imperial schclarship srudcnr
and pror g of Pedro 11 ; of having bccn rraincd more in philcsophy
and social and poltica! sciencc rhan in r nilirary practico. as a rcacher
in the militar)" school, of having produced at public expense hun-
drcds of littlc Renjamin Constanrs, and of having used his rnilirary
status as a me:ms of polincal conquest, Consranr bccamc the symbol
of thc wholc movcrncnt on rhc pan of young meo of modest origin
ro cnrcr public office in rivalry to rb cir more wcll-ro- do compa-
rriors of o rt hodox ac ade mic educancn. The opporruni ry for mili-
tary cd uca rion ar sratc expense, rogcrhcr wirh the prcstige enjoyed
by militar)' fi gures in rhc minds o f adolcsccn r Brazilians in th c p e~
. -
riod fol1owing thc Paraguavan .. .
- War, cncou raccd manv a humble
young Brazilian ro seek to bcco mc a combinarion of O s rio and
Vasconcclos: caprain and doctor, soldicr and inrellecmal. This does
not mean rhar rhc militar)' schools did nor cnroll sorne srudenrs of
more aristocraric origins, arrracrcd by thc prospcct of a milirary
career as such, or t hat t hc academic insrirutions did ncr begin ro
anracr an increasing number of srudents from rhc lower Ievels of
socicry. Examples of rhis lan er group would be Nilo and Alce-
bladcs Pccanha. law gradua res of rhc University of Recite, or Re-
boucas. rraincd in engineering; or Juliano ;\ loreira in medicine; or
Silvric Pimenta in theology. AII werc "doctors" (accordin g to rhe
Brazi lian fashion of granting rhis tirle ro persons wirh bachelor's
dcgrces) , all we rc learned, all arisrocrats in t he eyes of unlertered
plcbians who looked up to rhcm with the devorion usually rescrved
for thc image of a saint. The cn ly thing lacking to artain rhe highest
presrige was for rbcsc "docrors" ro obrain a militar)' rank or for
thcir military countcrparts ro annex tite dcsignaeion of " doctor."
Scrzcdclo Corrcia was an cxamplc of rhc former, as wcre Alcxandrc
Jos Harbosa Lima and that principal rnodel and inspiration for all,
Benjamin Constant.
Ir is casy ro scc why a person like Benjamin Constanr would run
inro dircct conicr wirh rhar archctvpc of rhe Brazilian " doctor"
(though strictly speaking, the holder of a mere bachclor's degrce)
Ruy Barbosa, clc\'atcd by that purest of militar)' fi gures, G ell eril ls~
simo Dcodoro. ro the post of Prime .\linister of the provisional gov-
ernment. Ir is equally undcrstandable that this docto r par exccllence
should ha\'e entercd into still more painful conllic( ""ilh the a rch~
 arder and Progress

military successor tu Dcodoro. Floriano Pcixoro. And that in 1909

he should have unfurled the banner of civilian anri-milirarism in his
presidenrial carnpaign againsr rhe milirary candidacy of :\larshal
H ermes Rodrigues da Fc nscca. rcorganizer of rhe Armed Forecs
alnng r he patriotic lines suggcsted by rhc arch-acadcmic An dra de
Figueira. It is alsc clcar t hat Ruy would be rhc principal obsracle ro
t hc adhcrenrs of Posirivism, a doctrine espoused Icss by civilians
rhan by militar)' fi gures dcd icared ro the smdy o rhc co unt ry's
polirical and social problcms. T hus Ruy . the law school graduare
and scion of a bourgeois family who could afford ro educare him io
rhe universirics of Recife ami Sao Paulo, bc carnc the mosr vigorous
opponenr of rbc arrempr tu infiltrare the Republic wirh Comtian
principles. And he foughr parti cularly against the " incorporation of
rhc prolerariar' in rhe ncw Brazilian sociery which, according ro
rhe Posirivisrs, should bccome even more democraric than ir had
been under the Ernpirc.
In rhis respeet it is noteworthy t hat , during the monarchy, bcfore
r hc Pnsiri" ist d octrine had bcc omc a wcll-d cfin cd program of social
rcform in Brazilian polines. such ideas werc defended wirh objecriv-
iry and grcar clarhy by anorhcr sta tcsman whose family was nor
bourgecis, bu t arisrocratic: joaq uim X abu co. Unlike Ruy Ba rbosa,
Joaquim as a young man (and a young man whose handsome mien
and bu rsting health ccntrasred shar ply wirh the pallid, weazencd ap-
pearance of rhe illusrrious Barbosa) forsook rhe viewpoint naru-
rally associared wirh t hc intcresrs of an arisrocra ric. slaveholdin g
class and drew up the beginnings of a program of social reform
which extended far bc ycnd mere abolitionism ro cnvisage rhe de-
vclopmenr of a Lthoring class similar ro rhar larer devcloped in
C rear Hrirain. T bis program, howcvcr, did nor prevem him from
emering inro conflicr wir b the Pcsitivisr in thcir an cmpr ro irnbue
rhc Republic wirh Co mna n social reforms cspccially favorable to
thc working class.
T hus ccrtain clearly dcfined questions. which reached beyond
rhc mere rransformation from a slave ro a free econorny. preoccu-
picd rhc Posi rivisrs as rhey also prcoccupied thosc who agreed with
Joaquim Nabuco and Sylvio Romero. Bur ir is eurious ro diseover
rltar such quesrions wcre avoided by Ruy Barbosa until '9 19.
3\'oided so 3ssiduullSly as to give the impression rhar he was wilfuUy
ancmpting ro denr rheir exisrenee. In [his respeer his anirude re-
scmbled thar of To!lias Barreto roward rhe Ke gro or the slave.
problems always minim i7ed by this vigorous rcvolurionary imellee-
 Polt cal and Racial Problems
rual in arder ro avcid associating his nwn crhnic condirion with rhar
of rhe cnslavcd r ucc. Barrcro's srrong prefercncc for Gennan cul-
ture was un doubtedly a form of compensarory \'engeance on rhc
pan of a N egroid Hrazilian againsr his whire countrymen who,
heing nco- Larin or neo-M edircrr encan. fe l! short of rhe perfecr
N ordic Ary anism with which his own spirit, culture, and inrcllccr
- if nor his origin-e-e-ere so deeply idcntificd. Sarurared wirh Ger-
man phil osophy lircrature, and jur isprudcnce, he could nevcr be-
come an abolinonisr in t hc neo- Lat in j oaquim Nabuco's stylc.
much les." that of Lus Gamas or J os de Pat rocinio, tbose rherori-
cal and sentimental mulanos whosc clcvaricn of rhe Brazilian race
rc prescntcd ro Barre ro the dcnial of inrellectualit y in irs noblcsr
[i.e., Germanio) form in favor of suc h lcsscr qualirics as st rength,
scnsirivity, and senrimcnr.
As a marrer of facr, no Ncgroid inrcllecrual of rhc period, wirh
the perhaps unique exccprion of Ant nio Pcrcira Rcboucas, opcnly
charnpioned abolition. T ito Lfvio, for cxample, distinguishcd him-
self by a socio-anrhropologica l defense of wo men which could be
inrerprcrcd as a subtle de fcnsc of rhe Negro. whose race is sccn by
sorne sociologisrs as marriarchal or otherwise woman-direcred. And
Anselmo da Fonseca, in a work entirled A Escrevid o, o Clero, e o
Abolicionism o (SLn:ery, A bo/ilion, and tbe Clcrgy ), confined him-
self to criticizing rhosc N egrees who bet rayed thc cause of their
race rathcr rhan idcntifying himsclf as a paladin of rhar cause. In t hc
course of rhis book Anselmo da Fonscca suggesred that it was in his
o pinin an error ro scck rhc origins of Brazilian social. economic,
and polirical evils in rhc " physiology of rhe Brazilian race," whcn
th c "lessons of history'' show thar "pcople whorn wc today admire,
when they wcrc in a more prinutivc srage. were cvcn lcss advanced
soci ally t han we are at prescnt." But nowhere docs he cal l for racial
libcmrion wirh anyrhing like rhc clcar insisrence of j oaquim N a-
buco in his work O A bolicionism o. Perheps, as Fonscca seems ro
imply in rhe prcfacc ro his srudy, rhis discrerion is cxcrciscd so thar
no une will suspecr rhar, as a Negro. he is harboring "somc privare
rcsentmcnr. or sume pain or disaffccrion for a personal offensc or
injustice reccivcd from orhcrs." 8
Ir is inreresring, neverthelcss, to note rhar Anselmo da Fonscca
has dedicared sorne of the bese pagcs of rhis work ro examining rhe

"A nselmu d~ Fo nscc a, A Eu:r.n:jJi" , o el"", t " Abolicionism o ( Bah ia. 1887 ),
p. Sz .
, 86 O rder and Progress

facr rhat rhe "principal ad vcrsarics o t he SL1VCS" are often to be

fou nd among Xegroes and mula tros. T his ph cnorncno n had also
bccn nor cd prcvious ly by Ruy Herbosa. who, like V icror H ugo.
had cxplained rhc siruar ion by srat ing rhar such :"egrucs. haring
rhcir A rican 11100\1. pcrsccurcd orhcrs o thci r racc in a rder nor ro
appcar A frican . As a concrete cxam ple, Fonscca srates : "In 1884
ncarly th irtv pcrsons prcsenred t hcir c andidacy for posts as general
depuries ro rhc Ha hian STaTC lcgislaru re. Among thcrn rbere was only
one colcred mano Counsclor Domingos Carlos da Silva. ex-professor
of t he School of Medicine o thar province. i l e was t he cnly ene
who in a writren public documcnr had tite couragc ro ask (Uf votes
in suppon of slavcry. And. rcgctbcr witb Sr. Pedro Moniz, who
reprcscnrcd rhc sugar milis of Santo Amaro. and Srs. Lacerda 'Ve r-
neck and Coelho Rod rigues, he vored against rhc abolirion of og-
ging." D omingos Carlos da Silva was on c of rhosc w ho ar rhe t ime
servcd as a counrcrforcc to mco like j oaquim Xabuco ami scvcral
of rhe Posiu visrs. meo who dcserrcd rhcir owo race and class io
ord cr ro work for a social rco rganizarioo of Brazil w hich wo uld
evcnrually erase all arbit rary erhnic srandards of spccial privilcgcs.
Silva docs nor appear ro llave bccn just anothcr vulgar politician ;
rarbcr. he was a respoosiblc conservativc w ho wishcd ro pre\'enr an
ovcr -rapid chango which, whilc bcncfiting t hc slavcs, migt u ncvcr-
rhcless cndangcr the general agriculrural cconom)' and, in so doing.
place rhc en rirc nation in pcril. His idenrificancn wirh rhe narion al
inreresr and wirh ag riculture-c-which was rhc bulwark o the na-
tional ccooomy and , to his mind, o rhc emire social st rucrure as
well-cwas made in spirc o his color and his rccenr African origino
If rhis prevai1iog cccnomic panero w erc ro be too suddcnly dis-
rurbcd. he felr, noe only thc planters, but t hc nation as a wbole,
would find irsclf "without resourccs for cul tiva rion" and "givcn
ovcr ro rhc hor dc of outlaws" rhc [rccdrncn would incvitably be-
come. Evcryooc would suffe r, he insistcd, including ( perhaps
t hinking of t he Joaquim N abucos and rhe Jos Marianos) "rhc
prodigal soos :md insensiti\'e ones w ho 1ive off the sacrifices of t he
narion w ithom rcmcmbering rhar t hc mone)' thc)' dis.<iparc always
comcs direc tiv from rhe 1aod." 9
Ir do es no l secm lO us t hat. because o his color. Couosc1or Silva
should have bccn dcprived of his right to be a conservativc idcnri-
ficd w il h rhe agricu ltural intcresrs or to repudiate rhe demagogucry
9 Ibid. pp. ' H . , ..6. ' ''<r$O'
 Political and Racial Probiems

of sorne reformers who we re wi lling ro risk un ovcrniqhr rransfor-

mat ion from slavery ro free labor. By the sanie token, ncither
should rhc joaquim Nabucos bavc bc cn deprived of rhcir rig hr to
he revol ut ionaries sim ply be causc rhey werc whire. The pro-
slavery rhesis was defende d "in a publication direc ted solcly by
Silva and cnrirled Unido da La'L'oura." Although in Iacr prinred in
rh c Bahian ca pita l, ir was publis hcd wirh rhe dareline Cairir , O cto-
be r 15, 1884. in order ro acccntuarc thc agra rian flavor and bring
out thc local c olor, Ir was not possible for me ro scc rhis publication
except in thc transc ripr ion of Anselmo da Fonsec e, bur evcn so ir
seer ucd to be one of t hc mosr inrercsting docum enta in Brazi an
hisrory for irs prcsenta non of the conscrvativc viewpoint and for
the cvidcnce it givcs of t hc int er pcnct rario n o cthnic elcrncnrs o n
all sides of q uestions which by their na ru re apparenrly called for
clear-cur et hnic alignme nrs. But paradoxical o r no, ir docs nor secm
fair t hat A nselmo da Fonseca should f ind thc conscrvarivc, pro-
slavery position of Domingos Carlos da Silva "ridiculous." Rar bcr,
it sccms rhat Silva's anirudc was rh ar of a Hrazilian, rakcn up in rhc
interesrs of Brazil, an d nor rhat of rh e dcscc ndant of a race w ho
decides all questicns along linos of purcly crhnic o r biological inrer-
est.
G iven rhe cond irions analyzed ahoye, wc should no t be too
ernazed o r shocked to learn of t hc case repo n ed by Anselmo da
Fonseca of a ccrtain colored man who in 1887 cancclled his sub-
scriprion to rhc lJirio da Babia "bccausc rhat newspaper, as was irs
policy, refuscd ro publish the norice of un cscaped slavc." This sub-
scriber, acco rding ro A nselmo, was " kno wn as one of the rnost in-
tolerant slavocrats in Bahia.' 1 Perhaps this was jus t one more c ase
of an individual rcacring as a Brazilian of conscrvarivc t astcs and
way of life rather than as [he r ep rescnt arive of a political party or
ct hnic g ro up.
lo referring ro t hc oversccrs on t hc planrarions, Fonseca calcu-
lated rhar certainly " t wo-t hirds of the persons w ho descend ro the
performan ce of t hcse ignoble dudes in rhis province-c-and probably
in rhe counrry at large- are N egre es or m ulartos," 2 and t he reby
" bcrrayers of rheir own brorhcrs.' This atrirude, be ir said, is essen-
riaU)' non-Brazilian in rhar ir co nsiders men of color as a separare
c1ass wit h specifieJ Juties in the Brazilian cornm uniry. Such a bio-
1 bid., pp. ,,,8-<).
2 bid., pp. ' 5&--' .
188 Order and Progress

logically crhnocenrric artitu dc, if ir had beco general, wou ld bave

resulrcd in a Hrazilian sociery as segregated as rhar o rhc jew in rhe
ghetto or rhc Negro in [he Unircd Srarcs and South frica. Ir was
forumare for erhnic democracy in Brazil rhat , bcforc aboliran . mcn
o co lor ofrcn acred as oversccrs, gang bosses, or dispcnscrs o puo
ishmenr, just as ir was fortunarc rhar there were colorcd slavocrars
like Domingos Carlos da Silva ami aretocraric whire abolironisrs
like Joaquim Nabuco and Jos M ariano. It was equally fortuitous
rhar mestcos of ansroc raric [astes. such as Glyc rio or Nilo and
Alccbla dcs Pccanha, would lcnd th cir weighr ro [he significanr
movcmcnt o effect ing racial intcgrat ion and social advancement
through a militarv affil iarion.
The social dissat isfacrion he hind rhis milirary part icipat ion was
far more profound t han it appeared. N umerous Brazilians of modest
background and often mixed racial stock, c raving social adva nce-
mcnr and polincal parricipa rion. used rhc mil irary sc hoo ls as virtu-
ally rhe on ly mcans of asccnr."
O n thc lowcr levcl. rhe technical and vocarional school, dcvcl-
oped during Im per ial t imes, aIso served as a means o racial and
social inrcgrarion . lo \'oicing rhe nced fo r such insrruction, no one
was mo re insistent rhan j oaqu im N abucc and no one more objec-
rive in pointing ou t rhc error of associa nng rhe exercise of rhe me-
c hanica l arts erhnically wir h rhe Negro or rnularro and socially
wir h the slave. To A nselmo da Fonseca, ir had become axiomatic in
Baha that the onlv fi tt ing occupanon for t he free Brazilian was in
rhc liberal arts, and ir is evidcnt rhar this dogma extended ro thc rest
of [he country, being c hallcnged only in rhose few arcas com aining
colonics o Swiss or G erm an immigrants. These colonies of new
Hrazilians were nored for their accomplishments in small fanning
and in rhe various c rafes. \Vithin a few ycars of arrival, the colonisrs
had masrered rhc art of tropical cultivation and had leamed ro use
tropical woods in car pcmry and cabincrmaking. The German arn-

J One re:l.~ on
for the Iailure of rbe gowo \O e~ultli.<;h a olear ascendancy over
the uniform-a ~ it had cleaely d,m e in Pun ugal wirh the graduares of Coi mbra-
was rhe \"e ry face rhat tbe rradirlonal st udenr garb (frn<:k <:oak. sto\'cpip<' har,
high iaced shoes. and gold-hesded cane ) was much too expensive for srudcnts uf
limired mems. e\"en w hen daily H\"iog cxpen\.C'i were red u<:cd ro a minimum by
!i\"iog Bohemiao fa\hi" n in ooc o[ rhc ausrue, eomfunless stlld rnr "republics."
Fnr mililary stu ,j e01~. Ihe unifo nn fllrn i"hed by che ..t ale acled as a ul i..hcto ry di.~.
liogu i"hing mark of Cheir dass. This i.. panly why che milirary !OCho,,!. ..ioee rhe
Empire. ha~ a<:red so stron1y a, a .emocl1ltizi ng [orce in Brnilian ~{}dety .
 Political and R acial Prob ems

sans of Rccifc and Pcrr polis wcrc particularly famous, and thc fur-
nirure rurned out in Pernambuco by Spielcr in rhc second half of
the ninctecnrh century rivalled rhar of rhe Brangers, fathcr and
son, in rhc firsr hal f of the periodo Both rhe F rcnch and G ermen
rnasters passcd on thcir art ro fu rure gcncrarions through the em-
ploymeru of Brazilian apprentices. T hese northcm Europcans, by
rhe exercise and rcaching of rhcir arrs. helped ro givc a ncw scnse of
digniry to manual labor. Hur it was rhe vocanonal schools, through
rhcir free courses open ro all, which gavc a more sysremaric training
in rhis field and acrcd as t he grcarcsr source of master earpenters,
cabincrmakers, and or her artisans in the Brazilian economy. Such
schools were not as likcly as rhe privare mastcrs to kecp trade se-
crcrs to rhcmsclvcs in thc rraditional medieval fashion. In addirion,
they afforded a more favorable ambiencc for rhe developmenr of a
prolerarian or class consciousncss, a devclopmenr j oaquim Nabuco
soughr so assiduously ro implanr in the workingruan of his narive
Recife. Alrhough rherc had bcen occasional vague signs of such a
consciousness since colonial times, t hcrc w as, unril rhc middlc of rhe
ninereenrh century, very lirtlc acceptance on thc pan: of the poor,
wh erher whire or mest co, of the ncccssiry of labor. Durval Vieira
de Aguiar, in his Descric es Pr ticas da Provincia da Babie, rells us
rhar unril rhc end of rhc Empirc there werc groups of persons in
rhar city so lazy rhar tbcir only acrivitics were "ro warch the com-
ing and going of ships in thc harbor, ro trap birds, and ro ralk big.'
Neverthelcss. he did not fccl he had rhc right ro criticize rhis shifr-
lessness, sincc he considercd ir "a natural consequence of rhe lack of
industries, agriculture, or natural resources suffi cient ro offer a de-
cenr living in this blesscd region." By lack of agriculrurc, he meant
rhc defi ciency of small ami rncdiurn-sized fanns devored ro rhe cul-
tivation of divc rsificd craps, which he feh shoul d replace "the sugar
plantaeion, now dcfunct in spirc of all the concessions, tax exemp-
rions, and capital subsidies otfcred the dcplcrcd lands unnl they are
by now virrually morrgagcd out of rheir cconomic exisrcnce."
Even in rhc capital, a city considercd at the middle of the century
ro be "the nation's second in agriculture and commerce and enjoy-
ing direct cOllullunicarion, through its ships and its submarine cable,
with all the capirals of the world," the principal problem 'w as
"unemplorment in the face of the continual increase of the work-
ing d ass, " a problem 1l0t hclped by (he faet th:H food was easy to
obtain, thus Iimit ing begging to the iJl and the decrepitoNcvenhe-
 Ordcr and Progress

less, ir was time tu control rbis growing populecc rhrough educa-

tion and prod uctiv o labo r.'
From another obscrvcr of rhe pcriod, alsc a Bahian. we lcam rhar
in {he "sccond capital" of rhe Empire rhc car penters, strcer pavers,
cobblers, boatmcn, bla cksmir hs, haird rcsscrs, and ga rdc ners werc
" ncarly al! slavcs placcd by rhcir masrcrs in posrs of gainful employ-
mcnt." Even afrer rhe middlc of rb c nincrecn rh ce ntury, it was still
rare ro scc ca rrs bca ring com modir ics, so numerous w erc rhc slaves
availablc for rhesc services. Hurdcns of ;we rage wcigbr wcrc carried
on rhe hcad, rhose of grcarer volumc wc rc moved by rhe " polc and
rope " mcthod , where rwo or rhree rnen. walking ludian file, sup-
poned a long polc on each shouldcr. with rhc burden rcsdng in a
rope cradlc slll ng bctwccn rhe parallel shafts. W eahhy persons con-
nnucd ro cmploy rbc sedan chair as a mcans of transpon , again wirh
slaves acting as rhe bcasrs of burden. And sincc rhe ciry lncked ru n-
ning water, illuminaring gas, ami sewers. slaves were uscd for a
much longcr pcriod rhan in Rio de Janeiro and Recifc as water car-
riere, rorch bca rcrs, and dispovcrs of garbage and cxcrcmenr on rhc
city's be achcs. T hesc pracriccs persisred despire thc reforms inaugu-
ratcd in d150 by a provincial prcside nt of superior vision, Francisco
Gcncalves Marrins, larer ro bccomc Viscou nr of Sao Lourenco.
Obviously. ir was nor po-sible for .\1artins ro abolish all rhese colo-
nial forms of labor overnig hr, bur his adrninist retion dealr a decisive
blow ro such arc haic practiccs. This reform attirude, which causcd
J eep rcpcrcussions. cnablcd rhe Cerdoso Brorhcrs, for exam plc, to
rake advantagc of an existcn r bur hirherto unenforced law ro "or-
ganize a bargc sen' ice wirh free labor . , , rbe firsr insrancc in
Babia of rhe replacemcnr of slavc labor by free workers.' ~
T hc importancc of rh is dcvclopmc nr ro t he freed mcn rhcm selves
is indicarcd by rbcir larcr pra ctico of an nually com rncm oraring t hc
cvcnr with all t hc pomp so charactcristic of Bahian celebrarions.
Such rcplaccmenrs of slave wirh free worke rs were repealcd on a
large scale in other occllparions, including thar of the carry ing of
burdens. despite the difficulries of overcoming the shame felr by a
freeman ar ha\'ing ro do the work so closely associated '" ,ith sla\'ery.
Ir was thus not until t",ent)' years after the first step had becn taken
thar rhis larrer reform became eifecril'c, significantly during the
t !>u n -a l Vi<: ra ,le Agu iu: f)rurreJ ' r.ilicaJ da ' rot 'ncia da n..hia ( Baha.
, HHll). p p. 1H7.3 ,6.
~ IbiJ ., pp. 1 8J-~. 188, ' 9I.
 Polit csl and Racial Problems '9
'
second rcgim c of Francisco Goncalves Manins as provincial prcsi-
d ento Ar rhis rime a transpon orgauization of free carriers know n as
rhe Companhia Unio e lnd srri a was formcd ami advenised irsclf
in the Di r o da Babia of Dcccmbcr H, 1 R70, as bcing p rcparcd "to
otfer occupation and legitimare wagcs ro many uncmplc yed Brazil-
ians sceking manua l acrivity." " .\I any ceterans of rbc Paragu ayan
W ar bcca mc membcrs of t hc Companb ia Uni'c e Ind stria. It is
c urious, howcver, t hat shortly afrer [he formation of this pioncer
organization of fr ee workers, a movcment on rhe part o f sorne
membcrs dcvcloped ro bar A fricans and resr ricr membership cxclu-
sively to "Brazilians," 7 a manifestat ion o gross nativism w hich did
not escapc censure on rbc pan of t he berrcr ne\vspapers of rhe ciry.
\ Vhar was mosr nccded by rbcsc early labor associarions was, of
course, cducation. Mar rins. bo rh as poliricalleader and privare citi-
zen, madc evcry cffo rt ro dcvclop vocational instrucrion for rhe
ponrer classcs of Babia. T his ry pe of instruction cm phasizcd tbe
nced for em ployi ng wh ircs as well as Negrees in rasks previously
pcrformcd cxclusivcly by staves ami evcn fo r enccuraging the irn-
mig rarion of Eu ropeans ro augment the labor force. Many Brazil-
ians o f rhc pcriod bcgan ro consider rhc expense of chis type of
program neCl-s..<;a ry ro spccd up rhe trend of rcplacing slave wirh
fr ee workcrs as a rcsulr of the passage of the Law of Free \Vomb,
and t hcy look ed ro rhc Imperi al govcm ment ro put the ideas out-
lineo by che Vi scounr of Sao Lourenco (who dicd in 1R72) into
ge neral pracricc rhroughour rhe nation . Suc h a program would in-
el ude t he rraini ng of mor Brazilian c hild rcn for use ful occupations,
and the rcscuing, t hrough go\'ernment ano privare sourccs, of
"rhousands of abandoncd c hildren from rhe deptbs of misery,"
who would be traincd to become " healthy and inrclligent work-
ers.' ~ Vocational training in spccially csrablishcd schools seemed
to be che mosr cffccrivc means of developing rhcse hirherro neg-
lccrcd human resources.
le was ro fill t his need thar t hc vocarional schools began ro appear
in rhc principal cities of the Em pire, as well as in Amazonas, whcre
the Providencia lnstirure, fou nd cd by Dom Anr nio Macedo Costa,
gal'e Christian rraining ro lndians ro hclp rhcm in rhcir assimilarion
inrc Brazilian civilization . T he Posirivists also rook a hand in lhis
& DUrio da Babia, I)c<;e m!K'r 11. 11170.
7 V id ra de ,\ guiar : op. cil., p. : 09.
8A llail do SenaJo Jo /mpio (Rio de j aneiro. ' ll69).
19' arder and Progress

larter activiry. and t hrough rhe efforrs o milirary fi gures such as

C ndido Mari:lno da Silva Ronden. director o thc Indian Protec-
rive Scrvice, sooo rivalled rhe Church in rheir missionary acrvity in
thc regin. rhcugh not in a way th ar would hinder or lirnir the
effccr iveness cf thc Cathclics at a11.
Among rhe notable fi gures o f rhe decade of t hc 1890 'S. nene was
mo re representativo of rhe spirit o healthy Braxilianism and t hc
besr Posirivisr virrucs than Ronde n. His work in attempt ing to inte-
grare rhc A mazon rcgion-c-irs lands, its waters, and especially irs
Indian population-c-inro rbc com plex of Hrazilian socict y corre-
sponded ro rhar o Eucl ydcs da Cu nha in t he backlands o rhc
nort heast. Thc efforrs o t hese [\\,0 men are reflecred rom anrically
bur vigorcusly in sume of rhc r nosr disringuished works of Brazilian
lireraturc, rhosc of Eucl ydcs himself rogcrher wit h rhose of Eucly-
dcs's discipl e Alberto Rangcl and sorne of rbosc w ritt en by Ingles
da Sousa and Jos Vcrlssimc. In scicncc, rherc was also rhc memo-
rable work R ond nis by Roquctre-Pinro. writren ar t he end of rhe
pcriod. Roq uctre-Pinro, in SOITlC scnses a disciple of Rondon's, in-
t erprets rhc life and cultu re of rhc Indian w irh an intensiry and a
blcnd of analysis and synrhesis th at surpasses all prcvious works in
rhis field, indudi ng the admirable study by Com o de Magalhes
entitled O Selvegetn. Another ourstanding book. t his t ime a literary
wo rk published in Rio G rande do Sul, was Coelho Nero's O N e-
grinbo do 'asroreo (T he L rtle N egro of tbe P.lSturelunds) , a t ale,
seen through rhc eyes of a child, of rhe victimizng and rnarryrdom
of virruous primitivo Folk ar t hc hands o rhcir civilizcd oppressors.
And in Bahia Nina Rodrigu es, t hou gh somewhar prejudiced by
Aryanisrn, produccd his notable studics o t hc social problcms of
thc Brazilian N egro in passing from slavery ro cmancipation and
from monarchy ro Republic. Unfortunatcly, nobody in th c period
und crrook a large-scalc study of rhc c hanges undcrg one at this time
in normal labor condirions. a quesrion mercly skcrched briefl y in
Joaquim N ebuco's O A bolicionismo.
Pires de Almcida. in a work published in French in 1889 under
t he title L' nstruction Publique JU Br sit, srared rhar " in Brazil rhe
number o rhose who are able ro Ii,'c wir hout working has been
considcrably rcduced ovcr [he past t we nry ycars and is gen ing
smallcr cvery day. . . . The most precious. most indispensable
qualification for obtaining work is educa don. '''ithout [his, aman
is worth onl}' thc sum total of his manual strcngrh and skill plus
 Pot cal and Racial Problems
w hatever innarc spirirual qualirics he mar possess. .", whilc the
cducared man, " no marter what his conditions of birth, may climb
the ladder and bccomc worthy through his energy, his moraliry,
and his inrclligcncc," 9
This rcflecrs [he offi cial, if somewhar platonic, atrirudc of rhe
Empire ro cducarion in general and ro thc virtues of vocational
training in particular, for bettering the lot of rhe frccman of modest
ci rcumstanccs. Such insrruction becamc an cver-incrcasing neces-
siry after rhe passage of rhe Law of rhc Free \\'omb. T hc day s of
tbc slave wcre numbercd. Ir was now neccssary ro replacc rhis son
of labor with the free workcr and to furnish t he insrruction
t broug h which any man, regard lcss of color, could by his inrelli-
gence and dcrerminaticn rise, Jike a Rcboucas or a T orres Homem,
ro a position of greamess in thc Empire.
As carly as 1858 rhc School of Arts and T radcs had bcen csrab-
Iished in Rio de j aneiro in one of th e rooms of rhc ccnsisrorv

of rhe
Church of t hc Blcssed Sacramem. In its rhirt y years of activity, as
observed by Pires de Almeida, ir had extended notable service ro rhe
capital city and had been t hc mo del for the eventual founding of
similar csrablishmenrs in Salvador and Recite. According to Pires de
Almeida, rhis type of insrrucrion was of grear social value in prepar-
ing useful cirizcns ami, at [he same rime, in "closing [he doors ro
ideas of revolution and change of governmem . . ." 1
In 1878 rhe School of Ares and T rades in Rio de janeirc had
1,049 srudenrs, of whom 359 werc betwcen ten and fifreen years of
age ; 405 from sixtccn ro twcnry; 170 from rn'cmy-one ro twen ty-
fiv c, 70 from rwc nty-six ro rhiny, p from rhirty-rwo ro thirry -
f ive, 9 from rhirty-six to forry; and 4 ovcr forr y. T he Brazilians
nurnbered 81 4, rhe Portugu csc 177, t hc French I'h th e English 4,
rhe lralians 17, [he Spanish 10; rhere werc also 2 Germans, I Aus-
trian, I Chilean, 2 Orientals, 2 Arge nrinians, and 5 Paraguayans.
The school bo asred a physics laboratory, a chemistry labo ratory,
and a library. By dl80 rhe number of students had increascd to
1>34 1.2 In 1883 rhe city of Niteri, across the bay, also had its
School of Arrs and Tradcs, direcrcd by Salesians, with workshops
for printing, bookbinding. tailoring, and even musical insrruction.

~ Pires ue Alme i,b : l.'l nn ruu ;on Publiqlle eu H, h il ( R io de j aneiro, 188<} ) ,

p. SJo.
1 Ibid., p. 685.
2 Ib id ., p. 697.
' 94 arder and l'rogress

At rhe univc rsiry lcvcl. thcre wcre alrcndy severa! insrirurions of

a rcchnical naru rc scrving YOllog Hrnr ilians dunng rhe Empire : rhe
Polytech nic School of Rio de [ anciro, rhat of Xlinas Gcrais in Ouro
Pr to. thc lnstirute for thc Dcaf and D umb in R o de j aneiro: t he
Academv of Fine Arrs. also in R o de j anciro, r hc Pharmaccurical
Insriturc. var ious normal scbools. a school of horticulru re in Santa
Cruz; rhe medica! schools of Ro de Janciro and of Babia. with rheir
addirional courscs in pharmacy , th c Providencia Insrirurc foun Jed
in Amazonas by Bishop Dom Anr nio Maccdo Costa and devored
ro rhc cducation o lndians, with classcs in reading and writ ing and
wir h various shops for vocarional rraining , scveral courscs in ele-
mcruary mlirary sciencc for A rmy and Navy cadets. in addirion ro
rhosc devoted ro [he fo rmation of offi ccrs. From t hcse esrablish-
menes issucd an cver-increasing srream of trained personncl capablc
of rcplacing clder workcrs and crafrsmcn. including slaves. and of
insrituring new mcrhods in ficlds of acnviry hit hcrto har npcrcd by
rhc pcrsistencc of t radicional and ou nnoded pracriccs.
T hc dcvclopment of rhese arts. begu n in t he Empire , rook on
addiriona l imporrance in rhc R cpublic, panicularly during rhc ad-
minisrrarion o Nilo Pecanha who, as Vice-P resident. succeeded ro
t hc prcsidcncy after rhc dcath of Afonso Pena in 1909. O nce t he
period of ccnsolidarion was past, rhc Rcpublic, in the sprit of Posi-
rivist progrcssivism, devorcd irself ro projects o engineering. sanira-
tion, and hy gicne calling for a vast number of trained rechnicians.
These rechnicians t hus bcgen ro assumc a co nsiderable social and
pclirical importance. and some o rhcm carne to enjoy a status in
srare or nariona l politics equal ro that of t he acadcmics and rhe
sociologically rnin dcd m ilirary during t he early days o the R e-
public. T his was the c ase wirh enginccrs such as Pereira Passos and
Paulo de Fronrin, wirh physicians such as j oaquim Murtinbo and
Afr nio Peixoro. wir h pharmacisrs such as Graciliano ,\ Iarrins in
Pernamb uco and Lin dcl fo Color. also rcnowncd in rhe fi eld of
lcrrcrs, in Rio G rande do Su!' And ir should not be forgotten t hat
this periodo which markcd the beginning of a proletarian conscious-
ncss in Brazilian life. was a[so a pcriod in wh ich represematives of
the working c1asscs began ro appear in rhe sute and nationallegisla-
tures. O rdinarily . sllch meo were mestiros. bu t at least (lne. jerbn.
imo j m T cles j nior. was a \vhite of :"ordic origino In his diary
(\nitten in Recife during rhe late E mpire and earl )' Republic and
still exist ing in man uscript ). Tcles con fessed himsclf disillusion ed
 Politica and Racial Probems '9;
wir h his cornpanions in rhc struggle for rccognirion of rhc arrisan
and lahoring class, a group he fclt was still too closc to slevcry re
begin bchaving like rhc free workcrs of Europc."
In rhc 1890 'S the Ausrrian Lamberg also observcd rhar. while the
workcrs of rhc new Rcpublic wcrc gcncrally honcst, rhey we rc
ofr cn of lOOr quality. ,\ tany of rhcm alrcady bad their organiza-
rions, howcvcr wirhour manifesting any g rear dcsire rbercby "to
alter radically rhe bases of Rrazilian society." Bccausc Hrazilians as
yet did not undcrsta nd the naturc of c011111lunis111. anarchism, or so~
cial dcmocracy. th cre hsd heen "no popular uprisings, no dynamir-
ings, or general massacrcs." Nor had rherc heen an)' apparent srru g-
gle bcrwecn capital ami labor, pcrh aps bccausc rherc had so far hccn
no devclopmenr of !arge industries, Xlosr of rhc workcrs "livc apan
fro m political contenrion. ofrcu ro thc dcrriment of a good cause,"
It did nor scem re Lambcrg or ro orhcr for eign observers rhat t hc
workcrs sutfered ;my systematic oppression from eit her govcrn -
mcnt or thc rich. The Brazilian workcrs, says Lamberg. "are good
pcople, casvgoing. and nor at a11 prone ro hcroics," alrhough in ccr-
rain instances they have "givcn ample proof of their cou rage and
th cir 100'e of cou ntrv."
O nc derail ougbe to be pointcd out hcre: sincc rhc late I 880's rhc
Santos and Sao Paulo Railroad Co. under rhc dirccrion of ,\Ir. C. C.
Andrews. had quietly and wi rhout ptcssure of an), kind introduced
the "British weekend," along wit h fa cilities for recrearion and in-
srru crion aimed ar improving the lor uf railwey pcrsonncl. "1 had
never before scen any t hing of the son [in Hrazil ]," confcssed Mr,
A ndrcws." Ir is true thar in conrrasr with chis progressivc policy,
rhcrc werc st ill slavcs iII rrcatcd by rhcir masrcrs, who were mosrly
1101l'Ve<'lU X ricbes eager for gteat profirs. and rhar cvcn afrer aboli-
t ion practiccs rha t arnou nrcd vir rually ro slave labor conrinucd ro
exisr 00 rhe rubbcr planrarions af the Amazon, Ac no orher time in
irs history did Br;l.zillive under sllch contradictory social conditions
as during rhis painful pcriod uf rransition frum sla\'ery ro free lahor,
a subject thar will receivc fun her trearment in a larer chapter.
One factor fa wlraule ro thc deo,r clopment o Brazilian crhnic and
social unir)' was rhe sprcad of slao,r c labor to\va rd the somh during

3 F.." m rhe Jiuy n{ Jertmimn Jo": T eles J nior, in , he ~ion of his famay
an,l parti aHy c op icJ hy !he aUlhor.
.\ \aur ieio I.ambe rg , () Hr~ ,iJ , pp. (>ft-7 ' .
se. C. Andrcws: 1Jr~ :il, /IS Corl.ijf jon ,wJ I'ruspren (:\ew Yo rk, ,881).1' ' ~ 5 '
 a rder and Progress

rhc lasr decad cs o f the Em pire. The greater par t of rhis movcmcnt
conccn trated in rhe srarc o f Sao Pa ulo, with its increasingly p ros~
pcrous co ffe c planrarions and its larg e adrn ixru rc o f lralians, seldom
reluctanr ro form sexual u nions wirh dark-skinncd womcn. A co n-
siderable pan of t hc N eg ro popularion in the Sao Paulo arca was
rhus absorbed in rhc fo rmation of a handsome and bcalt hy new erh-
nic group : rhe A fro-Italian. This developmen r was noted w irh ap~
proval by a Porrugucse visitar, Sousa P into, who in 1905 in his
book Terra MOfa (Youtbiut Land wrore tbar "herc in Sio Paulo,
more than in Rio, one rcc cives rh c im p ression o f rac ial penet rar ion,"
wirh rhc Iralian element predorni naring. T hc state capital seerncd to
him "an lralian city," whilc the statc, wirh a popularion of 3 m ili ion,
containcd approximately I rnillion lralians fro m all pa n s o f Italy
from Lombardy ro Palermo. T hc Port uguesc wcre outnumhered
not only by rhis grou p but also b y rhe Poles, and yet problcrns o f
racial and cultural conflicr were heing r esolved by " strange associa-
rions and u nexpecrcd marriagcs," from which t here emerg ed "new
t)'pes of rhe mos t di versc orig ins," including on c wit h pal e c om plex-
ion, blue ey es, and blond hair anributablc to the unio n of norr hcr n
Italians with Negrees. Another ty pe seemcd ro be rhc crossing of
cabocos wirh lralians. Bo rh g rou ps werc consid ered by Sousa Pinto
ro he "rruly except io nal and g racious ." G The Brazilianizarion o f
Europcans ami A fr icans could rh us be clear ly observcd , d cspire rhc
fecling prevalenr in Sao Paulo ar t he heginning o f rhc rwentieth
ccnrury that it was rhc Luso-Brazilian w ho was becoming Iralian-
izcd. Shop signs wcrc a constant mixt ure of ltalian and Portugu ese,
and ltalia ns worked as str eetcar conducrors, ca rters, serv anrs. shoe-
shine boys, businessmcn. industrialisrs, journalists, resrau rarcu rs,
and habe rd ashcrs. lo the booksto rcs, rhe vogue for Eca d e Queiroz
was rh reatencd by t har fo r l) 'A n nu nzio o r Ferrero. The lralian
shoeshinc bey became a Brazilian-not mereiy a Paul isra-c-insritu-
tion, alo ng wirh rh c Iralian te no r, t hc lralian trag edian, and rhc Iral-
ian cuisine. D'Annunz o, Ferrero, and Ferri were for a t ime among
rbe mosr widcly re ad fo rcign autbors, not o nly in Sao Paulo but
also in R io de j ancirc , P rto A leg re, R ccife, and \1ana us. A nd rhese
citics \Verc fu nher markcd b), the infl uencc- usuall), bad-of Ital-
ian arc hite crs, one o f w hom w as J an uzzi of Ri o d e J aneiro. From
north t o sout h, fina lly, many were the child rcn Loro at t he tu ro of
~.\ b noel de Sou_a Pint o: l'crrll Mor"'. }mpu :u es 8 rafilrir",s (Op" " O, ' 9"5) ,
p. H.
 Poiitical mu Racial Problems /97
rhc cenrury who reccivcd from rheir romanric or anti-clerical par-
ents rhc resounding llame of C aribeldi.
Thc Iralian presence in Hrazil was also accentuated during this
pcriod by an immigration which surpasscd rhar of any orhcr narion
and which gave considerable support ro rhe Latin-Cathclic-Euro-
pean elcmenr in Brazilian socicty, an clcmcne somewhar challcnged.
in Rio Grande do Sul. Santa Cara rina, Sao Paulo. and Espirito
Santo, by rhc growing infl ux of Gcnn ans. T his erhnic-cultural rcin-
fo rccment carne ar a time when rhc average Brazilian was fecling a
ccrrain disenchanrmcnr with bis Hispano-Catbolic. or, more spccifi-
cally his Lusc-Carholic origins in rhc facc of whar he considcrcd
cvidcnce of thc ahsolutc supcric riry of rhc Gcrmanic-Proresrant
groups in marrcrs of ecchnologv. This simplistic notion, which was
hcld in othcr counrrics roo-c-evcn in France-c-causcd wrircrs of rhc
time ro call fo r a strengthening of the Larin-Carhclic strucrurc of
Brazl. One of rhesc, A. D'Arri, in a book on Qunrinc Bocayu va
published in Paris in '9 1, callcd artention to whar he designarcd
rhc Pan-G ermanic pcril ro Latin Brazil . Another work on rhis sub-
[ect was A N ecessdsde de 11111 Equiibro Americano ante a Poltica
de ExpanrJo dos Estados Unidos (T he N ecessry o f an Americm
Bquilibrimn in tbc Pace of Unu ed Smtes Expm son Policy ) by Lu-

cieno Pereira da Silva, which appeared in Recife in '905. A furth er
movemenr conrributing ro rhc samc end of rehabiliraring Larin-
Catholic valucs was thc spirirual reacrion in inrcllcctual circlcs
hcaded by rhe philosophcr R. Farias Brito. This hit parricularly ar
thc Teutonism of Tobias Barrero wbo, as wc bave seen. had bccn
fascinared by rhe scienrifi c spirit of rhc German philosophy of rhc
late nincrcenth ecntury. A sociclogicel paradox of t his an empt to
resrore Latin-Cachclic values was rhar rhe rnovcment was srrongly
supporred by German monks ami friars whc had replaced ehureh-
men of narional origin in the Franciscan and Benedicrinc monasrer-
ies of Brazil. T his brought ahour a revolr by ,\ !asons and orher
anriclericals againsr rhc influenee of rhc "fc rcign monk" which,
paradoxically enough, shapcd up as a rcvolt againse Germa n Ca-
tbclicism in Brazil instcad of merely againsc the "decadent" Latin
natlOns.
 :-, [ VI J:-,

Miscegenatum

1 IIAH . SL'(;(;;:sn :n rhar the R epublic o f 1889 brought abou r con-

siderable progress in crhnic dcmocrarizanon. not so much in
crcating ncw opportuniries as in exrcndin g rhose social ano political
opporruni rics which alr eady cxisrcd ro pcrsons o color wh o haJ
madc rhemsclvrs worrhy o adva ncemcnt through educ atio n, ce-
onomic posincn. or through m ilitar)' sen-ice on hehalf o rhe new
regime. Thc cebocto or Brazilian w it h sorne trace-no rnatter how
faint-c-of Indian blondo enioye d under Floriano a rencwcd ph ase o
rom antic prestige. in which pamoric fervor was added 10 his al-
rcady wid ely proc la.med vin ucs as [h e abo riginal and ( 01)' aurh cn-
ric Brazilian. It w as a prcsrige similar to rhar which had followcd
rhc proclamarion of indcpcndencc. w hcn evcn Hrazilians of pu rely
European desccnr ( w hosc only claim to a da rkened skin was that
ca uscd by rhe t ropical sun ) c hose to call rhcmsclves csboclos in
ordcr to be considcred purc Brazilians, heart ami soul. Sorne of
rhern cvcn wenr so far as to change rheir Porruguese family names
ro Tupi or G uarani designaricns. O thers conrent ed rhemselvcs by
pretending rhar they couldn'r eat mear or fish wirhout the ac-
com panying clement uf m andioca in t he form of mush ( pirao) or
dry- meal ([a ro fa ) . A nd srill ot hers, in conversarion with Ioreign ers.
spokc oseentatiously o lndian forcbca rs. ro whom rhey ga"e al! t he
credir for resisring thc French or Durch invaders in colonial rimes,
rhereby negating an)' glory which might havc accrued to rhcir own
w hire Portuguese ances rors. One such Indiophile, a Paulisra of pure-
w hire anccs rry. rold t hc A merican Co nsul C. C. A ndrews rhat in
t hcse colonial wars "t he T upay lndians did rhe fighting" and rhar
, 98
 /99
by rhc nincrcenth ccntuf)' rhc blood of rhcsc valianr fi ghrcrs had
bccomc "mixed more Uf less w irh t hc Brazilians." 1
Evcn more intcrcsrinq is Silva j ardirn's account of rhc Paulisra
Sampaio Fer raz, his ccllcague in rhc Informarion O ffi ce o the Re-
public and later chief o policc in rhc federal capita l. An ardenr r e-
publi can, Sarnpaio Fer raz was "tall, hcav)'. strong, elcgant. arhlctic .
and hcavily bro nzed by t he sun. In convcrsanon. he alw ays r cfc rrcd
ro himscl f as a caboclo. panicularly whcn he wished ro givc the im-
prcssion of bcing aman of dccision capablc o m aking :lny sac rificc
for hs ideals. Ir was rhrough him rhar we spontaneously formed a
senous discussion grou p known as rhe Cabo clo Club. Un dcr rhc
prcsidcncy of rhc arch-Cuboclo X avic r da Silvei ra. rhcrc wc rc Padre
J oao ;\t an ucl. Anbal [? ]. jlio [Prestes] , Teixcira de Sousa, my -
self, and r wo or rhrcc orhers." T hcse caboclos mee "arou nd atable
ladcn wir h regional culinarv dclicacics, parricularly thc feijoada."
Essenriallv republicano [he grollr--which inc ludcd S0111e !':egroid
persons-c-bclicvcd t hat N ordics such as Dona Isabel ami the Ccunt
d 'Fu, for reasons rhc French wo uld roday c al! crhno-psyc hological.
wcrc deliberatclv prcveruing rhe cabocto clcment in the country
( incl uding rhosc of N cg roid ori gin ) rcm gaining the power rhcir
majoritv forc e descreed. T his in spirc of rhe facr thar rhc co horts of
the "Nor dic" Princc and Princcss inc ludcd such distinguished ca-
bocios as joo Alfredo and suc h high-cah bcr N eg roide as Co tcgipc.
Bcyond [h e avid caboclin no shown by t he admirc rs of rhc un de-
niably Indiancid Floriano Pcixoro. t here was a significanr romanri-
cizing of rhc ludia n in thc scicnces. as exemplificd by Roquette-
Pinto. the disring uished amhropclogisr w hcse Rond nia, a study
o Indian rribcs of the Brazilian Sena do No rte in rhc central
Amazon region, is the besr cxpression of rlus an itudc. For Roquctte,
rhe incrcased respe ct givcn the ceboc o ext ended 10 mestitos in gen
era l. cvcn rhosc wit h a sprink ling of A frica n blcod. as seems te havc
been the case w ith Roq uct re himself. And ir is nor insig nificant that
rhc fi rsr So uth A merican cardinal should have comc from th c no rt h
of Brazil, a handsolllc cllgcnic ty pc \Vho mixed t hc blood of an In-
dian prineess wit h thar of tWO of the oldest families of Italy and
Spajn . In . hc no ble Roman profil e of J oaq uim A reoverde de A lbu 4

q ucrque Cavalcami, there js mo re than a t race of the featu res of t he

Amer ican Indian c hicL
Among the Brazilians of his timc. Ro qll ene ~P into \vas o ne of thc
I c. C. A ndr cws: Hra~jJ, /ts COllJi ,iOll allJ I'r o<pu ts ( S ew Yurk, , llfl7) , p. ' 411.
2 00 Order and Progrcss
most att racri ve examplcs o rbc eugcnic man in rhe service o his
country. H e rook his place amo ng a group. somc o t hcm ntest cos,
w hich in the early decadcs o [he Republic amply cornpcnsated for
rhc loss o titled Brazilian arisroc racy at rhe hcad o the inrellccrual,
diplomaric, or polit ical affa irs o rhc nar ion. \ Virh rhe passing, for the
tim e bein g, o such Im perial parrician ty pes as rhe Viscount o O uro
Pr to, Joaquim Nabuco, Silveira '\1anins, Ferreira V iana, t he V is-
count de T aunay, rhc Haron de Sabia. Xabuco de Gouvcia. or Sal.
danha da Gama, ir was imperat ive rhat rhc Republic find rcplace-
menes from meo o equal stature. cven though o rnodcsr origms."
T he firsr o rhis grou p to make a good imprcssion 0 0 foreigners
were men like Dcodoro, who rum ed rcpublican only under p res ~
sure of circumsranccs. A nor her group ro make an cxcellenr firsr
impression includcd t hosc whose rcp ublicanism had bccn of long
standing but whos e manncrs and bearing hore rhc unrnistakabl e
sramp of Imperial good brccding: Q uinrino Bocayuva. for cxample,
Rodrigo O rvio. Assis Brasil, j lio de Casrilhos. and Cocl ho Lisboa.
To rhesc were added a group of fonner mon archisrs who, having
given disringuisbed scr vicc und er t hc old rcgimc, were nor hesita nr
ro put rhc narional inreresr above personal polirical prcfcrence in
becoming reconciled ro rhe Republic: Anrnio Prado, rhe Baron de
Lucena, the Baron de jacegu ay. and rhc Baron Ramiz Galvo : fcl-
lowed in larer times by rhc Counsc1or Rosa e Sil va, rhc Bar n do Rio
Branco. and the enginccr Pereira Passos.
In the second decade of rhe Republic. similarly illust rious fi gures
emerged in Sampac Fcrraz, Osvaldo Cru z, Miguel Calmen, Epir cio
Pcssoa. Pinheiro ,\ tachado, Esr cio Coimb ra, G ermano H asslochcr,
Herculano de Freirs, G astao da Cuoha. Augusto Seve ro, J os
Marcclino, Ri vad via Correia. Fausto Cardoso. Silvric Gurgel,
Or vio .\1 angabeira, G raca Aranha. James Da rcy, " ' ashi ngton Lu s,
and Flores da Cunha. Al! rhese were men who graced an lire of
inrelligenr. artracuve fi gures thar did much ro compensare in rhe

2 In rhis lisr o rcprescntarlve mon archist s. rwo fi gures nec d furth er cornment.
Silveira .\ la rt ins wa, an cspccially powcrf ul pol{ ical force in Rio Gu ndc do Sul
and, Iike so rnany of the stro ng rnen from th at arca, a bitter oppo nent uf the
l.'em risr principie in s overnment" H e was a partic ular l.'nerny of Deodoro da
Fonseca, and i{ is said that rhe dl.'ci ding faclOr in winning D eodoro to he re-
publican cau'e in 1889 Wa5 lhe pO'5ihility hat , if {he rnoo arc hy was not m "l.'r-
th rown, Si1 veira .\ Iart ins ""ou ld hecome the next Prime .\ Iinisler. Ad miral Sal.
danha da G ama was a confim lcd and un repcnt3n1 mOfl3rc hi,t who led t he famuus
naval rebdlinn during lhe Fluriano P 'l"olO 3dminisnatioo. (T ranslator.)
 Miscegenation 20 /

eyes of foreign ers for rhc mongrcloid and socially awkward rcpub-
licans. Thc latrer, in hig h placea. could havc given rhc falsc impres-
sion rhar the monarchical lcadcrs had hcen rcpla ced by an anri- lire
deficient in any of t hc bcsr qu alirics of rhe Brazilian characrer. lt is
rhc historian's dury ro includc al1long suc h mongrel types men like
Ruy Barbosa, Ha rbosa Lima, Augusto de Li ma, Santos Dumonr,
Severino Vieira. Alcindo G uanabara. Olavo Hilac, and Euclydcs da
Cunha-all pcople of superior inrelligcnce, but conspicuously
plln)'. ma lformcd. ugly. and ofrcn unhcalrhy in appcarancc. lt is
possible rhar ir was rhc prcpo nderance of such t)' pcs rhat ca uscd rhc
Argentines o the early rwemicrh cennlry to spcak of Braxilians in
general as mecaquitos ( lirr!e mcnkeys ) , a design arion which could
hardly be epplicd ro Rio Branco. N abuco, or Cardinal Arcoverde.
for cxam plc.
And ir is rhus that caricarurisrs of rhc period depicr rhose impor-
tan r bur ugly and pallid mcn. hybri ds apparcnrly deficienr in vigor.
Frequcnrly the polirical malice of thc artisrs caused tbcm tu depict
their vic rims as mest tos wirh African blood : t hosc whose hai r was
bushy and somewhar rcbellious beca me in rbese ca rroons as kinky -
hcaded as rhe tvpica l bucko ruffian. Thick lips were rumcd inro
Banru labial monsrrosities. Noscs not quite classically aquilino be-
carne bread and Africanized. In compcnsarion. in the ponrairs o
rhc periodo rhc rcroucher's art w as taxed tu [he urmosr ro rransform
rhc least Caucasian fcaturcs inro perfcc tly Aryan ones and to pro-
vide rosy complexions for rhcsc of sickly pallor or w hosc pigmenta.
rion was suspiciously suggestivc of (he tar brush.
From Imperial times, rhc Brazilian had becn porrraycd in the EU 4

ropean theatrc cirher as a brillianrincd par venu w ho sporred sean-

dalous waistcoars and roo muc h [cwclry, or clse as an upsta rt
mestlco whose apparcnt ly Ncgroid fearures had carned him rhe
namc of Baron du Choco /ato Bur suc h unfavorable imprcssions
began ro disappear when rhcse same Europeans car ne ro kno w a
Penedo, a Hom Ret iro. a Baron do Rio Branco, an Esrrla, J oaquim
X abuco, Edua rdo Prado. or suc h rnartial r er indispurably eleganr
naval otficers as Saldanha da Gama or j aceguay . Oro fa r that maner,
certain Brazilians of color-some almosr pure ~ egroes-wirh rhe
princely hearing and noble airs of J uliano .' toreira, Teodoro Sam-
paio, ur of an)' o rhe R ehou ~as, \ Villiam James, while in Brazil on a
scienrifi c expedirion ro t he A mazon, was deeply impressed by the
manners and conversatian of "gentlemen" o color whom he met in
zoz Order mu Progress

rhc ru ral arcas o rhe norrh. Thcrc was a considerable number o

such "gcntlcmen'' :l.mong Brazilians o colo r ar rhc time, [ust as,
among mesticos who became viscounrs or counsclors, there were
sorne who wcre icss polis hcd in t heir spcech ami manncrs. O ne o t he
latter, according ro an English observcr wcll versed in t hc gossip of
rhc periodo was j equitinhonha. In rhe Unircd Srares on a special
diplomatic mission his errioiste ar rogancc was given such a dressing
clow n by racially conscious A mcricans rbar he hccamc considerably
more modcsr an d sofr-spokcn eve r afrcr.
Thc Haron do Rio Brenco, as a result of his long residcncc in
Fnrc pc. was ",e11 awarc of che importancc o fo rcign representa
tion and. w hilc Forcig n ,\ Iinister of rhc Brazilian R cpu blic. rook
grcar pains ro sce rhar rhc y oung nation was wel l rcpresenred in thc
Old \ Vorid by diplomars who wcre rall, well groomcd. and person ~
ally atr racrivc. In rhis anempt [O place rhc emerging Brazilian "race"
in rhe besr pos siblc ligh r, he allo wed hirnsclf ro he carricd ro Aryan-
isr extremes in demand ing rbar thosc reprcscrning Brazil abroad, in
add ition ro bcing we ll bo ro an d we ll educarcd, shculd also he Ca uca-
sian (or nearly Caucasian ) in appearance. A nd rhis was not all; t hcy
should be rnarricd ro wives who wcre, if not always bcauriful, ar
leasr as clcganr as possiblc in d rcss and bca ring, whirc or near-whirc
in appearance, ami re esona bly fluenr in Freneh or English . ~ One of
rhe Baron's rnost persisrcnr ide as was rhar rhe Portugucse, ro whom
Brazil o wed so much, had ce ased ro be an adm irable pcople ami, like
cerrain South A mc ricans, were heginning ro vc rgc on rhc r idicu-
lous. And ir was one of his strongest wishcs ro f ree Hrazil fro m this
ridicule, so rhar progress un dcr rhe Rcpublic (which. if he had had
his choice. would ncvcr ha ve rcplaccd rhc Empire) would be real-
ized not onlv sociallv and crhically bur also in martc rs of an aes-
rheric na mre: in deportmenr and appearance, perticularly of those
who we rc involvcd in rh c sac rcd m ission of representing t heir coun-
t ry in EUro:lC. The very names of Brazilian diplom:lts g read)' con-
cerned t ite Barelll. fear fu l lest they should sound stupid o r even
scandalous [() foreign ers-jusr as those of unfo rt unately named d ip -
!omats assigncd to Brazil had C\'okcd strong ridicule. For cxam ple,

3 T he at!enti venes.~ o f Rio Bn nco ro thes.- elhn ic and aeslhetic dela ils waS con-
tirmed by m )' lal e f riend Pcdro PU:l.n hns Fcrrc n . nche", 10 R o Branco. Bom
in JH75, Paranhos Fcrrcn wa~ br<>ughl u p by Ru BU'K" as onc uf hb u"'n sons
and in Iater years . hafed h r. c" nfi de nce " far as diplomatk di"Crcli"n ,,"ould
p<: rm il.
 M scegenation :W J

Q uerica; or Buccta ; or Porras; or Ku. lt is said rhat Rio Branco

suc cceded in prevenring t hc acccptancc of an lralian diplomar
namcd P uto and a Cen tral American named Porras v Porras!
Did this Aryanism of Rio Branco's corrcspond to rhc general at-
rit ude of c ul rivared Brazilians uf rhe pcriod? For a considerable
num ber, it sccms rbat it did . O thcrs. ho we vcr, despire being whirc
or nearly whitc, did nor hesitare ro go ro ext remes in cxprcssing t beir
belicf in crhnic dcr nocrac y, cven ro thc poinr of admitting indcecr-
minare or mixed raci al eypes ro Europcan diplomatic posts. H ad it
nor been Ruy Barbosa. rbin, wilrcd, and rnon strously ugly, hcfore
whom Europc had poid tribute ar The l lag ue? 1I ad not an cq ually
ugly lin le Braz ilian becn cvcn more appla udcd for his rriu mphanr
fl ight over Paris? And had nor t he G cnuans cxpresscd t heir cxcel-
lcnr imprcssions of t hc Brazilian Xcgrc physician J uliano Morcira>
T hus sorne Brazilians bogan ro consider thar rhc count ry necd not
fee l ashamcd of irs persons of color ro rhc poine of denying c ulti-
varcd indivi d uals rhe righ t to cxcrcise ir npcrranr offices, to mix in
rhe bcst socicry, or to marry inro parrician whitc farnilics. Am ong
thesc more liberal few w as rhc scie nrisr J. B. de Laccrda. sornc rimc
director of rhc N arional ,\ Iuseum, who bccarnc rhc champion of a
racial mixture conun cnsuratc w irh rhc cthnic-social siruanon in Bra-
zil. A t rhe Universal Congrcss of Raccs. hc ld in London in 191 1, his
prescntaton of rhcse ideas had considerable repercussions in Europe.
rcpcrcussions cvcn gre ater, in fac r, rhan rhose caused by Ruy Barbo-
sa's b rillianr spc ec h ro rbc samc ctfec t at T he 1Iague Peace Con fer-
cace in ' 9 7. O rhers advocating sim ilar ideas werc j oo Ribciro and
Jos Verlssimo, alrhough rhc lan er it must be rccognized. bad a
ro uc h of bnth India n and A frica n blood in his vcins. As for Sylvio
R omero, who was freq ucntly an ardent cham pion of racial mixture,
he show ed a cert ain ambiguity . alrhc ugh 0 0 rhc wholc his anirude
scemed to favor rhe Hrazilian tcndcncy ro reach a raci al common
denominator. Let us now examine t his question of racial mixtu re
through the testimony of a number of survi\"()rs of the perio J,~
Bom in , 882 in R io de Janeiro btJt hrought up io R io Grande do
Sul, Florencio Carlos de Abreu e Silva states: '\\ I y attitud e toward
4 T hese n ~ll1es ~re aH ohsceniTics, m,,~dy ~ n . tom ieaJ. in P() rt ugue~ . rrr...s-
JalOr.)
~1'he fo !luw ing J ec\au tions rcprcSClll somew h.t 1css than hall Those given in
the original Bu ziJi an edit;oo. ,\ l 1.1 ch d uplicali on of iJ eas h. s beco omilt cd, but
no significam obse rvalo n has I.>cen pa ~<,cJ over, and e"eey d Jon has III...:n maJe
10 prescrn the propnrr iuns uf "pininn fou nd in lhc Bra lian texto (T ran_b tor ,)
 arder and Progress
Negrees and mularros has always been onc of t olcra ncc and good
will. ,\ 1)' father's sccreta'!' in rhc So Paulo gc vcrnmcnt had been a
rnularro of ralcnt . A nother gifted mularro, sec rctar)' t o the R io
Grande govcrn mcnt, was a frcq uent !,'llCSt in our home, wherc he
wa s rcceivcd wirh e\"cf)' considcrarion. . . . T bc racial q uesrion
never concom ed me ar rhc rime. bccause it had becn scrrled by rhc
Portug uesc, contrary ro what has happcncd in t he United Su t es,
where the Negro problcm is borh serious and insoluble." Only in
latcr )'cars did Flor ncio dc A breu begin to worr)' abour the sirua-
non . and he finally arrived ar rhc conclusin thar, in arder not to
upsct the ethnic order in Brazit, rhe govemmenr ought ro pre"cnt
"[u rt her immigrarion of A sian ami African elcmcnrs."
H eitor Modesto d'Almcida (h..\ 1inas G crais. 1881) as a child
"reacted w it h grcat sy mparhy ro rhc abolirion of slavery.' In bis
horne rhc slavcs wcrc considcrcd "a pan of rhe family ." and Olan)'
of thcm "aftcr bci ng frccd. remained in the house for rhe rest of
their lives." .\lodesto confcsscs, however. tbar he has always pre-
ferrc d N egre es ro mularros and considers rhe larrcr "rhc natural
cncmy of t he whire man."
Anrcnor Nascenrcs {h. R io dc j ancirc, I R86 ) resrifics. " Being a
rnulart o, my fceli ngs roward rnularros and N egrees has t o be one of
solidariry, because since childhood 1 have suffercd thc social inferi-
orit)' of thc colored man in m)' count ry. Thcse pcrsons are the vic-
rims of an odious prcjudicc tbar lacks rhe courage ro be displ ayed
opcnly. Nevenhelcss. if you w ish ro cite a grear poct, it is
Ccncalves Dias, a mestico, who cornes ro mind ; a great prose
wrircr. anorher m atico: .\ t ac hado dc Assis " " ."
" 1 have always becn agai nst thc union of Negrees and mularros
wirh whircs," says Jos Rodrigues .\ l onreiro ( b. Cear . 188 7) . H e
srares furr her rhat hc wo uld he "grcarly displeased" if one of his
children or his brorbers or sisrers marned a pcrson of darker ski n.
.\ 1anuc1 D uarrc ( b. R io G rande do Sul, , 883 ) shows rather more
dclicacy in bis t rcatmcnr of rhis sensitivo subjcct, but feels rhat ir is
"und eniable" that there exisred and continues ro exist "a frank dis-
rincr ion betw een persons of color and rhe so-caBed whites of Eu-
ropean originorhus crearing a perennial socia l incqualir)' and an au~
tomatic separation of thc races by m lun tary c hoice." Everyt hing is
mo\'ing. howe\'er. t owar d the " minimizing of racial harriers,"
w hich should he considered "a sensihle and consrructi\"e tendency
for the narion's future ." As fo r rhc ma rriagc of a mcmber of his
 M cegmotioll 2 5
fam ily wit h a pcnon of darkcr skin. hc fcels thar thc old proverb
"Xlarry cqual. lIlarr)' wel l" would apply besr, rhus indicaring lirtle
disposirion te rakc a personal pan in rhc "minimizing of racial bar-
riers." Rccognizing in t hc liaron do Rio Branco "rhc ideal symbol
of our public men of thc rime, who bor h summcd up bis period and
builr for the futuro," a man wirh rhc "a ppcarance of an arhlcric
A pello." this wirncss scems ro admit also to an adherence to Rio
Hra nco's A ryan policy of sclccrion of di plomaric reprcsentatives.
Arman do Silveyra (b. Rio Grande do Sul. I SS7) remarks upon
t he relationshi ps bct v....een whire ami colored peoplcs in t he extreme
sout h ".\ Iore th:m a centu r), ago, Europe scnr pcople here-Ger-
rnans. Iralians, Poles- who werc unerlv ,- , son of mixed
anainsr anv
marr iage. H owcver. rhe cnvironmcm cffccred a slow ehange upon
man)' of rhem." H e speaks of a lady of his acquainrance, a grand-
daughrcr of Germans, who had bccomc a rypical Brazilian lady ex-
cept for rhe color of hcr hair, with all the "clcgancc and sornewhat
sensual abandon characrerisric of our women," along with rhc "cus-
roms, lang uage. and quirks of rhc region." N everthelcss, upon rhe
out brcak of rhe Firsr \Vorld \ Var shc con fcsscd rhar shc srill felr
basically G erman in rhc manero
Don a Isabel l lcnriqucta de Soma e Olivcira (b. Babia, 1853, bur
brought up in rhe Imperial capital) confesscd t har shc had always
beca againsr abclirion. Considering (he N egro "an infe rior race,"
shc feh tbar any racial mixture, "legal or illcgal," bcrwccn blacks
aTHI whites mcrircd only condcmnarion.
An opposire poinr of vicw is regisrercd by j oo Barreta de Me-
neses, son of Tobias Barreto (b. Pernambuco, 187: ) : " 1 always felr
rnosr symparheric toward rhe Negrees and mulattos of my arca and,
for rhar marter, of all parts of the country. 1 do nor know why 1 am
so fond of the Pem ambucan mularro (and especially tbc Mu/ma ),
who , if thcy lack [he artificial magic of the Bahian, nevert beless
show a natural aptitude, in rhcir laughrer and their facial expres-
sions, for making thcir prescnce felt withour adopring rhe bizarro
raimenr of rhe land of 'l:J tJpJ. ~ Ou r racial problem, borh hisrori-
cal and social, rnust be understood as pan of our desriny and our
aims. O ur societ)" did not make the mulatto; he ente red through the
door of histor),. He is pan of all of usoT he Brazilian, though prid-
ing himself on his Arr an purity, is always a mularto in spirit. ,\ Iy
6 Bahia is farnuus fo r it;s t'MapJ, a highly tasty fish delkacy, probably of Afrk an
origino(T ranslator.l
206 arder and Progress

Iather srilllives in our conccprion of Law, an d .vt ac hado Iives in our

conccpr ion o f Form. no more incisivc or eloq ucnr proof is
nccdcd." '; As for the marriagc of a mcmbcr of his family wirh a
pcrson of dark er skin. Barrero de ,\ 1cncscs srates t hat he wou lJ ac-
cept rhc siruarion "wnhour rhe slighrcsr rcluctancc or rcgrcr. . . .
Ir would be an racrive borh phvsically and psycbologically, parric-
ularly rhc formcr. Ir is a fatal [aw w hieh go\'crns human beings.
\ Vh o wanrs ir orbcr wisc ? \Vho is going ro chango ir? Neitber I nor
society in genera l. I am not, bccausc 1 hace in my veins a portian
of t he blood of rhat racc rhrough whose manyrdom we havc buil r
our ccono mic atl luencc. S ocicrv is nnt, bccause all of ir, despire its
occasional blue e)'es and gclden huir. also sharcs thc blood o the
generous an d su ffer ing Neg rees o Brazil."
For D urval Gu ima riics Espinela, a Bahian o rural origin (b.
11:18.;> , t he aholirion was a goo d t hing, p articularlv since rh e P rin-
cess Isabel "had int cndcd ro indcmnify rhc landholde rs. who
surfercd a conside rable loss ar the time: ' But in 19.P he lamcnted
rhar rhc race had shown iesclf ro he "degenerare." Fo r rhis reason.
he says : " 1srronglv favor th c e-h ites :1Od do no r likc ro see m arriage
berwcen rhc reces. common as this is arnonu us, ami I equally con-
dcnm rhc mix ing of racial characr crisrics whicb resu lrs t bcrefrom ."
Plnio Barrero (h. Sao Paulo. . 8h ) wrires: " 1 have ncvcr looked
down on ~ cg roe s andmularros. As a child, 1 ncvcr ccased ro admire
t he physical supc rio rirv o f sorne o f t heru. 1 have no particular opin-
ion on rhc abolirion, bccausc I was a c hild when it was proclairued.
As fo r t he rac ial pro blem in Bravil, I c annor bring m yself ro admit
rhat such a problcm cxisrs, ir scems 10 me rhar there is a room and a
climarc in our cOllm r}' fo r rhc intim ate mingling of all rac es." As
fo r t he marriagc prohlem : " Ir is d ifficult ro d ec ide how I would
rcact to rhe marriagc o f a son, d aughter, b rorhcr, or sistcr ro a co l-
ored persono 1 dcn't ha ve any racial prejud iccs. r don't considcr the
black man inferior ro t hc white man oI tbink. howcver, rhat I w ould
cxpcriencc soJ1le difficu lty in introducin g a m em ber o f my fami!)' t O
a colored pcrson, unl css t hat person \\"ere somehow olltstan ding in
his in tellig cnc e ami cu lt u re. But if rhe case \Vere (lne o f lovc, (his
hcsit ario n \\"ouh! dis appcar."
The Pcrnam b ucan Adolfo Faust ino P{l rt O (!l. Olinda. 1887),
afre r d eclaring himsclf fre e from raci al preiudice, gocs on tu say :
1 B~rrero de .\ len......,' , herc refen ing W 1he her rhat both h is hl her an d
.\ h c hadll de Aj.,\ is ,,"ere mulaHH!o. (T ran, b w r.J
 1\ 1iscegenat on 27
",\ 1Y response [t your specific qucsrion on racial preferences1 will
probably ar pcar sbockingly co ntradic rory to my prcviously ex-
prcsscd opnions 0 11 Ne grees. In cxprcssing rhc g raduarions o my
prcfercnccs in skin pigmcnrarion. I musr csrablish rhar such prcfcr-
cnccs scem ro me ro he bascd on ph vsiological and acst hctic consid-
erarions. On rhis basis, rhc whirc comes firse, follcwed by rhc In-
dian, thcn rhc mularro, and. fi nally. the Negro. I have ncvcr bccn
fond o black as a color; ir is nor a svnrhesis, as whirc is. I associate
black with mourning, darkncss. smokc. pcrhaps duc ro childhood
infiucnces ami rhc rcading o rhc 'storics o Trancosc' which con-
raincd a number o old Negrees o perverse and horr id aspecr. And,
ro be pcrfcctly truth ful. I wou ld not look wirh favor upon rhe mar-
..
riagc of son or daughter. or brorh er or sister ro a black-skinncd
persono
Pedro de C ounc (h. Rio de j anci ro, 18 7 2 ) confcsses: "1 am of
Porruzucse

dcscenr on borh sidcs, but 1 am convinced rhar I am of
mixed blood bccausc rhc Portuguese are thc mosr racially hctcrogc-
ncous of all Europcan pcoplcs. T hc Negro has had a valuablc place
in that mixture; so havc che lrahans, rhc Spanish. and the French.
Thus OUt N egrees and rnulatros may rcsr assured rhat Bcguinc" at
rhc hands of the Portugucse has no rcason for cxiseing, its being thc
case thar ir is impossiblc ro ' purifv rhe racc' as pcople say." And.
"sincc I havc no racial prej udiccs wharsocvcr . . . I would nor
look for a hlonJ wifc-s-Frcnch, G erman. Ot Swiss-c-hur would in-
sread marr)' a worthy 11leJtiro."
jlio de .\ Iesquira (b. Sao Paulo. lH9 2) gocs intn rhe quesrion of
rclations berween blacks ano whircs at lengrh Irom a sociolop ical
srandpoinr and concludes. "ne can stare categor ically that ' Wcsr-
ern vales' are more and more bccoming rhc muse srrongly dercr-
mining [acto rs in facing the problcrns wh ich confronr uso Arnong
rhesc vales, en e would havc ro includc both cthnic and acsthctic
considerarions. In orhcr words. rhcrc is a consrantly incrcasing de-
sire ro sce Brazi], rhrough racial inrcrruarriage. approach more nnd
more closcly rhc mre whirc typc. Thc aesthctic canons which have
always inspired our country are rhose which have governed the
orher so~ca lled \ Vcstern narions. Even the mosc superfi cial obserY:l -
tion will afli ml thac we are \vithdrawing fun hcr and furthcr from
African valucs. There is no ot hcr way ro account for rhe desperare
effoer made by mulattos to appear while and, ar all COSt, tO disguise
~ A Calholic lay s i~lerh(>od <l atng [ rn m the lwclfdl cenrllry . (T ranslu o r.)
208 a rder and Progress
w henever possiblc all c barac rcrisrics o rhcir racc. For cxam ple,
considcr rhc man is o t hc N egrees for using all sorts of mechanica l
me ans ro srraighrcn rheir kinky hair. Anothe r cxample \....ould be rh e
te r rible discriminarions made by rhc midd lc group againsr rhose o
clear and unm israkablc negrirude. Suc h a group. being neirhcr
whirc no r frankly black, rcmains in a consran r sute o shock against
[he extremes on eirher sidc." Ana he adds. "For all rhcse rcaso ns. ir
is obvious rhar 1 would never willingly aceept rhc marriage of anv
mcmbcr o m)' Familv wit b anyone who was cle arly a persa n o
color. T his I sayo bccausc I cannor agrcc ro bringing pcoplc inro a
world w hcrc rhcv would be un fornm ate. and in Ilrazil ir is rhc
N egro ami rhc mul arro whn are increasingly, in every w ay, among
rh e un fo rrunates."
From D o na Elisa Vilhena Fcrreira (h. Minas G crais. 1864 )
comes t he foll nwing tcsrimony : "Thc slaves o n my farber's plant a-
tion we re rreared like human bcings. No corporal pu nishmcnt was
cvcr in icred, and afrer abolirion they cc nrinucd ro live wirh us fo r
rhc rcsr of their livcs. ncver failing ro bless us in rheir cvcning
praycrs." Hur as ro rhc concrete aspects of t hc q ucsrion. shc stares:
"Franklv , 1 would no t he plcascd by an unequal marriage in my
family . This is a purelv perso nal o pinion. Formerly. sociery was
more dcmanding ami pareo ts srricrer in rhis respect o Unequa l m ar-
n agcs we re frowned upon ami those who made t hem, o r whc werc
not marned in ChUTCh, were not w ell acccpte d."
G uaracy Silvcira. a Paulisra ( h. 189 3) wh o designares himsclf as
"a dcscend anr of the Bandeiranre Carlos Pedro da Silvcira, discov-
ercr of the Caraguascs mines," confcsscs rhar: "lf I we re black, 1
would scck marriagc wirh a colored girl a bit lightcr t han myself, in
o n lcr ro mak e ir possiblc fo r m)' children ro en joy better con dirions
of life. As a whire, howcver, 1 would not considcr ir wise ro m arry a
gi rl wir h Negro blondo cven rho ug h I fecl no re pugnance roward
such persons. If 1 did, my c hildren would ncver forg ivc m e for
br inging them inro a wo rld where rhey would suffer hurniliarion
becausc of race. By thc samc token. 1 would he unhappy at such a
marriage by one of my sons o r daughrers, hecause of [he rid icule
rh ar they w ould ha\'e to bea r and rhe danger of un ha ppiness rhey
w ould risk, as \VeIl as bec ause of rhe responsibiliry rh ey w ould bear

-
ro rh cir c hild rcn. 1 am rcfe rrin ~, however, ro ca~es w hc re di ffer-
cnces in color are \'er)' pronollnc cd. \"hen [here is ver}" litr le differ-
cnce, 1 would ha\"e no ob jection, bccallse rhe c hildren w ould nor he
 Mscegenaton 29
affecred in a countr)' whcrc nor infrcq oc nrly mcmbe rs of the m osr
illustrious fam ilies ca n t race rheir or igin ro thc slavc quarrcrs."
R oberto C hrisnana N acgcli, a Brazilian of Furo pcan ancesrry.
born in Ri o de Ja neiro in 188 [ ami cducared in Swirzcrla nd. srates:
" 1 ca n rememb er rhar during my childhood in Switzerland perso ns
ro whum I was inr rod uccd would oftcn cxclaim w ith su rp r ise and
no grcar d elicacy : 'W hire Brazilians?', al! of which wou ld cause my
morbcr ro bccorne ver)' angry." As for r niscegcnarion. he gi\'es rh e
opinion rhar "rhc syste m of inrcrmarriagc adcpted by Brazil for thc
solution of the racial question is having splendid rcsulrs. I have bccn
warcbing rhis phcnomcnon since m)' rcrurn to Brazil in 1901. AI -
most all w orkcrs on t hc docks of R ccifc, Bahia, and R io uscd ro be
pute N egrees. Ofrcn in Rio I would scc rartoocd A fric ans and hcar
them convcrsing in A fri c an rongues. Such pure X cgrocs are now
seldom cncou nrercd . Thc whire po pularion has risen from 40 per
c ene ro abour 65 per c ene. and thc remaining 35 per ccnt, re m)'
ey es, scem ro be ar least 50 per ccnt lighrer rha n rhcy werc in 190 1.
I prcdicr thar in ancrhcr 75 years t he question of co lor w ill bavc
disappcarcd complercly in Brazil. Nevert heless, 1 would nor look
favorably upon a m ar riagc of one of m y farnily ro a person of
colo r."
Erasro Gaen ocr, born in Paran of Gcrman-Hrazilian parcnrage
in 1900. brings out a differcnr aspeet of rhe quesrion in saying:
" T he fact of having bcc n born an d ra iscd in t hc sourh, w here t he
black popul atio n w as ar a m inim um . causcd all of us ro rake an off-
hand and complcrely role ranr attirudc ro t he q uestion of our
mdting-pot rcndcncics. Bcing fcw in number, bla ck s and m ulatros
wcre quickly abso rb ed by the whitc popularion, whosc n umbers
wcrc rapidly increasing t hrough rhc rush of immigraricn . The
problc m is not so simp le in ot her parts of Braz il, in R o de j aneiro
o r in rhc non h, w hcrc rhc proporeion of blaeks is hcav y an d tite
porcntial fo r N eg ro ruulriplication noric eably inc reased. Tbis po-
rential is much more significan r when one notes the compararive
decline in the w hite binh rate through the use of conrracepri\es, a
declin e w hic h bccomcs increasingly acecn tuatcd in dircct propor.
tion to t he standard of living. In t he mo re advanccd arcas, whcre
the rapid growt h of ind ust riali7-arion brings ahout markcd cco-
nomic d isruption. binh conr ro l increasingl)' hccom es a factor in
limiting population. A mong t he hlacks. howe\'cr, this factor is not
so clearIy discern ible. w hether becallse of Iaek of educarion ar be-
ZIO a rder 11d Pr01{TeSS

cause o t he irregula riry an d irrcsponsibility of sexua l unions. O nc

indication o rhis lntrer is rhe cnonuous numbcr o aba ndoncd bla ck
child rcn to be found in our orphanages. In o ne SllC O insrirutio n in
Sao Salvador, I 53W t har nca rly 80 pe, ccnt were Negrees an d
mulatros. W hat rcsult s. rh cn. is a g rowing Negro popu lation as COTn -
pared ro an almos! srarionary white group. in contras! ro rhe previ-
ous en d longtime rcndcocy ro rhe contrary. T o alleviare this tcnd-
eney, only one solution sccms pracricaf rhc cncrgeric inrensificarion
of Europcan immigrarion. T his hcroic cifort would work roward a
so lution nor c nly o rhe dcmographic siru arion but also o a vast rna -
jo riry o orher narional problems. Euro pcan imm ig rari on has always
bcen rhe rneans rhrough which Xorr h Ame nca has ma de irs stupen-
dou s progress. . . . As for misccgcnation. I do nor fcel thar ir will
lcad ro rhe absorption of t he blac k race. Ir s my imprcssion t har
such mcans w ere most rcson ed ro in colonial and Imper ial times.
rh anks to the spccial condirio ns cngcndcrcd by slavery. Since then,
except fo r rhosc unions madc by nc wly arrivcd Portugucsc im-
migranrs. and by sexual cxrravagances of a possibly an omalous so rr,
I feel rhar rhc rcndency has bccn clcarly and dcfinitcly rowa rd a
separation of rhc races." As fo r rhe personal qu csrion. he confesses:
" 1 havc no ma rriagcablc sisrcrs an d my two daughrers are alrcad y
w ed. If t hey hnd choscn colorc d husba nds. I should have considc red
t hem mad. lf I cculd not prcvem suc h a ma rr iage, I would be rnosr
profoundly displcascd. nor bccause I am racially prejudiced. but
simply bec ause prcsent realiries make me fcar ful fo r rhc rranq uility
and ha ppiness of a whirc pcrson ohligcd to face fo r rhe rcst of hs
life rhc resulrs which suc h a srrange and unusual union would ncc -
cssarily produce ."
St ill more intra nsigent is rhe rcsrir nony of J os ,\ lagalh:ics Car-
neiro (b. Sergipc. I!lHo), a graduare of medical school in 19 0 1, afrc r
having srudic d bumaniries in R io de J aneiro "under Sy lvio Rom ero.
whose pu pil l w as fo r eleven years." Living wirh Sylvio. w ho was a
rclari ve. t his Scrgipean ncvcrrhcless roo k a position st rongly aga inst
the intcrpen crration of r<lCCS sometimes defendcd (and somet imcs
not) by rh e contrad ictory am hor of t he H istriJ dl1 Ut eratura R rJ~
si/eira.
" 1 always t houghr," says .\ Iagalhaes Ca rnei ro, " t hat rhc abo lirion
of sl:l.Vcry. instcad of hclping th e sla\"es, proba bly did t hcm a hann
thar "'a.~ nC\'cr intcn de d by the aholitionists. \Vith frecd om, t he ~ e
groes found thcmseh-es uuerly unprepared, ohliged ro fight fo r
 Mscegenation 2/1

thei r subsistencc . AII rbat rcmaincd for rhem was [he rccoll cct ion of
the good t hcy had done in our bchalf whicb we have repaid by t he
annihilation, to which, dcspitc our gocd intenrions, we havc con-
demncd rhem." As for the ma rriage qu cstion, ,\ lag alhaes srarcs that
he wou ld reacr " in t hc worsr possiblc humor," and rbar he considers
rhc m ixjng of r ac es "an irremediable misfo rru nc. A long wjth rhc
blood conicr, rhcrc is a corrcsponding discquilibrium in rhe metab-
olism of rhc t bree clerncn rs [white, hlack, mu latto ]. Whocver has
secn a really crcarive mulan o> Nobody will rnake me admir rhar
T obias Barrero and o thers of his ilk werc anv
gcniuscs. . . "
O f a quite d iflerent tone is rhc srarcmenr of Anr nio Pires da
Fonscca (b. .Xl aran bo, ISi O): " 1 was alwavs favorable [roward

abclition] bccausc I could ncver ag ree with a law which allowcd
fo r rhe enslavemenr of one's fello w man," hur " rhc lcss to rhc land-
ho ld ers should havc been inde mnificd, in order ro avoid an eco-
nomic collapsc." Sincc in Brazil " [he problem is nor principally one
of racc, beca use all Brazilians are racial ly mixed," more arrcnrion
should be paid ro t hc eugen ic aspcc ts of the siruarion , " a health pro-
gram ro prevent lucric ami vencrcal diseascs, along wirh t hc cense-
quem defecrs whic h could only rcsule in rhe dcgencracy of rhe
race." He suggesrs a program of srcrilizarion [of the unfit ] and of
inrensive hospital trcarmcnr for sy philis. In rhis way eug en ic ordcr
co uld he imposcd on rhc presentir c haonc p rocess o f misccg cna-
rion. for rhc u nion of whirc wir h black will co nrinuc " (o rnilirarc
againsr rhc improvernent of thc brccd, bccausc ir incorpo rares thc
psy cholog ical and biological cont ingcncies of an infer io r racc" ami
rh us demands rh c preventivo m easu res he suggesrs. \ Vith thcsc me as-
u rcs, however. rhere wi ll be rhc assurancc o f [he dcvelcpmenr o f a
cug cnic "dark Brazilian t)'pe, characrerizc d by a transpa rent skin,
delicarc fcaturcs, and fine. silky hair' in conrrasr ro thc " Rae nosc,
obtusc -angled fearures, rece ding chin, an d dry kinky hair indicarive
o f rccenr Negro o rigino . . ."
The Cearense physician A lberto de Paula R odrigues (h. 1881 )
declares: " 1 havc always had g rear s)"m parhy fo r i\'egroes and
111estiros. . . . Ir hap pens rhar I ne\'cr k new sla\'cs. bccau se rhcy
w ere freed in eea r in 1883, hur 1 did know man)' o ld fonner sla" e
w omen w ho remaincd w ith the ir whire fam ilies and were affecrion-
arel)' add rcssed by the children of rhose familics as ' ,\ lorher' :
'M other '\1aria,' '\ t orher Dom ing as,' crc. F rom rhem I heard
srrange stories of werewol\'es and w arer-s prires and spirirs fmm rhe
21 2 a rder and Progress

orhcr wo rld. ando on rare occasions. o rhc bad t rcacmenr thcy had
reccivcd as slavcs. . .. I don 'r know if [he Unired Srares is follow-
ing a berrcr co urse rhan we are, because rhere rhcy havc outsmnd-
ing Negrees wh o have distin gu ishcd rhcmsclvcs in spo rtS or in intcl-
lccrual pursuirs. T hc dcgcneration o ccrtain mixed bloods in Brazil.
however, scems te arise more t hrough such endcmic ru ral tenden-
cies as alcoholisrn and malnurrition rhan from cthnic facrors. Thc
prcblcm of Brazilian develc pment is srill in an cmb ryonic srare and
must be resolved with our own elemcnrs, parricularl y sincc rhe
wa ve of immigration is bringing us pcrsons (mm impe rialist nations
or adh ercnts o wo rld rcvolurion wirh pu rely subve rsivo res."
Amlcar Armando Borelho de Magalhcs (b. 1880 in rhc interior
of [he srate of Rio de janeiro ) statcs rhar he has been an abolitionisr
from a tender agc. " 1 feel th ar ir is a sign of backw ardness ro pte-
tend ro fi nd suprcmacies among races whose develcprnenr has bcen
simultaneous and along parallcllines. But withour ha\-ing rhc slighr-
ese prejudice, l ean recognize the infcrioriry of thc Negro, who is
superior only in a dcgrcc of emotionaliry. AIl rhe whire elemenrs
and all the aborigincs. on the othe r han 0, given equal condirions of
space and time, have madc grc arcr achicvcmenr in rhc progtess of
rhcir civilizarion." As or Hrazil " 1 believe rhar rhere is no real ra-
cial problcm in Brazil as such and rhat the natu ral rcndencics of
individual selecticn. according ro biological and sociological princi-
pies, will result in an amalgam and in an increasing stability . \ Vhat is
nccdcd is ro facilitare racial interb reeding and ro avoid. t hrc ugh ad-
e<luate mensures. the pcrpet uarion o basic rypes, Indian or Negro,
as separate enriries apan from rhe w hircs. Bur rhis fusion is possible
only on the lower levels of rhese races, among rhc workers, rhc
peasants, rhe persons of leasr educarion." As for the personal ques-
tion: " 1 would repud iare and do every rhing possible ro prevent mis-
ccgenarion wirhin my own family. I have already done so in one
spccific instance. Such things are high ly prcjudicial."
An equally Posirivisr npinion is exprcsscd by Alfredo Severo dos
Santos Pcrcira (b. Ccar, r878). T he growing nnscegena tion in
Brazil, he stares. was cncouraged by the thirrccnrh of .\ Iay and the
fifrcenrh of November and indicares ct hnic and biosocial progress,
because [he ideal raci:l1 type would be one which would reslllt from
a mixture of the three funda mental trpes. "T his mixed breed would
wir h us bccollle not a sll brace, as the followers of Gobineau, Nien'.-
sche, and ot hees would assen, but rarher a superrace." This \Vas
 21 3

w har rhe grc:1t Jos Bonifcio meanr w hen he said . " Brazil wi ll he a
great nation onlv w hen you can look ar ao)' Brazilian without being
able ro disringuish thc racc (mm which he sprang.' AmI rhis is whar
is happening. H aving abandoncd racial unir)' and ha\'ing had dive r-
sifi cara n. we are now "approaching a ncw unir)', with al! diffc r-
enccs exringuished."

\\'c cannor, of coursc, ncglect

rhc face that mis-
cegenarion in Brazil is rhc rcsulr of " rhc dcgradation of rhe N egro
rbrough slavcry (Joaquim Xabuco. Gilbcno Freyre)." For this
rcason. he confcsscs himself honcsrly ro he a "vicrim of those prcju-
dices which snl l exisr' ami says t har he could nor "view wirh com-
plete plcasurc rhe m arr iagc o a rncm bcr of m)' famil y ro a colored
person j bu t ucirhcr would I rry ro prevcn t such a union if it wcrc
rhe rcsult of sponraneous and mutual feclings.. .. In fururc times,
suc h prcju diccs as mine will ce rta inly disappear." A nd recalling
Comrc : "Augusto Comre. in his eight h lerrer ro Dr. A udiffrer. afte r
having pointed out rhar rhc divisin bcrwccn whirc and black is
analogo us ro the division bctwe cn rhe scxcs, conclud cs: 'T he whirc
rac e has dominared through t har great pan of human devclcpmcnr
whic h required spirir and c haracter. Jr won'e be this w a)' in the final
srage, whcre senrir nenr will becomc more and more rhc prcvailing
qualiry. \ Vhen all the narions of rhc hu man family arrain a normal
level, rhc N egro. likc rhe fcmalc scx, will at rain an impo rr ance and
will cxercisc an influ cncc w hich we cannor cvcn imagine roday.' ..
Al fre do Barrolomeu da R osa Borgcs (b. Pernambuco, 1864),

afrcr rcgisrering his standing as abobrionist. rcpu blic an, and fol-
lowe r of .\ la rtins J n ior, confcsscs ro having Leen always domi-
nated by "whire instinc rs'' of nn abso lure narurc. " 1 have arrogan r
racial prejudices. Ir w o uld be mosr conrradicrory for me tO permir a
mcmber of 111)' family ro marry a colorcd persc n." AnJ Dona
V irgnia Ca valc ante, anorhcr Pc r n arnbucan ( h. f179). afrer affirm-
ing
her assurancc t hat aholitionisrs suc h as rhe Princess Isabel are
"enjoying rheir Divine rcward in hcaven," statcs uneq uivocally rhar
" in rhc case of marriage wirh pcrsons of color, I am in complete
disagreemenr. " 'hite w ith white, mulano \Virh mlll:mo, hlack w ith
black. "
After calling abolit ion "a purifyi ng crusade," the Cearense Jos
Alves de Figueircdo (b. 1879) expresses his con fidence in rhe even-
tual assimilation of the 1'\egro by t he w hites, an assimilation \vhich
w ill rcsu!t in a " st rong race" and w hic h will occllr throllgh contact
with "grear waves of immigrants." Ile " w ou!J receive the marriage
 O rder and Progress

o f onc of his ch ild ren ro a Necrc , Uf a m ularro with ,grcar reluc -

tancc," helieving rhar such assimilation should rakc place on or hc r

social levels than his.
j oo d'Albuqucrquc Xlaranbo ( h. Rio G rande do Norte. Il~83)
scems ro concu r. For him rhc " poo r mestice popula rio n" of Br azil,
and especially in t he norrh, has shown irsclf sincc aholirion to he
"undcmourishcd, sickly, lazy , and stupid . . ." in cunrrast ro thc
Italo -Brazilians, who conrinuc ro devclop " in a superio r way, know-
ing how ro read. wrire. live, and cat, an o morcover who havc been
educarcd along ec on om ic li nos." T hus we should encourage mo re
and more of thc Europc an immig rario n which has aidcd orber pans
o f Brazil in rbe "formation o f a st rong. hca lt hv. and intelligent
racc." Considering himself a bluc-bloodcd Luso-Americ an, Xl aran-
hao starcs thar he would ncver altow anyo ne in his famil)' ro mur)'
a pc rson o f A fr ican blood.
J os ,\ laria .\ Io reira C uimares (b. Scrgipc. 1864) was rrained
for a m ilitar)' carccr at Praia V crmelha, where he " had t he good
fo rrunc" te ha vc Ben jamn C..o nst anr as une o f his rcachers. Admir-
ring ro having bc en an abolinonisr sincc his youth ami favo ring rhc
Republic "from r he pclirical sta ndpoi nr," he adds: "Lopically, I
would receivc rhc marriage of a mcmbcr o f my familv ro a c olo rc d
p er~ o n wirhour any pre judice whatsocver, so long as rhe individual
conccrned was a gooJ pcrson."
,\ t aria T eodora dos Santos. a poor whire (b. Pernambuco, 1878),
statcs rhar she was married ar sixreen ro a man givcn ro drink ing.
Shc says rhar she docs nor fecl rhat blacks are t hc equa l of whircs.
bur rat her thar "rhey werc born ro serve rhc whitc pcople." If her
daughrer marricd a Negro. shc "would rcgrer ir, unle ss he happcncd
ro be of good charactcr and rook good care o f her."
Eduard o j acobina (b. Rio de j anciro, ,A69 ) feels t hat " rhc im -
mensc moral qualirics o f t he Portuguesc degen erared in Brazil in
consequence uf misc egcnarion and promiscuity among rhc N eg re es
an d thc G uaranis. These two raccs are anaromically in ferio r, as no-
body wir h any judgmenr will den)' . T ite)' ar e nor mercly imrncral,
tbcy are amoral. They lack iniriarivc nnd scl-cstecrn ami have no
desire fo r prog ress or comfort. T hey k now norhing ami ha\e no
comprehension of the "alues o f educ;ltion. They ha"c rhe ir preju-
d ices and t heir \'anirics ami nothing mo re. T his explains \Vhy this
countr)' i~ swarming \virh 'geniuses' and w hy e"ery day w e wallo\"
more d eeply in [he mml. Ir also explains why mestif'o assassins,
 Al iscegenaton 21 )

cowards, an d rrairors are appoinrcd ro represent rhis e oun t ry

abroad! . . . Xl anipularcd hy secret organizations, the 1I1estiro
masses have submc rped, if not complcrcly dcsrroycd, our hre." In
[he light of rhcsc sentimcnts, ir is undcrsrandable rhat this witness
would he avcrse [O t hc rnarriage of a nca r relarive to a pencon of
color.
R aimundo D ias de Freir s (h. Piau. 1874) lamcnrs rhc
c olonizarion of Br azil by the Pc rm g uese. lr was t hcy who exagger-
arcd rhc nccd for rhe irnpo rtation of A frican slavcs, rhus causing
"rhe supcrabnndancc of ;"" eg rocs in t he former population of Brazil
. , ." T his m israke was ma de hcc ause of a "lack of visin " in Por-
tugal. "Evcryrhing t hcrc is small. from irs rcrnrory ro [he cultu ral
outlook of irs peoplc." 1l e recognizes. howevcr. rhar "rhrough rheir
civic ami moral virrucs.' which pred omina re over an y possiblc r a-
c ial infc rio rity. " [he Hrazilian N eg re es and r nularros are rhc lcver
whic h givcs rhc necessary im pulse an d brings abour ind ustrial prog-
ress in our facrorics, our m ilis, and aU othcr places w here hard labor
is neces.sary to rhc count ry's wclfarc. In insranccs of great danger in
rhe dc fense of our belovcd Hrazil. ir has becn rhc Xeg roes ami mu -
lan os who have heen rhe fi rsr to sacnficc rh emselves fo r rheir coun-
t r)', . , . T hey have also distinguished rhcmsclvcs in intcllccmal
and c ultural acrivirics ami in various bra nchcs of scicnce, helping
Brazil to gain good standing in rbc cultu ral circles of the world."
H owever, "for rcasons of natural selection and racial purity, I
would condem n rhc m arriage uf anyone in m)' family to a colored
persono"
Artur Robe rto Caelho de Soma, born in Parafba in 1889 and fo r
many years residenr in N ew Yo rk, says rhat he fi rsr lcarncd t
know "real racial prcjud iccc-againsr thc Xegro an d th c J ew - in
(he U nited Su tes," wherc he wcnr as a YOllng m an to study m e-
c hanical cngineerin g. Ir is true, howevcr. t har "even in Brazil 1 had
noted emo ng thc pcoplc ccrtain in dicarions of rac ial prcjud ice, fo r
example. in an old srrect song: ' Nigger, if )'OU wa nr t o sing w ith
me. wash YOllr mourh with soa p.' o r in various po pular exprcssions:
'Nigger standing is a tree stump ; ~i gger Iying down is a pig,' o r.
needl ing a mulatto : ' \ \'hen t he billy goat doesn't jump. he yells.' 9
Bur 1 alw ays r egarded t hese t hings as bcing said in jcst; it never oc -
c urred ro me at t he time that t hey w ere subtlc ma nifestations of oue
9C(lmplrison of the 'Scgro !O a t<'JI is COllllllOn in ll rn il simply becauo;.e rhe
goats th u e are black. (T n nslalor.)
,, 6 Order and Progrese

own prcjudic es." As for [he mar riagc quesrion: " l would oppose ir
on simple aesrheric-c-and pcrhaps ccon om ic-grounds. In a predorn-
inanrly whitc civilizarion wirh strong racial prcj udices suc h as rhar
of [he Unircd Sutes [whcrc Coelhc de Sousa had married an Amer-
ican wornan and raiscd his childrcn] , rhe marter wou ld be com-
plercly out of [he qucstion. T his is nor color prcjudice on rny pan;
ir is an anirud c far more pracrical [han racia l."
Q ui te differcnr is [he atrimde of Dona l lenriquera Ga leno Ch.
Cear . c. 1890 ) , " 1 would lla r make rhe sligbrest ob jccrion to [he
marr iage o <loy mcrnbcr of my family ro a persan of color. I have
no racial prejudices: a niestico of talenr and culture, in rny opinion,
is wo n h far more rhan an igno ra nt. foud-mourh w hire man."
The Pernambu can Jos Maria da Silva Freyre (or F reire ) (h.
1887) srarcs rhat he has bc en more happv in his " friendship wirh a
N egro woman' ' than with his marriage to a whirc girl. In t his he
fcllowcd his uncle ,\ l anucl da Rocha tvandcrlcy , who was "blcnd.
w hire-skinned, and blue-eycd as a fo reigner. and ro w hom a w hite
woman was no wornan ar all." H is prefcrcncc for Negro w omen
bccame total, and thc only reascn he didn'r marry (me w as that he
feared "c rfendi ng his family and being ill regarded by socicty ." He
alsc rells us t hat as a young ma n he hall a G errnan fricnd w ho felt
rhc same \\'a)'. considering the black girl " rhc q ueen of all woman-
hood..,
 ~ [VII J~

AgTicultural anil
Commcrcial Deoelopmeni

m : PER IOI) OF B RAZILl AS Hl STORY considered here is thar from

T rhe 18 70 'S, wirh rheir Law o the Free \ Vomb and Rcpublican
,\ 1ani csw , ro t hc end o lile First \ \ 'orld \Var, markcd by thc clase
o rhe administration o V cnceslau Brs and rhc bcginning o rhar o
Epinicio Pcssoa. Thc prcsidcncy o V cnccslau Brs cn dcd a period
o cconomic and socia l partcrns w hich srcmmed fr om rhc carly
y ears o the rcign of Pedro 11. T his was an era o rclative srability in
rhe cultural norms and general wav o life in Brazil, a st abiliry
inrerru prcd by only a few years o polit ical ami economic indcci-
sien conringcnr upon rhc changc from monarchy ro Republic. Be-
cause of chis relarive cquilibrium over a long perlad, the monarchy
was ablc ro projecr irsclf inro rbe early Republic by rbe conrinued
prcsencc in the governmcnr of counselors, barons, viscounrs. com-
mandcrs, and ot her Imperial dignira rics. who served along wit h rhc
rcpublican college graduates and militar), mcn, Olany of w hom had
rhemsclves started rhcir own carccrs un der the monarchy.' T he
mo ve from monarchy tu Republic was clcarly nor one from night
ro dav. In irs cffecr lIpon socicry and instirurions, rhe changc was
gradual. ami anr chronological dclimirarions represent only rhc
mosr artifi cial boundarics. The real changes which rook place were
t At the time of rhc f~ lI uf thc F n'pire. the Bnzil im nohi lilY consisltd of 7
ma rqulscs and 1 w ido wed marq uisc, 10 couuts and 10 widowed counreees, .0
viscou nrs and 18 wido we d .. i..... ouatcsscs, 27 barons and 11 widowed baronesscs,
14 bono rary ,'r.co ums and 6 w ido,,",. 1/0 ha roncn and H w id" ,,"'S. F rOm Ihe
A lm>lTl>lque BrMileiro G" rnier, puhlished under rhe dirccrinn of l oo Ribcirc ( Rio
de janeiro. 19"8), p. , p .
2 1 i
,, 8 arder and Progress
ncithcr chronological nor logical, hur psychclcgical ami sociologi-
cal.
In an inrercsting study, Brmilien Excbsnge-s-Tbe Study of I1 n
lnconvertibte Currency , published in Eng lish in Buenos Aires in
1896. J. P. \ Vilcman poiured out w hat he tcrms a degrngotade, or
wc akcnin g, in Brazilian finance after thc proclamaran o rhe Re-
public, a sofren ing he an riburcs in largo pan ro Eu rcpean lack of
ccnfidence in th c ncw rcgime. T his lack o confidcncc srcmmed
largcly from rhc failure o t hc leadcrs o the ncw gO'"crnmcnr. in
particular Ruy Barbosa. ro attain SOIl\C son of objecrivirj- in rhcir
messianic new pclicy of "bread horizons." Ruy, who in rhis study
is accused o "cxubcranr fancy," was ncvcrrhclcss aware in 1890
rhar rhc financia! siruarion cncounrered by rhc Rcpublic was not so
m uc h rhc rcsulr of a daring republica n policy as arrriburablc ro rhc
economic effecr of abolirion. As \ Vilem an himself rccognized, the
immcdiare consequence o abolirion was " [he incrcascd cost o p ro~
ducrion.' along wirh " [he rcduction o nominal profirs [in paper
m one)' I causcd by t he rise of exchangc." As a resulr, there was a
virtual "epidcmic," bcginning as early as 1888, which attacked all
classes and crcared "a n unprccedcnrcd expansion of crcdir rhar only
fed srill mcre rhe adventu rous spir its.' ~ T his spccularivc mania, or
enc lbmne nro as ir was called ar rhe time, rurned contagious and
assumed epidcmic proporrions undcr rhe provisional govcm rnent.
In Wileman's o pinion rhis morbid dcvclo pmcnr would nor havc
rakcn place bad not [he go n ' rnments-Iate Imper ial as wcl l as early
Repu blican-cnc ouragcd it t hroug h "irnprudcnt and unrcflecrcd
measures."
W ileman's words confirm the rhcsis prescnrcd here : th ar rhe Re-
pu blic ar irs birth was alrcady infil rr arcd by rhe monarchy. lrs ami-
monarchism w as mcrcly super fi cial; in grc at part i[ was csscnrially a
conri nuing agcnt of [he fo rmer regime. If rhc fifrccnth of N ovcrn-
bcr had ncvcr taken plac e, [he economic siruarion crcated by aboli-
[io n would havc pla gued [he monarchy also. and rhc sarne measures
wo uld have bc en takcn. \ Vhat was nccdcd undcr rhe circumstances
was an cnrirelv ncw approach to nacional cc onomic problems. and
such an approach wa s no r fo n hco ming undcr rhc Republic.
\ Vilem an a d \'i.~ed t he nc\\' leaders of Brazil ro be m ore assidlloUS
in t he matter of s[at istics. T he absence o such data w as an anomal)'
~ J.
P. \VilclTlan , Hr,n ili.;m Exc1J.m ll, e: T he SlIId y of .m lnco m:en ible Currenc)'
(Buenos Aires. , liqti ) , p. ! 56.
 Agricultural and Connnc rcial Development 2 19

and an cvil in a eountry as irnportant and progrcssive as BraJ.il. H ad

ir not been for rhc annual summarics of rhc Jornal do Connnercio,
wir h rheir exccllem srarisrics, he prcbably could no r havc written
his book. Bur rhcse figures indicatcd that national progress in Hrazil
was pcrhaps being " too dcarly boughr." 3
N arurally. ir was no r possiblc ro han progress, with irs railways.
steamships, relegraph, and irnmigrarion. withour spending a grear
deal of money. Bur was Hrazilian life an)' lcss plcasanr bc forc rhc
eoming of the railwav and rhc stcamship? \\'il eman asks this rhctor-
ically. For him it was dubious scnsc ro fi1l rhc couner)' in the name
of progres.s wirh a foreign and hcrcrogcneous population whieh
would produce wealrh bur which would be difficult ro assimilate.
Progrcss. of course, is a good thing. cvcn an cxccllcnt thing, says thc
econcmisr-moralisr, bur on1y when ir does not degenerare inro mere
"money grubbing." If the moral and inrcllccrual dcvclcpmenr of a
counu y docs not parallel irs material growrh. irs cusrorns, manners.
ano morality will suffer and rhc nacional characrer deteriorare.'
W har economisrs and fi nancia! expcrtS likc \ Vileman fearcd ar the
time was rhar Hrazil. wirh irs narional characrer airead)' fi xcd by irs
pasto would give irsclf over ro a mystique of fururc progrcss thar
would sacrifice rhar past and rhar narional character for purclv ma-
terial cnds. In ordcr ro prevem rhis, ir was necessary ro csrablish an
ordc rly developmcnr which woulJ cnsurc t hc prescrvarion of val-
ucs and would eneourage, along wit h material growth, a corre-
sponding development of intcllecrual and moral awa rcness.
Wilcman's poinr of view was rc ecred ro a ccrtain extent in the
arritudes of rwo Finance :\ linisters from Central Brazil. j oaquirn
\Iurtinho and Leopoldo de Bulhcs. And alsc ro SOI1lC extcrn in
David Campista, who was scandalizcd by thc expcndirures of Ric
Braneo (whn, as Foreign .\Iinisfcr, insrallcd luxurious hathroorns
and other purely material ircms in rhe palace whic h housed his de-
parrment and acred as the "reception room" of Brazil) . The prob-
lcm also conccrned such scrious Bra lian srudems of economics ami
finance as Sousa Carvalho in A Crise dJ Prar (7'he ,Hark et Crisis)
(1875) and Amaro Cavalcanti in R esel1ha Fin.:m ccirJ do Ex-
Im prio do Brasil ( A Fil1al1ciJ/ R epoTt 011 the FormeT Rrazilian
Empire) ( 1889 ) '
Coneern over material progress was one of the livcliesf fOpi es of
3 lbid., pp. vi, ' 79,
t lbid., p. , Ro.
no a rder end Progress

[he pcriod covercd here. In his bock Os Republicanos l',mlistas e a

Abotici o, Jos .' taria dos Santos not es that "t he clase o [he Para-
gu ayan \ Var and rhe proclamarion o [he Law o rhe f ree \Vomb
were coincidenr wirb the inaugu raran o (he firsr docks in [he po rt
of Rio de Janciro and rhe granring o concessions for rhc construc-
rion of railways th roughotlt [he provinces. From this time 00 rhc re
was a notable devclopment of interese in rnatters o material prog-
rcss. . . . From rhc visual srand poin r, rhis inrcresr was especielly
noeiceablc in rhc disappcerancc of old-fas hioncd buildings wirh
ovcrhsn ging roofs in [avo r o t hc smocrh facade and in rhc laying
o paving blocks in [he srrccrs and public squares." e
Alrhough I would qucsrion the use of th e expression "especially
noticeablc" in rhis rcspeC(, I agrec wirh the estimared poinr ar which
Hrazil began to rake an interese in matters of material progress. lt
musr be remcmbcred, howevcr, rhar rbis coumr)' was never one t e
move at a uniform social, cultural, or psychological rate t hrough-
out irs vasr exrent and t hat rhere wcrc alwavs sorne pleccs more
advanccd, and orhers more rcra rded, th:m th e average. 'This differ-
cncc in rhyrbm was ar times so vericd that ir would seem almosr
impossiblc ro reco ncile rhe progressivism of Cear or Rio G rande do
Sul wirh rhc ult ra-conservatsm of rhe srate of Ric de Janeiro, of
Hahia. of a large ponion of .\ l inas Gerais, or. for rhar rnat tcr, of
cvcn t hat parr of Sao Paulo which had relied on a slave-labor force
for rhe co ffce plantations. Beforc abolition and rhe proclarnanon
of rhc Republic, rhcse elements had made up an economic bloc
so ful! of antag onisms and cont radictions rhat it is a tribute ro rhe
rradirion al wisdom and skill of rhe sraresmen o f the time rhar t hey
were ablc sornehow [ O rnainrain sorne scrr of equilibrium, a skill
which failed 0( 1)' undcr the Ouro Pr ro governmcnt. characrerized
by an almcsr G ermanic inrransigcncc in polirical con troversy.
Tbc case of Sao Paulc in rhis siruanon was unique: rhar D a
province agirarcd by borh extremes. Only in rhe firsr half of the
ninctcent h ccmury had ir devclopcd the opulcncc and vigor which
had been expcricnced since colonial times in Hahia, Pernambuco,
,\ Iaranhao, and Ric de Janeiro . Ir bcceme a region of Big H ouses
and slave quarters, of masters and sla,-es, quite in contrast to its
co lonial life. Form erly , rhe way of life had been sober anJ almost
asceric, balanced by a diversi6ed economy, wit h an agrarian land
.~ ]n, .\hria d,,,, Santos: O, R epllbJic~nol /,,,,,1il13$ e J Abolif ao (Sio Pauto,
I Q4~ ) , p. 8 1.
 A gricultural and Cotmnercial Development 22 i

scape mark ed by modesr hom cs ano srnall-scale c ult ivarion. Erhni-

cally. S~ o Paulo had becn more similar to Paraguay, with its heavy
Spanish-Gua rani elemcnr ami consequenr rampanr miscegcnarion.
H owc vcr. in changing fro m a sugar ro a coffee econ omy . So
Paulo impon ed slaves fro m t hc no rt h and joined t hem wir h rhc ty p
ical Paulista elcmenrs of Hispano-ludian origino In addirion ro
slavcs. t he nincrecnrh-cenrury nco-aristocracy impon ed collcge-
trained r nen. rhc y ounger son s of sugar plantcrs hir by rhc decline in
rhe Br azilian sllgar marker. Thcsc y oung mcn carne ro Sao Paulc
to rnake their fortunc, marricd inro csrablishcd Paulisra familics.
and assimilarcd inro rhc culture of the province. Sorne of t hem
wcrc dark -skinncd , many of t hem bccame leadcrs. men like Albu-
querque Lins of Alagoas, who becamc a state governor. or ,\I anuel
Vil aboim. a Hahian w ho hecame a prornincnt law yer and federal
deput y du ring the sccond ano thi rd dc cad cs of rhc Republic.
This assimilarion ano absorprion brought a co rrespo nding t rans-
migration of sociclogical parterns from rhc slave arcas ro thc ccffee
plan rations of neo-ar isrocraric Sao Paulo: rhe rr ansmigranon of a
w holc complcx of forms, vales, ano socia l riruals exp rcssivc of an
aristoc ratic way of life. T he archirccronic pattern o f rhc Hig Housc
and t hc slavc quart ers was incorporarcd, as well as the masrcr's
rnanner of living wir h slavcs, followcrs, end poor tcnants long sincc
follo wed in oldcr regions o Brazil. In additio n, rhc relationships
berwccn rhc masrcr's w ife and hcr scrvanrs, berween rhc ch ildrcn
and rhcir black marnrnys ano th cir N egro cor npanicns. the pat riar-
c hal farbcrs and rhcir sons, we rc adopred from Pernambuco or
Bahia or Rio de j aneiro or Xlaranho. O ne diffcrcncc, howe vcr, in
rhc coffec arca was rhe presence of G erman govero esses aTHI Euro-
pean institutrices. A nd a fur rher clcrnenr was that of thc former
slaveholders from rhe Unired Sratcs who moved (Q Sao Paulo after
rhc dcfcar of t he Confcdcracy in t he A merican Civ il t v ar. But in
t hc main t he partero was trans pon ed in irs enrircty from nor th ro
sourh.
W irh thc cxhausrion of rhc golcl mines, Sao Paulo had found it-
self "in a position of infcrioriey compared ro mosr of the orher
pro vinces." lts recover)' was made through the cult ivat ion of
coliee, w ith the aid of an excellellt syst em of highways (muc h su-
perior ro t he sim ple dirt roads of .\ finas G erais) w hic h facilitated
t hc econo mic grow rh of the province and helped it atra in the high
est su te of de\'c1opment o any arca during this period oThe sums
222 Order and Progress

ad vanced by (he provincial go"crnmcnt bcrwccn 1860 and 1870 for

[he const rucrion of rail lincs werc quickl y rcpaid; by 187+ rhe
roads wcrc virrually debe-free so far as rhc srarc was concc rned.
rhanks ro the increase in cxports o coffec and cotron. In 1870 and
1871, 96 rransarlanric and 15 1 coasral ships had cnrercd t he pon of
Santos; in 1871 ami 1873. t he number rose ro -1-75 and 678 rcspcc-
rivcly 1S'o orhcr Brazilian pon S3 W anyrhing likc this incrcase. 11
marked rhe economic hcgcmony of Sao Paulo ovcr t he orhcr prov.
inccs of t hc Empirc, the trium ph o coffcc ov er sugar."
In his Brazil: A Study of Economic Ty pes,7 J. F. N orma no
poin rs out th at the first decade of the Republic had beco markcd by
rhc establishment of Sao Paulo as rhc ccono mic center of graviry of
th e countr),. Dnr ing rhis decad e not only had Sao Paulo's cotfee
become th e cou nrrv's leading agricultura! product, bur t he stare's
industries, tha nks to thc inRuenee of .\tau, had also begun ro pro-
du ce matcrials whic h. by the dual avcidance o shipping costs and
protccti ve tariffs, llegan ro be com pcririve with foreign imports.
For Normano t he grear growrh pcriod o Brazilian indusrrv ex-
tended fro m 1885 ro 191 +. A report published in 1891 by rhc
T reasurv Dcpemucnr o thc provisional go\'ernrn ent rarher arbi -
rrarily sers rhis heginning date ro coincide wirh rhc establishment o
thc Republic.
Felisbelc Freire in his Hist ria Constu uc o nal da R ep1 blica~ seems
to put the marrcr in execr hisrorical rerms by sbowing rhar a gover n-
mcnt repo rt o 186+ ( R ekuorio da Crise do Mes
de Setembro de
1864) gave the number o industrial firms in rhe ('auntr y as 12+,
whcreas in 188 1, during an industria l exposition sponsorcd by thc
courr, rhc count ry cou ld hoasr o +6 cotton texrile milIs: 1 in Per-
nambuco, 1 1 in Babia, 7 in Rio de Janeiro prov incc, 9 in Sao Paulo ,
9 in Minas Gcrais. 10 elsew here. The texrile indusrry was abour

GSec Sr go .\ Iilliel : O Roteiro do Caf (So Paulo, 19 J8); Roben Simonson:

"Aspccl' >'! da H i" r~ Ec onmic a do Caf," rcprintcd {mm R et';std do A rquivo;
LX V (Si o Paull), ' 'No); and Afred Ellis, J r.: O Ca'; e ; f'al, listan;; (Si o Paulo,
1951l . Airo sel' thc half_forgo\te" I.'Ex por tat;'m Cafih e su RrbiJ (G and, 'Ji!lQ )
ot lI ube rt van dc Puttc an,1 Ladisl as d 'A lmeida; Eugenio Lc fcvre: 11 CdIJ (San
Paulo, 19"4) ; Louie Coutv: I;t1I.le .le Rin/ogie lndnnr elle st<r le Caf (Ri o de
Janeiro, 11111 ) ) ; F.. nci-co 'I'eixot o de Lacerd a \Verneck : ,HemriM sobre a f" n_
d.J(iio e m eio .le Umd Faund a nJ l'ro~; n ci.J Jo Rio de laneiro (4th edn . Rio de
Janciro, [11711 ); and e~pcci:l.lly J R, de A r~u i o F ilhn : "O e-u. Riqueu Paulffiu ,"
Bolerim Pdulin ; d e G eofl., apbiiJ, :-" 0 , lj (july ' 95M , Also rhe srudies of Afonso de
E. T allnay, Piern: .\ Ionb,,' ig , and A roldo d,' ,\ 7_c\'C do ,
1 (Chapel H i11, :" ,c., 1935), p, 911.
~ ( R o de Janeiro, '894), 11, H l ,
 A gricuimral and Commerc a Dev elopment 22 3

cvcnly divided bcr wccn nort h and south. alth ough the south had
thc edgc in rhe acrual number of milis. Fclisbelo Frcirc is rhcr cfore
not far off in suggcsring rhar rhis pcriod r narked rhc beginning of
rhe shifr of capit al fun ds from agriculturc ro industry, a shift rhar
was eccelcrated a few )'cars larcr when abolition c han ged t he coun-
rry's labor patteros from a slave to a salaricd economy. T he shift
w as also sccn in govcrnmem aid, rhc firsr lan dmar k in rhis rcspect
heing rhc dccrce of D ccembcr IS. IS9 2, merging rhe old Bank of
Brazil wirh the Bank of t hc Republic ro fo rm a new organ izat ion
keycd to rhe asccnda ncv of capimlism ovcr agricultu rc. Hur t his de-
cree was not the only victory for indust ry , ir was accom panicd
(and in a few cases cvcn preceded) by offi cial ncts exempting indus-
trial machinery and relar ed apparatus fro m taxes, guaranteeing
inreresr on industrial invcstmcnrs. nationalizing coasral navigation.
and establishing bonuses in aid ro individual indu stries. And in I S9 1
rhcrc was a so-callcd "Stock Exchangc co up'' whieh wes considercd
hy sorne to be "an cxccssive ami illegirirnatc defcnsc of capiralist ic
inrcrcsts on rhc pan of the gon fllment ."
Frcire pcints out t har ir was rhc loans from rhc provisional gov-
ernment which cnabled so me of thcsc statcs tu prospero Bur in thc
case of a stare like Sao Paulo. t hcsc loans not only supporrcd an
agriculture which had becomc rhc rnost import anr in t hc nation,
but also aided an industrial econom)' w hich alrcady cnj oyed condi-
tions for dcvelopmem far supe rior to those prcvailing clscwhcrc. a
population capablc of consuming local man ufactures; a ph cnomenal
d istr ibu rion s),st em insriturcd rh rou gh thc coffcc economy bu r eas-
ily adaptable ro industry. thc abscncc of ccmperieion from neig h-
boring srarcs, and a co rrcsponding abscncc of small coastal cines to
compete with Sanros as rhc regional pon and railhcad for rhc arca.
There is alsc no question thar in rhosc dccisive days Sao Paulo X)S-
scsscd a group of leadcrs more fl exible, 1110re cnergcnc, ano more
aware of rhe problerns of a salar icd labor econom)' rhen wcre their
eoumerparts in rhe north. Pcrhaps ir wa s rheir widcr associa rion
wirh Europeans newl)' arr i"ed (rom capita list and indllst riali7.ed
co um rics w hie h accollnted fo r these qualities. Another factor is
th:lt t he mi litar), leaders who w ere responsible for the transforma-
lion of t he Empire into a R cm blic. though Tllcn of far greater
pub lic spirit than thc Paulista ind ust riali.<ts. were nevertheless lack-
ing in the practical political wisdom neecs...ary ro comain the exag-
gcr arcd state consciousncss of mcn like Francisco G lycrio, w hose
parochial ism hecame a perversion of the spirit of fcderalism insti-
 arder and Progress
ru red by rhc R cpublic. What rhcsc militar)' leaders should havc
done was rransform rhis dynamic starc co nsciousncss inro a scnsc of
narional un iry. evcn inrerven ing in rhc economic lifc of rhc narion.
In t his wa y t hey could have used its power, not merely to
st rengt hen regions alrcady prosperous, but also to aid in the recov-
ery of rhc north, victim of the decline of [he sugar economy and,
bccause of irs t ro pical climare, less atrractive to European immi-
grants."
In any case, rhc prc-cmincnce of Sao Paulo in the nariona l econ-
om y was assured . Thus we have rhe paradox of a state which ar che
end of rhe Imper ial regime was marke d by t he greatcst rarc of in-
crease in bcrh slavc ami Eu ropean immigranr populanon, which
was dcvelo ping 0 0 its cotfee planrations al1 rhe parterns of life and
cultu re rhar c haracrer ized che north, and w hieh could nevcrr hcless
t hrough rhe infl uencc of immigration m ake a rclati vely easy and de-
finirive rransirion ro an cconomy bascd upon free labo r.
Ir is no t su rprising, in rhe face of ehcsc condinons, that Sao Paulo
shou ld have bc en rhc sire of rhe somerimes viole nr abolirionist activ-
iry of t hc mestice Lus Gama, an activit y w hieh w ould havc been
inconceivablc in Hahia. Nor is ir surprising rhar the same province
should nave promored t hc republican movemenr, whicb had
dawned wirhour great eonsequence in Pernambuco, M inas Gerais,
and R o Grande do Sul: a rnovcmcnt cnvisaging [he solidariry of a
Hrazil wirhour slavery wirh a dcmocratic and republican Amrica.
In his srudy O Precursor do A bolicionismo no Brasil, Sud ,\ 1eo ucci
poinrs out t hat it was Lus Gama who, in a lertcr of 1870 tO his son
Benediro, first uscd rhe cxprcssion "thc United Srarcs of Hrazil." 1
T his is evidenc c rhar the A nglo-American cxemple of republican-
ism, of so-calleo "dcmocracy," had begun ro seduce Brazil ians sorne
rhirty years before the ap pearance in rbc sanie provincc of Eduardo
Prado's vigorous anti-rcpu blican traer, classic of its kind, A llurio
Americana.
Ir is cu rious rhat rhe rcpublican and abolirionisr rnovements
~ O ne () ( rhe tbings the g() \'ernn~n t ~ h()uld have done was to redivide the prov-
inces uf rhe north inro ncw srares and rerritories alon g lines mure co mmensurate
wirh their cco nomc and ecological nature and more fa'-urable 10 illlerregiollal
economic and c ult ural balance. D uring t he earty days u( lhe Republic thcte was
apparently no ind ividu al ur gto up uf any prestige who unde1"S!ood the impon ance
to Ihe cc onomy of Ihis inle rregiona! ad juslmen t. Instcad of I'assi,dy cupyin g Ihe
fcderalism o( Ihe U nited Slales. Brazil should have evo'ed a systern ---C"perimental
if not deli n itive-based upon cxisting conditions, fi ad it dun e so, Ihe ccu nomy
wou ld not ha'-c suffercd from [he cxces'Cs of s[al e~m i nde d rep ublicanism,
1Sud Mcnucci ; O f'recurso. J o Abolicionismo no Brasil (S~o Paulu, '938 ), p _9' ,
 A gricultural and Cotmnercial Development 22 5

which appcarcd simulta neously in So Paulo du ring rhe lasr days of

thc Empirc should fi nally han heen reconcil ed. despite rhcir many
basic poin ts of differcncc. This rcconciliarion was enc ouragcd, nor
by Lus Gama. whosc rad icalism Icd him to opposc t he coalition,
but rarher by anot hcr mestco o f talcnr, Francisco Glyc rio.
The rhirrecnrh of ,\ Iay had been the most importanr factor in
preparing rhc ground for rhis un ion. In Sao Paulo, as in orher pre-
dominamly agrar ian provinccs, rcpublicans had bccn few end gen-
cra lly regarded as mcrcly ro rnanric young meno The main clcment
consisred of a solid arisrocracy-c-pla nrcrs. sugar-mill owncrs, coun -
try squires-for whom abolirion had crcarcd a new econornic ordcr
which no longer bore any rclationship ro t hc polirical s)'Stcm repre.
sented by rhc Empirc. For this reason, many of rhesc barons, usu-
ally very ablc men, regained rcspcctabiliry by joining with the dis-
enc hanred in support of t he Republic. Since 1884 G lycrio, whose
polirical subrlery suggests a trace of the Behian in his makcup. bad
bcen attempting to convince bis co- rcligionan es rhar thc o bjective
of rhc rcpublicans was " ro fou nd t hc Republic-c-a political fact, not
ro free thc slavcs-ca social fact." 2 Pri vately we mar be sure he
realized rhar as a common dcnominaror of whar he called "poliri-
cal" and "social" facts, rhcre exisrcd th e unifying fact of th e eeo-

normc snuarron.
In an analysis of rhc ensuing confusion in Brazil- when thc Im-
perial government was ancmpring to Fraternizc wirh rhe common
ma n throu gh an abolirion suppo rred evcn by the conscrvarivcs and
when, in the face of rhc same abolirion, rhc rural arisrocracy was
leaning roward republicanism-c-jos Maria dos Santos would wrire
(recalling the Brazil he had known as a da rk-skinned adolcscent)
t har thc monarc hy had play cd a ccmpensaring role, placing irself
"on thc side of rhc people, against t hc slaveholding inrercsrs." Re-
membering thc republica n-minded dcputics who reprcscnrcd Sao
Paulo in rhe Imperial Parfiamenr. he SUtes: "T hey were norhing
more than legitimare and confi rmed represenrarives of rhe agrarian
inrcresrs, dcspire all th cir effo rts ro convince rhe public of their de-
vc rion ro che name and rhcorics of th c pany under whosc banner
rhcy had been e!ectcd ." 3
Prudente de ,\ Iorais disagreed wit h this interprctation, muc h ro
the disapproval of G lyc rio. who saw th e pro-slavcry clerncnts
threatened by the approach of the Paulista repu blieans ro the
2 bid. p. IJl .
' Samos: up. elf.,
. p. lI l .
216 Order and Progress
"royal program of scr vilc reform." Gly c rio's arritude, rcpublican
ou t nor abolir ionisr, was cc hoed in t he samc provincc by suc h rnon,
archica l conservarivcs as Anr nic Prado, an cmancipat ionisr whu
tu r ncd "liberal" and "republican" in ordcr ro "attack opcnly thc
provincial vice-prcsidcnr, w ho according t him and his fellow con-
scrvarives was placing himself ou rsidc thc laws o rhc country in bis
local applicarion o libcrarion rncasures." i
Actually, rhesc "conscrvaeivcs," w hcn examined dosel)', preved
ro he rhc true progrcssives in t hcir dcsire ro rake adv anragc o local
condirions-cclimare. soil, geog raphical position- to cstablish a
cotlec cconomy bascd on rhe free labor cvcntually supplicd by the
ltalian irnmigrarion. lt w as by following rhis linc that Sao Paulc,
unl ike mosr of rhe or hcr prov inces of Brazil, could cffcct a rapid
transition {rom slavc to free labor; bur in so doing ir neglccred t o
consider t hat orber parts of rhc country equally dependenr on agri-
cu lture but less able to abolish slavcry werc also pan of t hc narional
picrure. In rhc facc of t hc rcsulring cconomic dislocaeion, Sitvcira
:\lartins's remark ro rhc cffecr that he did not bclong ro a group thar
100"ed thc N egro more rhan it loved Brazil was no t rnerc r heroric.
In Sao Paulo rnilitant republican m cst cos like che clearsiglued
G lycrio strovc to conc iliare rhc origina l Paulisra repub licans-sru-
dents and clcrks-with rbc r ural inrcresrs alarm ed by the abolirion-
ist line followed by rhc Impe rial governmcnr. In mm, conscrvarives
such as Prado worked for the conciliation of tb ese inrcrcsrs wirh
abolition by encouraging rhe immigrarion of ltalian field w orkers
to Sao Paulo.
Th is t hcn was rhc complex bur adva ntagcous posirion cnjoycd by
Sao Paulo du ring the transirion from Empire ro Rcpublic: :111 excel-
lcru arisrocra cy of old Hispano-A mcr indian stock, enric hed by a
gracious way of life imponed from thc north and northeasr, joining
wirh 3 powcrful democratic clcmenr in its readincss to develcp rhe
industrial potcntial of thc srarc.
Anides publishcd in rhe Correio 'eulistano of 1887 under rhc
inspiratio n, if not rhc actual aurhoriry, o Ant nio Prado, just ifi ed
"rhc increase in fugitive slaves rhrcugh the facr rhar rhcy have be-
fore thcir eycs, in t he recent It alian immigrarion, rhe suggcsrion of
rhe value of paid labor." ~ T here were others, bowevcr, wbo, like
J os Alaria dos Santos. attribured the dcpression in the nOfrh mercl y

4 bid., p. l 4$.
~ Ib d ~ p. )16.
 A griculm m and Connnercia Dcueiopment 227

ro t he fal! in rhc priccs of cot ron and suger, dispueing rhe facr rhar .
bcfore rhc procl amatio n of abolirion, great numbers of slavcs hall
already moved ro rhe provinccs of rhe sourh, and cspccially to Sao
Paulo. Nevert hcless. if rhe emancipat ion laws werc rhe samc for rhc
cn rirc nation, rhc facr is rhar rhc mcans and mcrbods of rcplacing
slave with free workers diffcrcd grcatly in rhc varic us provinces. Ir
was noe t he mere subsriturion of Italian for N eg ro labor in Sao
Paulo ; ir was rhe examplc of the qualiry of labor exhibired by free
workers which comnumicatcd irself ro rbc N egrees. to rhe subse-
qu em adv antage of rhe regional economy . Such replaccmcnt and
such cxamplcs were lacking in rhc nort h and northeast, largcly be-
cause thc electoral intercsts had favored rhc sourh at rhc expense of
rhe norrh and bccause southcrn climatic conditions favorcd the ser-
rlcmenr of whirc immigrants. Finally. it was abo beceuse rhc mono-
cultu ral sugar economy of rhc north had crearcd con dirions of
lahor th ar werc vinually feudal and eonsequenrly inimical to Euro-
peans,
D ur val Vieira de Aguiar. in his study of Bahia at the end of rhe
Imperial era, recalls thar in 1871 a colon izing scrvice was csrablishcd
at Cornanduruba by contraer hetween rhe governor general ami
rwo cinzcns. Coun sclcr Policarpo Lepes de Lefc and th e furu rc
Baron de .\ Iuniz. T bis er ncrprisc wns no lcss a failn rc than th at of a
Germ n cclony earlier ancmpred in Pernambuco. The Bahian lands
wcrc clcarly "of superior quality " and th c climarc "rruly Euro-
pean," bur rhe unfavorahle loc ation of t hc colo ny, Iar from the sea
and uncornfortably closc re rhc interior badlands. markcd ir for
failure as clearly as a similar type o f location had doomed rhe Pcr-
nambucan colony of Catuc. The colony was act ually seartcd on
clcarcd lends, but insufficicnr sclcctivity was cxerciscd in obrainin g
sen lers. T hc colonisrs werc a heterogeneous mixture of Ausrrians.
Germans, and P eles conrracred in Anrwerp ar so mu ch per hcad,
mosr of thcm wcre cOl1lplcrely ignoranr of farm ing and \Vere even
less prepared for t ropical living condit ions. T hc rl'Sult w as tha t they
did notbing, carned nothing, and ,}uickly contracted all t he l oc ~ 1
ailments : chiggers, !ice, gangrene, dysenrery, malari a, and all variet ies
o f tropical fc\crs. F.\en if the Eu ropeans had developed t hc tropical
custo m of tak ing a daily bat h and exal1lining t heir fcct (there \Verc
nat ive women available who were skilled in the extraction of chig -
gers) , the pcStS wo uld probably srill have d CVllStatcd their hands
and fac es as well as thcir extremiries. As it was, t he colonv
foldcd
up miserabl,., with thc co lonists rleeing from th e deat h and disease
228 arder and Progress

of rhc interior ro gain rheir living by bcgging 00 rhe streers of rhc

capital city. The Imperial govcrn ment finally rcpatriared a large
numbcr."
A second Europcao colon)' to fail in Bahia was rhar foundcd in
188 2 in rbe tropical undcrgrowth of Caravelas. T his time thc colo-
nisrs were Spaniards, who should havc bccn more cquippcd ro aclare
rhemselves ro t he rropics. BU[ monrhs passed and rhc scrtlers srill
had nor managcd ro citar even thc smallesr plot of land for plant-
ing." And hcrc too rhc chiggers regard cd rhe Europeans as a ban-
qUC t SCIH from rhe gods . Livcr ailment s. malaria. and ycllow fcver
ser in. Thc Brazilianizarion of rhcse Eu ropcans. in sborr. pre ved 10
be a most macabre cxpcricnce.
AH this occurred because fe udal landholdcrs did not want free
whire workers in rhc viciniry of rheir propcrtics. particular ly since
rhe cu ltivarion ami cxrracricn of sugar is a specics of agriculrure
rnuch more dirficult for Europeans ro learn rhan coffee cult ivation.
Thc only lands thesc proprierors would grant ro colonisrs werc
[hose far from rheir [a-zendas, wh ere there was srill virgin foresr ro
be cleared. AnJ th ey were not inreresred in encouraging rhe devel-
oprnem of small farming sincc this cnjcycd pracrically no govern-
menr prorcc(Jon.
N evcrthclcss, rhcre were (hose who felr rhar "with onc-twenrierh
of rhc suppo rt ir atIo rds t he arisrocrat ic cu lrivarion of sugar. t hc
governmcnt could suppOrt rhc municipaliries o rhe nort h in rhe
devclopment of sm311 farming by sendi ng bandcarts, cotton gimo
coro huskcrs, and portable manioc fl our milis ro farmers, who could
repay [he COS[ of chis cquipment out of crop incomes on a long -
rerm basis." And V ieira de Aguiar goes on to SOl)" rhar such suppo rt
"would not only develop our agriculrural porcnrial but would also
afford our unprorected small farmcrs a grcarer opportunity for well-
being. a process whic h could evcntually he furthered by the
subdivisin of lan ds. The cnrire plan is easily wirhin possibilirv . 0111
that is needed is ro pass the necessary laws." Nor should the forcign
irnrnigranr he ovcrlook cd- "r he indi.spensable adjuncr ro our future
aggrandizemenr." H ow can we expecr Europeans ro come over " ro
do slave labor in rhc sugar mills? Such a supposition would be ab-
surd." T he real European cclonizcr would come [O Brazil. "nor to
work for rhe landlord. bur ro have his own fa rOl, where he would
RDurval Vieira de Aguiu : Deu rires r d riCaJ J~ PrO'l.'itlc i~ J,J B.l I.'j~ (B. hia.
J8H8 ) , p . 171 .
1 bid., p p. Zy<>- I.
 A gricu tural snd Connnercial Dcve opntent 22 9

raisc whatcvcr erop he wishcd and for w hich he was ada prcd," ~
V ieira de Aguiar says fi arly, thin king mainly of condirions in Bah ia.
Hur ir was Sao Paulo, wirh irs quite ditfer em ecological situation
and its large-sc al e cotfcc eco nomr , which won out. Tho ug h a
monocu lturc undcr rhc acgis of a landlord, cotice offercd adva nra-
gcous opporrunitics ro rhc immigram, at leasr in the inirial srages.
There was no slavc labo r, an d rhcrc were opportuniries to fcllo w
orher pursuirs. rhough always within rhc framework of the cotfcc
cconoll1)'. T his conrrasred srro ngly w ith whar happcncd in the
sugar ind ustry and whar did not rakc long to dcvelop on the r ubber
plantations, whcrc t hcrc was a stubbom ad hcrcnc c to the srr icrly
t ropical sysrem t har had existe d since col onial times.
Echoing the warning of rhe Germen wr iter Ernst Sam habcr in
his Sudmnrica, lJiograf, de un Continente. it is imporrane to re-
mcmber t har rh e simultaneous, complementar), devclopmen r of
temperare and t ropical agriculrure w hich broug ht quic k prospcriry
to rhe United Srares was not possiblc in Brazl. where rhere w as a
nea rly uniform cliruarc which dcmandcd an cxclu sivcly t ro pic al
eeonomy. T hus Brazil c amc imo corupctirion wirh other tro pical
counrries. In Ccylon, cotfce planring. which had beco prospering
sincc thc early days of rh c ninc rccn rh eenturr, was virrua lly wiped
out in 1880 by a devastaung hl ig ht. T his bappened ar a rime when
t hc COltOO nnd sugar ind ust ries of norrhcrn Brazil had dc clincd ro
abour 60 P'"ccnt of t heir fonuer valuc. The siruarion rhus favo red
the sale of slavcs ro the coffce planrarions of rhc sou t h, dcspire t he
vain efforts of sorne srare govcm mcnrs to prevent an acure labo r
short age by im peding suc h sales, The movemcnr of slavcs ro the
sourh had bccn, in cff ccr, "a powerfullevcr in their libcrarion, and
ar rhe saine rime rhc mcans by wluch the flou rishing sour h could
O1()~t effccrively weaken its ancienr ami hardheartcd no rtherrt COIll -
pcriror," says Sarnhabcr."
lt is curious rhat Ceylon, in losing irs cotec su prcmacy ro Brazil,
should ar rhe same time have robbed rhe nonh of its dominant posi-
fion in rubber, t hus imensify ing t he laek of balance bctween nort h
and somh Brazil ro an alrnost rragic degree. N e" enheless, rh e assur-
ance of economic suprelllac y to Sito Paulo w as beneficial to the
coum ry as a w hole, in that it ga\'e leadership ro old and rcspectcd
families. Suc h fami lics, whilc 11 m nccessarily rhe w ealt hiest in rhe
1IIbid ., pp. j lJ, ] 111.
~ Ernst Samlu ocr: SuJ J/IItriCJ , BiogrJf , de 1/1/ Co mim:me ( Buenos Aire 1940 ) .
p. 65
2] 0 Order and I' rogress

country. wcrc still ablc ro win t he confiden ce uf Brazilians ami

chus tu ac r as a block to rhe dcvclcpmcnt of t hat caudiibinno so
COlll lll OIl in Spanish-American co un rries which could ver)" casily
have ariscn, dcsrroying 311 rhc natio n's bese social nnd economic tra-
dirions.
Thc Rcpublic lcd most Brazilians. fcaring militar)' dicrarorsbip,
ro fi nd refuge in t hc social and cconom ic sta tus q uo rc prcsent cd by
local lcaders. Thcsc local lcadcrs wcrc for rhc mosr pan rnani fest a-
tions o whar Ernst Sam habcr calls "r hc fi nad ridc o thc great [ami-
hes," a tcrm which indicares his acccptancc of rhe rbcsis rhar the
[o rmation of Braxilian soci cry had been pat riarchal in narure.
U ndcr rhc infl ucncc o rhis parriarc hal impu lse, Brazilians could ac -
cep t thosc Paulisras who, ns " loc al lead crs" and rncmbcrs o f o ld
fam ilies. secmcd ro o tfcr sorne g uarante e of narional sccu rity.
Amo ng thcsc wcre P ru dente, Campos Sales, and Ro d rigues Alves.
In tercsrcd in mainraini ng t he sllprem ac)' o f thcir srare. rhese men
subo rd inarcd rhcir political to rheir cccnomic imp ulses and re-
{raincd [ rom interfcring grearly wie h t he inter-na] po lirical life of
or hcr states.
In rhe neighboring sta rc nf Xl inas G erais. cconom ic diversifica-
rion had bc cn devcloping sincc rhe failure o f t he min jng cco nomy in
[he early days afrcr indcpcndeucc. The gold rus h which dcvelopcd
in co lonial times bad originally causcd ag riculru re ro play only an
an cillary ro le in rhe carly eco nomy o f rh c arca . bur o nce rhe disas-
trous mining ever bad abarcd. rhe ,\ Iineiros wcrc wisc enough ro
seek cconomic rec overy rhrou gh a diversifi cd agrs nan p rog ram
w hich includcd rhc c ulricarion o f sugar, coffec, and corno
In answc r t quesrions ahout life on a rypically progressive
.\Iineiro [ azenda of rhc pc riod co ve red here, C ssio Barbosa d e
Rescn de ( b. 1879 ) , in a lo ng rcseimony w rirtcn in 19 37, rclls us of
bis rccollec ticns o f the sma ( 250 ac res) bur wcll-organizcd and
profitable plantarion o f his Iather, C ounsclor F rancisco de Paula
Fer rcira de Rcscndc. T hc Big 1Iouse was an amplc. imposing t wo-
stor), affair, eq uippcd wir h snch modern c orwenicnces as running
water and c1 ectric hcarcrs evcn in slavcry t imes. Thc principal cro p
w as corfcc, but t hcre wcre alsc subsistcncc cr ops w hic h fed the fam .
ilr and its slnes. T here were milis fo r suga r and corn, and a water-
po w ereJ installation fo r Ihe sifting and pul\'cr izing of co tfce bcans.
T ranspo rtatio n of erops "'as st ill c fTccred by oxcart .
A fte r rhe proclamation o f abo lit ion in 1888, t he sla\'es o ffered
their serv ices for Ihe c u rre nt cotI ce harvest, b ur o nce this was in


Agricultu ra/ and Cotmnerc n Dcvcopm cm 23 1

rhey Iefr one by ene unril (he only oncs rcmaining werc "my fa -
thcr's old N egro pagc; a young mulatto girl who had (\\,0 small
child ren and who 50 0 0 lcft ro marry a Negro on a ncighbo ring
planration . and my old wcr nurse, of whom I was ,ery fond, 10-
gerher wir h hcr son and rw o daughrers. . . ." In IS!\9 Counsclor
Resende wcnr ro the imm igration officc in [ uiz de FOfa ro hire
"fou r Iralian farnilies ro work on rhe plantation, bur rhey sraycd for
onlv a short rime, and by 189 1 t hc [ezenda was com plet cly aban-
doned. .\I y farher, bcing ill. had no more cncrgy ro try ro find
work crs and ir was his four you ngest sonso now gradnarcd from
secon dary school. who garhcrcd rhc last rwo co ffee harvests, wirh
rhc help o rhc old Negro and my nursc's son, w ho was of abour
my age. . . . For rwo )'ears we did all t hc work of rhc [ozenda
until one da)', ro our surpr isc, m)' fa rhe r was invired ro bccomc a
juJge uf rhc Supremo Court. His firsr impulse was tu refuse rhc
ocr, but thanks ro rhc impornming of my morher, w ho could not
rcconcile hcrself tu t hc facr rbat hcr sons we re doing manua l work
ro the detrimcnr of their furrhcr education. he fin ally acceptcd, and
in dl9 2 rhe w hole fa mily moved ro Rio de j ancir o." In rC[r()spect
he starcs rhar this disruption of his family was nor an iscla ted case,
bu r ra ther one which atlccrcd a considerable number of similar
plantat ion owncrs. nor all u f whom hall rhc good luck ro be offered
a magisrracy in t hc government. Abolirion, he says. " in the wa y ir
was car ricd Out, constir urcd an assaulr on priva re propen), and
showed rhe lac k of forcsighr of our govcrnmcnr lcaders in not pre-
paring t hc (.'ountry tu slIppon such a pc wcrful blcw ro thc aprar ian
economy. Ir was probably t he prcponderan r cause o rhc grcar eco-
nomic cr isis t hrough which t hc count ry passed during rhc carly
day s uf t he ne\\' rcgime."
From Cssio Barbosa's testimony, we see t har it was not ahvays
easy to substitute It alian for slan labor, even on small co tfee pl an ~
[at ions in an agreeahle c1imate. \ Vhat t hen of the large plantations
in arcas w it h a c1imare less favorable ro Europeans t han t hat of
sollthern Brazil?
" ~()b ody Iiked t he Repllblic becallse of the disorganizarion it
had causcd in r ural life," sa)'s D ona Antonia Lins V ieira de ,\ l e1o
(b. Sao Paulo, [879, but broll ght IIp in Paraba) . "C ertainly in En-
genho ~o \'o [the family home ] rhe sla,cs for the most pan re-
main ed w ith their familics after rhe thirrecnth of ,\ Ia)'; onl)' those
of iU will dccidcd to leave."
BlIt graduaU), [he most intransigent monarchists among rhe land-
232 Order and Progress
holders began to shifr the hlamc for t he agricultural uphcaval from
abolirion to rhc Rcpublic. T hcy werc hcadcd in rheir opini n by
such enemics ro narion al order as R uy Barbosa, wi rh his hcrcrical
book O Papa e o Concilio, and Ben jamin Consranr, wir h his equally
hcrcrical doctrine of Positivisrn, Because of rhe labo r policics of
thcse ano other republican starcsmcn. thc ncw regimc was consid-
cred inimical ro t he narion al economy, espccially in rhose pans of
rhc coumry w hcre progress hao bcen less mar ked and where rhe
profi rs of agricult ure depend ed upon rhc use of slavc labor.
In thc light of such conditions, rhe decline of mOln)' of t he patri-
archa l farn ilics of the non hcast from t heir forrner splcndor to a
most dismal mcd iocriry is very explicable. Ir s also clcar why m OlO)'
of these families disinregrared, wirh rhc more capable members mi-
grating ro rhe sourh or sccking adven rurc and possiblc econ omic
salvatio n in rhe st range rerrirorics of rhe extreme norrh. A fcw, likc
the Pernambucan j oiio Alfredo Ccrreia de Oliveira, remained ar
hom e and cncounrcrcd rhcir fortune by becoming sons-in-law in
baronial sugar familics-c-a fare cscapcd almost miraculously by Joa-
quim N abuco. Bur for rhe mosr parr rhc callarse of t he sugar aris-
rocracy rnade mig rarion no r only anracrive hur also a virtual ncces-
siry . Thus sorne of the bcst intelligence of thc arca, co llege men
wirh dcgrees in law, medicine, cngineering, and militarv science, lefr
rheir hom es ro becornc magisrrares, bureaucrats, and profcssionel
rncn in t he sourh. marrying inro southern families and ofren bcccm-
ing thc son s-in-la w of wcalt hy carric ranch crs or coffce baron s.
As we havc sccn, rhis migrarion of you ng arisrocrats ro rhc south
was marchcd by a similar migration of crnancipared slaves, tbus
srrcngrhcning rhc sourh at rhe expense of thc north and grcarly
affeering rhc narional unity. Furthcrmorc. the exodus of t hesc
northcrncrs had addir ional cconomic coosequences of a biological
narurc, through rhc loss of men whose farnilies fr om colonial rimes,
rhrough thcir aptirud c in agriculrure, bad formed t he regional lire,
an lire srre ngr hcncd rarher rhan weakencd by rhe cndoganlOus cus-
roms of rhe colonial era.
Orher mo re ad\'entu rolls young norr hern ers ,""ere anracted by
rhe romance of the Ama7.0n, a region w hich also had its attractions
for r oun g Brazilians from rrovinccs as far distant as Rio Grande do
Su!' The arrrac rion. of eourse, was rhe rise of rubbcr, a rise which
eoincidcd wirh rhe debacle in sugar and w hich eauscd the new
product ro rival eoffee as rhe presrige clemem in rhe narional econ-
 ,

Agriculmral l111d Connnercial Decelopment 133

nmy . Tbus rhc samc sort o infl ux of YOllOg arisrocrars took place
in th e Amazon as had carlier occ urrcd in rhe sour h. w irh t hc rcsult
rhar rhe agrarian arisrocranc pancrns o rile north and northeast
began ro be repeated in srill anorhcr comer o rhe nation.'
Onc r Ollog Brazilia n lurcd by rhe Amazon was Artur Roberto
Coclho de Sousa (b. Paraba, 1889) . Cocl ho rells us rhat, afrcr rhe
dearh o his fat hcr, a descendanr o an old sugar-planting farnily o
Sap , he had feh t hc cal! o adventu re. "For a norrhcasrerncr. rhe
Amazon ar rhe time had rhc force o a powerful magner," he recalls.
"T housands had answered rhc call o rhc 'greco Sphin x' and had
beco mired in rhc jung le, t hc few who rerumed, however disillu-
sioned, neve rtheless broughr cnough mon e)' ro jusriy the legcnd
thar rhe srreers of ,\ Ianaus werc pavcd wirh gold. . .. \ \'hen I an-
nounced my plans ro go the re, severa! young meo from m}' tcwn
of Irabaina srared rhar rhcy wou ld go wirh me. Most of them we rc
berrcr off t han 1 and didn'r rcally havc ro go as 1 did out of eco-
nomic nccessiry . Resuh: on the arranged da)' of departu re, 1 lefr
alone ! I had a rhird-class passage on rhc Lloyd srearner :\1aranhao.
( W hae a rub! H ow fi lt hy ir was! Bm whar could you expect when
y ou paid only 65 mitreis for a t wo -wcck passage?) 00 discr nbark-
ing in '\1anaus, even bcfore finding a place ro slcep, 1 wcnt ro t hc
office of rhe on u l do Connnercio te apply for a joh as a prinrer. 1
was lucky. and by t he time 1 joined t he cornpanions from my \"0)'-
age ar lunch, I alrcady had a job! And as a press employcc, a posi-
rion considered l'ery high by my stcvcdore cornpanions! " Ir was
while in ,\ Ianaus r hat Anur Coelho felr rhar he gradually "ccased ro
he a hoy ami becamc aman."
After rwo years rhe newspaper hought "rhe first lincry pe ma-
chines imponed inro Brazil, except for those in Rio de j anciro and
Sao Paulo. Once again Amazonas, rhanks ro t be boom in ruhhcr,
was ablc to put all t hc orhcr su tes in thc shadow." Manaus at rhe
time already had bcen rhc firsr cry aftcr Rio and sao Paulo ro have
I T~ presrigc and rcnow n Iormerly hcld by sugar and cotton had as r e! not
h \"o ud the canJe ranchcrs and ",,,t g w"'crs of the extreme $tluth, \\ hcre Bra-
zili~ns of Port ugucsc urigin (so me with traces of other European swck) formed
a so-called "lard aristocracy" or meat barony, w ith cu>unns and a way of tife
similar tu those (tf the ulde,t blue-blouJ, o f the E mpire. Sume of these suUlhern
ar~rocU ts. suc h as the CamellO MlHlleirns, the ,\ lo rais ncur,u, anJ the Fo nseca
G alviios. haJ been non hemen wh o, CharOle J by rhe legendary bcauty uf rhe
sn ut hcrn wom en, ha.! rClllaine J in the area afrer the Pauguayan \Var. In this way,
ariMoculic n'lnhem I'atlem i fvu nd heir way no rhe eXl tcffil' 5<.lUlh, un as
they J jd in Sao Pauto"
2]4 Order and Progress

an elcctric strect railway. paced strccrs. and electrifico port facili-

t ies. lts opera housc was " the mosr famous and bcauti ful thcat re in
all Am rica," a pc rhaps ingcnuous opinin, hut ene echocd by
many sophisricatcd pcrsons who went ro ,\ l anaus at rhc time. The
Bahian j oaq uim Pcrcirn T eixcira (b. 1870) - 3 clase fr icnd o Jos
j oaquim Scabraan Am azonian who in t hc 1890'S becam e posirively
oriental in his wealrh andliving habirs-c-recalled in his old age rhat
t hc Manaus O pera H ouse was a t riumph o lralian arr in t hc midst
o thc jungle. It was a rhcarrc where people artendcd in formal
dress: the meo in whiec tic. rhc few respecrablc ladies d cottet es
and resplcudenr in jewcls, rhc lcss rcspcctable ones grossly cxaggcr-
ared in borh deparrmcnts. Among rhe new rich, says Percira T cix-
eira, rhcrc were men who lit their cigars with i os-m reis not es,
w hose patio foun r ains spouted ehampagne insrcad of water, artd
who im poned by Hrirish srearnship nct one but severa] Frcneh girls,
not only fo r the secret plcasurcs of an oriental pasha. but also fo r
display en massc before rhe envious eyes of less fortunare adven-
rurers.
Artur Coclbo was not onc of rbcse luxurious plurocrats: even if
he had had rhc wcalth, his puriranical Protcsram upbringing would
havc detened him. A nd as a Puritan, wirh sorne t race o the Yankee
succcss drivc, he pridcd himself on rhc Fact that as an adolesce nr he
becamc one of thc f irsr Bralian Iinoty pisrs to operare rhe keyboard
of a .\lergcnt haler press, an cxperie nce wh ich gavc him rbe samc
volupruo us pleasurc a music-lovc r would have in playing Bach or
,\ l ozan en a grand piano. Thc sound of machincry irself was music
ro his cars. so rhat in :\lanaus he workcd as he playcd, cnioying
evcry rnoment of ir, priding himself on his lue k in being pan of this
wondcrful exciring hubbub, rhc dream come rru e of a bol' From the
Paraiban interior. ,\ la naus. ro be sure, was paying plcnty of mone)"
so rhar Artur could havc all rhesc wonders wir hin his grasp, so that
he could ear pat, go ro the theatre, and kccp in rouch wirh Europe
through the steamers w hieh camc ro the elecrrified pon to J cposit
their French girls and Frcnch willes, their It alian paint ings and
objt.'ts d'art, rhcir Br iti~h hisc uits anJ fashionable c1oching. in cx-
changc fOf cargocs of fuhhcr. ~ BIlt it was paying him wcll also; his
\....agcs were fram 3 ,000 to 4 , 0 0 0 1IIilreis p CT monrh, a fabu lous sum
2 Unforrunalcly, une uf tho~ llutg uing cargol'S cumai ned 5urreptitiously smug-
gkd "t'edJi ngs uf rubbcr rrees which, planted in A~ ian colonies by rhe astute Bril: ish,
ended o nce and fo r all rhe cc unum;c sl'lcndo r of A OlJl.Onas.
 ,

A gricultuml and Commercia Dcvelopmcnt 235

for a north easrern farm boyo vast ly superior to tha t paid at t hc rime
ro an old and distinguished federa l judge in his honre statc.
Encouraged by his succcss in rhc Amazon, A rtu r. under t he in-
ucncc of his Protestanr rraining, 50 0 n soughr ro conquer anorhcr
world : rhe U nircd Srarcs. .\l aoam had givcn hirn t he opportuni ry
and t he leisurc tu invenr certain improvemenrs in rhc .'I lc rganrhalcr
prcss which he rricd. wir hou t succcss. ro sell in X cw York. This
advcn rurc cnded wirh his obtaining a rnodcsr bur respecrable job as
rranslaror of movic subtirlcs, bur wirhour J iminishing his ardor tu
parenr sorne ncw invenrion. H e believed che mac hine ro he "the
cnly rcally new elemenr in rhe so-called W esrern civilizarion" and
saw in ir the way ro bring rhc wo rld ro a peaceful ccllectivism wirh-
out shcdding thc blood of a .\ la rxist revcluricn. "The machinc is a
t ruc manifcsrarion of human inrclligcncc, we must ded icare our-
sclves ro irs mission of rcdcmprion rh rough human c orr." ;\ fixing
his yourhful rcligious rraining with t he new mystique of rhc ;\I a
chine learned in Manaus. he asks in 1940: " ' Vhat wcrc the firsr in-
vcn nons, whar werc an), invcnt ions or discovcrics. if nor rcvelat ions
of a grear rrurh ! . " . Every machine has a mission of redcmption :
ro cnablc man to produce ar a m ximum wirh a minimum of etfon
. . . a socializing mission whieh will he carricd out rhrough rhe
r nachinc." This cvange lical mission must have had its origin in "an
aching rnuscle.. .. Physical force produces pain. . . ." \ Vords
he musr havc hcard from old Xcgrocs. pcrhaps former slaves of rhc
small Ccclho sugar planration at ,\ telancia in t he int erior of
Paraba. words rhar sprang frcm th c pain of drcary labor of plant-
ing canc and exrracring sugar wirb archaic horsc-powc rcd-c-or sIave-
powcrcd-c-machinery .
The Amazon cxpcricnce of j oo d'Albuqu crquc .\ Iaranhj o. an-
orhcr narive of rhc agrarian norrhcasr, where he was boro in 188 J.
diered somcwbar from t hat of A nur Cocl ho. joo recalls t hat
w hcn he was a pupil at t be Colegio Pesralozzi in Rccife t here was a
terrible ourbrcak of buhonic plague that daimed hundreds of vie-
rims. T he schoo ls were dosed. Doctors died, infected through con
racr wirh rhe affiicred . A pest hou sc was set up on t he island of Pina.
Ir was ar t his lime lhat Joao. w hose IJrother A fonso was a judge in
,\ tanaus. ldr for the Amazon. The idea was for him to conrinue his
college prcparatocy srud y in .\ la naus while acting as derk in t he
police dcpartmem . The police chid at thar time was Ested.o de S
Cavakami de AllJuqucrque, a Pernambucan politician who had fle d
r

Order and Progress

from his rm rive 5t 3 fC " in arder not ro be assassinared by rhe goycrn ~
rucnt o Alexandre Jos Harbcsa Lima." 3 During an elcction cam-
raigo wh en Esrcvo de S was running for mayor o Rccife, one o
his supporrcrs. Jos Xtaria de Albuqu erque "-telo, had becn mur-
dcrcd by a policc officcr o thc same Barbosa, and Estevo. feeling
rhar his tum would he OCX!, had deparred for Amazonas.
Once in Amazonas, ) oo d'Albuqucrque Maranho marveled at (he
rechnical supericrity o rhc region in comparison ro t hat o his na-
uve Pernambuco. " T bc pcople o Amazonas rraveled a grcar deal in
Europe dur ing rhc first dccade o rhc prcscm cenrury," he recalls.
" lr was rhc hcight o th e rubber boom and we were virtually rhc
on ly sourcc of rhis material for r hc wo rld marker. T his facr was
reccrcd in the oriental luxury displaycd by rhc rubber baron s in
rhcir vacarion trips to rbc European beaches and in their custom of
sending their childrcn ro t he mosr ashic nable schools of London
and Paris. I marricd an Amazo nas girl who bad bccn educared in
Lisbon and who had unclcs and cousins residenr in Pars. In
Manaus, wc subscribcd ro French magazincs and hcard oper as sung
by artisrs of ehe Paris O pera."
Thc fi rsr decade of rhc present century in " tanaus was, if any-
thing, cvcn more splendid rhan rhar of the 1890'S and ccntrasrcd
violently with the t ropical landscepc which formcd a serrng for
t his artificial capital ciry-c-as artificia l as a ser of solid go ld teet h on
a bushman srill prepared ro cal raw snakc. if nor human fl esh itself.
j oiio d'Albuq uerque rcmcrnbers having appla uded D'A ngcville.
Armcl, and Ricordeau of t he Com dic Francaise, as wcll as Angela
Pinto, Lucinda Sim cs, Dolores Rcntini, Chabi Pinhciro, Crist iano
de Sousa. and the maestro Nicolino Milano. In 1899 rhe Amazonas
Thcatre had presentcd Giovanni Emanucl, an lralian rragcdian fa-
mous for bis pcrformanccs of Shakcspcere.
On a lcss imposing scale, t he cconomic viraliry of ,\ b naus and of
thc Amazon region was manifcsrcd by clegam shops like the Bijou

3 Alcxandrc JO'> Barhosa Lima at lhe time was a Yflung p olitician w h(>'<e ne""ly
acquire d p" wers had somewhar i'0 nc !O his hea.!. In spite of his violenee. however,
he tumed o ur w be an e!fielent anJ prog resstve admin isrrator. Liberal in mmy of
his ideev, he nC\"e n hclcss Ucl ie"e d, p,,,,-< ihiy und er rhe inu ence of Comre. rhar one
, hou ld not employ democnl ic pruleS..... in the snlmio o of tech nieal q uestions.
Aeeotdinglr , he was the f irsr rcpublican governcr 10 resume lhe ludit;" n of such
Pernamhucan nlllna rchists as lhe Ilaron da Boa V ista and tbe Bacon de Lucena in
cmploying Io reig n technicia nv tu develop the material and cul tural prog rcss of rhe
state.
 A gricultura/ and C01111J1ercia/ Devetopment 217
Co nfcctiona ry. wh icb r ivallcd rhar of Pascoal in Rio de [anciro, and
rhc Caf Itatiaia, owned by anor hc r Pcm amb uc an nam ed Fausto
P rro, son of a wcll-known abolirionist. D ona Leonor Porto. Li kc
Est vc de S, Prto had also come ro Amazo nas ro escape thc vio-
lcncc of Alexandre Barbosa Lima. It secms thar his mot hc r, D ona
Leonor. had claimcd rhc body o f J os Maria de Al buqucrquc afte r
rhc assassinat ion. As a result , )'o ung Prto had felt his popular iry
wirh t he loc al govcrnmcru tu bc limircd and had lcfr ro scek his
forrune in ,\ 1anaus, an ideal spo t fo r a ycurh of liberal rcndenccs.
parricularly sincc rhe c hie f of pollee t herc sharcd similar polirical
vrews.
A 11 in all, "I anaus re prcscnte d a reacrion ro the rourinc naru re of
rhc rcst of Hrazil. a rcaction madc easy by irs gccgra phical an d cul-
tural disrance from R io de J aneiro and by its hugc influx of foreign
edventurers. part icularly Frcnch, Spanish. and American. The arca
had also errracrcd Brazilians impat icnt wit h rhe ccc nomic and cul-
ru ral ine rria of rheir o wn arca s an d an xiou s for ad venru re in a re-
gio n which promised quick profits. Thesc men. if nor exactly
Bohcmians, wcre nonconformists of somcwhar lcss rhan c onven-
rion al vicws, a band of fallen angcls in rebellio n againsr t hc moral,
soc ial, ami cconornic incrtia of Brazil. T hcy wcrc mcn like Ca rlos
Dias Femendcs. w ho bad bccn guilty of pcc adillos ag ainse rhc
T reasurv o r Euclydcs da Cun ha. A lberto R angcl, j oo Barrero de
,\ t eneses, Efig , nio Sales, G oncalves "ta ia, Q uintino Cunha, Anbal
T e fi lo, ro llame only a few of t hc mosr rcnowned. N or all of rhcsc
had mongrcl backgrounds likc rbar of Euclydcs da Cunha, sorne
car ne from exccllenr families, as in rhe case of Carlos Dias Fe man-
des, a mcmbcr of e ne of rhc mosr c ivilizcd, Europcanized. arisro-
craric families in rhc country . O ne of rhc sons of the Bar on de Con-
ren das w as also attracred ro rhe Am azo n, wherc he madc a m ixed
mar riage and hr ought up a mestice family . A ugusto Galvo pre-
ferre d A mazo nas as rhc place ro rnake a ca reer in law; Gaspar
Cu irnares bccame a federal judge rhere. AH rhese w erc mc n of
arisrocraric bca ring and o rigi no
.\I any of rhc ncw arrivals lived in " repu blics" as rh ough t he),
w ere srill students. "I anaus did nut possess a hot el or boardinghouse
to eq ual rhe gra ndeur of irs rhca t re, a facr w hich throws some lighr
on rhe nature of rhc Amazonian idea of prog ress, o r, for rh ar
m atter, of thar o f some of rhe orher Brazilian c ities w hich prided
rhemseh 'es o n t heir modernity . ( R io, Bclm, and Sao Paul o also
 arder and Prcg-err

posscsscd rhcatrcs which rivalled rhat of "I an aus in t he sumptuous-

ness of rbcir facadcs and the golden luxury of their appcinrrncr ns,
but norte could boasr of a hotel of any qnaliry.) Ar aoy ratc. in
Alanaus. rhe bachclors. suc h as Euclydcs da Cu nha. Firmo D ut ra.
an d A lbe rto Rangcl. lived in " rcpublics": rhc rnarried men soughr
privare houses. norte of which was nored for comforr or luxury.
" In Manaus t here was never a luxury hotel, largely becausc this
was not a ciev of t ransicnts," wrires J oao d'Albuqu erque " h ran-
hao. somewhar apologet ically. But rhe apology would havc bccn
more in order had orhcr suppcsedlv modero Braailian ciries bccn
ahle ro boast o f sucb accommodarions to go along vvirh their pom -
p<IllS rhcarres. goyc rmnem palaccs, and r ailw av srat ions. their ad-
vanced docks and po rt facilities, ami rhcir handsomc boulevards.
Ir appears t har in Brazil. unlikc t he Unired Srat es ami A rge ntina.
rhe ho tel did nor devclcp as a spccics of ca thcdral. a symbol of rhc
new culr of progress. In this eount ry the privare rcsidcncc con-
rinue d ro acr as a hovelry for rravclc rs who camc wir h rhe rccom-
mc ndations of mutual friends or mcm bcrs of tbe famil y . Also, t hcre
wcre boardingh ouscs, com fortable if not modern. which were run
more or lcss as parriarchal csrablishmcnrs oflering eleganr guest fa-
c ilities. For a lo ng time. o ne of the besr hoa rdingho uses in Rccifc
wa s run by rhe Baroness de Landy. an d rh c so-cal led "I ntemational
I lorel" was a similar cnrcrprisc in rhc cvcn more aristocraric home
of a G errnao barcness in the Ma dalcna <uan er. In a book cntitled
Bquatorial A merice (Descriptive of a Vs t to Sr. Tho1l111S, .uartj ~
niqne, Barbados 1171d tbe Princ ps Capitals o Soutb A merica), thc
Am er ican ,\l aturin :\1. Hallou rclls of rhc bospiralirv affordcd by rhc
larter, wirh its heauriful [ruit trecs surrounding the house. and gar-
dens cnlivencd hy livcly and am using monkcys and a numhe r of
caged parrots. Excel lcnr Freneh meals wer e served outdoors in sur-
roundings rich wirh tro pical flowers . Thc servants we re well
rraincd an d carne fr om rb c region. T he house itsclf had once been
rhe home of a wealthy land ho lder who after aholirioll had been
for ced ro seH ir fo r a fifth of its cosr. In beeomin g a hotel, it had
somehow preservcd its o riginal atmosphere of patriarchal nobility!
Ir was wirh rhe agreeab le impression left by this ar i~ oc ratje
Recife hoardinghotlsc t har ,\ Ir. BaHou came ro Rio de J aneiro. and
ir was rhere rhat he reacned a meful conc1usion. In 1890 rhe BrazilM
ian ca piral hall more rha n half a million inhabitants ami hoastcd
.'1.
4 .' b turin B~ lI"\I : f:q!UJWTiJJ Ameri cJ I :"'e w YOTk, ' &;1 ). pp. I P -J.
 Agricultmot and Commerciai Development 239
m:my of rhe characrerisrics of a fi rst-class American city with one
notable exccprion : t herc was no good hot el. "There is not a really
good ami com fortable pub lic housc in al! Brazil," he w rore. Thc
hcsr he could find was Whytcs, in T ijuca, which was more board-
inghouse rhan hotel.
T ite facr is rhar Rio de J aneiro, likc o rher imporrant Brazilian
cirics, w as actual lv an immarure urba n expression of a predorni-
nam ly rural economy, and its imposing public buildings and privare
houses tesrificd ro rbc facr thar cvcn in cines rhc socicry was csscn-
nally parriarchal in narurc. As late as 1890, many of thc ccnnncrcial
csrahl ishmcnrs maintained rooms 00 rhcir u pper fioors for t hc con-
vcnicncc of imporranr cusromers coming in from the interio r.
T hcse firms also followcd rhc parriarchal custom of providing
rooms in the rcar of t hc upper fl oors for their cm ployces and of
serving them amplc daily lunchcs prcsidcd ovcr by t he head of the
firm o ;\ Ir. Ballou ncred in Ri o that t his Luso-B raxilian c usrom of
housing employces on rhc premises had sprcad to Bntish and
French establishmcnrs as wcll," but t he pracricc of t he communal
lunc h for proprictors. clerks, and oue-of-rown cusromers seems to
havc becn confincd to Brazilian fi rms.
Anoche r sourcc of hospitaliry ar thc t ime was rhe monastery,
w here visitors and cvcn students coul d oftcn obrain room an d
board. Sorne of thc mc nasrerics o f R io de j aneiro had ccascd to be
r eligious establishment and had been turned into public lihr aries,
schools, milita r)' barracks. and evcn customshouscs . Thc transfer-
ence from a rc1igious ro an eco nom ic or polinca l function seem-
ingly did not affccr rhc d ignified appearance of rhese buildings or
thcir basic com fort. Adaprcd ro rhc t ro pic al clirnarc, t hey werc of
am ple, cvcn monumental, proporrions and fl exible io t hcir interior
construcrion. No wondcr many emioent Brazilians-Counsdor
Fcrrcira V iaria. fo r one- preferred rhcm as places fo r r est and
srudy, and rhat they could be adaprcd so casily ro rhcse varie d pur~
poses.
In rhe lasr decades of rhe Empire thc horcls, t hough not modern
in architecrurc oc appoinrmenrs, began ro func non as gat hl'ri ng
pl aces fo r business and professional men , serving lunches w hich
we re often \'cr)' luxur ious. Richly dee orared- in a str le that was
soon ado pte d io 1ll3ny priva te ho mes- rhese hote1s aeted as clu bs
where lTlem bers of rh e eommercial or political lite could transact
~ bid ., p. 1<.
 arder 111ld Progress
business or discuss bcoks, rhc theatre, music, politica l affairs, or
womcn ove r a bowl of dclicious so u p or a dish of exorically fia-
vored ice c ream, pit.:J lll{.:J , cail, caj, fr om Francioni's. the "largcst
imporrer of ice in liraxil." It was to Franciom toO thar Brazil owes
ancthcr combination of Europcan civihzation and tropical climate :
rhc ourdoor ice-cream parlor. This innovarion was firsr seen at [he
l lo tcl do Xorrc during [he carly days of [he reign uf Pedro 11,
ami the novclev soon sprcad ro ull parts of rhc country." ln rhc mosr
tropical ciries, suc h as .\fan alls and Bclm, rhcse ourdoo r cafs. wirh
their cnormous shadv trces and rhcir exo ric ices an d fruit d rinks,
became famou s. Tbere, ar a ccrrain hou r, one eould always encoun-
ter the importanr men of thc region in decp discussion nver the
price of rubber-c-cr of Frcnch girls-c-perbaps with a bottle uf Ten-
ncnt 's bcer or Dewar's whiskey ro aecompany their refreshme nts.
H alf-Anglicized in t heir ruste for whiskey and im poned foods from
Pcrc y Vaughan's. "s pccialist in can ncd goods and fine bcverages,"
rhcse no rt hcrn potemates srill drcsscd in a local sryle impossiblc ro
C:lrry off in the sou t h, wir h Panam bars. whire rubbcr-soled shoes,
and immaculate lndian-made jackcts. Thc out door ca fs of R io de
j anciro. prcsemed a yc r)' ditferent picturc. There thc business
Illoguls and politiei..m s atfecrcd an almosr priesrly digniry in rhcir
black Prinee Alberrs and high toppers. A ter 1875 their favor ire
haunr w as the H ot el G lobo, succcssor in sorne ways to [he estab-
lishment of Francioni. Cclcbrared fcr irs cuisine and banquet hall,
t he Gloho scrvcd mout h-warcring mcals rhat wcre a privilcpc to
en joyo D uring rhe markcr spccul atio n fcver of t he 1890's, rhis aris-
rocratic hotel was rhc sccnc of "Sardan apalan banq ucrs," washed
clown "with cosrlv wines ami Champagne Clicquor." Along with
t he Brazilians t hcse were importanr Eu ropcan indust rialisrs and
businessmcn. ro whom pcrhaps we can t rac e t he populariry of ver-
mouth. whiskey. [he cocktail, rhc g in fizz, t he pic k-mc-up. and thc
sherry co bblcr, elcganr imports w hie h fOo k their place alo ngsidc
t he traditio nal pon and ,.'halllf);lgne fo r snob appea!.1 T here w as
also t he d raft heer. whie h appealed less to the princes uf power then
ro the Bohemian coterie of journalists and lite rarr men, as well as ro
c1crks. stuJ ems. or foreigne rs whose daring in d cfying the fashion
and d ressing in tropical w hite extended ro an equall y dar ing prd er.
ence fo r eold lig ht heer. A nempting t o attrac[ these fo reigners, t he
" F rnc\l" Senn , O V e/ho Comrcio J o Rio JI.' faneiro (Ro de J neiro-Pu s.
n.d.l . PI'. 99. loo.
1Ibid.. PI'. 1(>1:1. H>Q.
 Agricultural and Conrmercia Development 241

Horcl G lobo ran irs advcrriscmcn rs in Frcnch. "Ce 1J1agnifi'lue res-

teursnt otire I1UX mmgers srr ...' l1nt ,1 Rio, toutes les connnodits
pour Lunch, Dtners. etc." including "cebinets psrticuliers pour
familles, splendide buvene :m rez-de-cbausse, boissous glsces"
(priv are boo rhs for familics, a splendid bar serving ccld drinks 0 0
rhc ground fioor ) ." O nc of rhc novclrics of the pcriod was rhe
Prana Sparklet Siphon, which yieldcd charged water said (O be
equal in th erapcutic value ro rhar of Vichy, Carlsbad, or Seltz. Thc
conccssion for rhis supposcd marvel was held in Rio de Janeiro by
Louis Hermannv & Co . and ir is no exaggcrarion rhar rhc vogue for
mineral warcrs in fact eontribured ro rhe decline among rhc middlc
classcs of sucb diseascs as dyscntery and ryphoid fever.
The rococo interior dccorations of rhcsc fa shionable horels. par-
ricularly thc huge mirrors, were soon irnirarcd in rhc homes of rhc
ncwly rich. Rar hcr bcwildcrcd as (O whar ro do wirh rheir rcccnrly
acquircd affi ucncc. rhcsc latrer-day aristocrats cngagcd forcign dcc-
orators and thro ugh rhcm atremprcd ro acquire all lile tr appings of
culture and gracious living as swiftly as th cy had acquired rheir
fon uncs. One suc h was rhc Count of Leopoldina; anorher was Del-
miro Gouvcia. who rose alrnost ovemighr from suhurhan station
agent to grear ind usrrialisr. and who celcbrare d his risc by insralling
a marble harhroom of Imperial gra ndeur in his old house in [he
ou rskirts of Recite and ly rically christening rhc modcrnizcd resi-
dcnce wir h his wife's name: Villa Anunciada. O rhcr obscu re Brazil-
ians became suddenly powcrful when appoinrcd by Floriano
Peixoro ro importent offi ces in thc new Republic. Srill others wcrc
invesred wirh insranr culture, as was th c case wir h sevcral relarivcs
uf the Baron de Lucena. mnence gris" of rhc Generalissimo.
Thesc worrhics. ro the surprisc of C\'eryone induding tbcmselvcs.
were made masrcrs of scicncc and givcn univcrsiry appoinrmenrs
which they had ncver conremplared in rheir wildcst drearns.
Under the Rcpublic. thcn, rhc rococo style was not confincd ro
mere dccorarion, it becamc a psychclogcal stare and a way of life
which characteril.ed the new cra. For most Brazilians, accusromed
l O the economy oCthe old regime, rhis new opulencc seemcd litrle
shon of scandalous. Almost until the end oC the Empire, thc na-
tional cconomic policy had been onc of orthodox lIloderation in
arcas outside agriculru re, with litrle specularion and an almost total
absenee o grandiose comlllercial or industrial schcmes. \\'irh aboli.

~ Alm~ nlq !1( dl G ~~ etl d~ NOI C"ilS pl rl 11i1l7 ( Rin de Janeiro , 1 1I~ 7 ) , p. 11 ~.
 arder and Progress

rion, however. rhis slow pacc, ro rbc ho rro r of conscrvarives, was

radically alrered in a su rge of industria l dcvelopmcnr thar gaincd
thc favor of cvcn so highly placed an official as the V iscoun t d e
Ouro Pr to. (he last Imperial Prime ,\ l inisrcr.9 The sudden boom
was d cce ptivc, howcver. despirc thc strcngth of thc narional cu r-
reney and t hc vasrly inc reascd vo lumc o f rrade bcrwc cn Alay, 1888
an d Novcmber, 1889 w hich apparcntly refured rhc rheory thar
abclirion wou ld upsct t he en rirc Brazilian economy and not mcrely
rhe agrarian inreresrs. Ir was not long befare this appearance o f
strength dcgcncratcd inru a fevcr of spcculaticn-c-rbe Enciibs-
mento-the likcs of which Brazil had ncver before expc ricnccd.
An d ir was from rhis u nhealrhy situation thar the new lire arose-
rh c u rban bankers, industrialisrs, and busincssmen who g arbcred ro
sip cbampagnc in t he salons of t hc 1 lote! G lobo and tu glo ry in
rhcir ncwly acquired asccnda ncy ov er an older order rhey referrcd
ro disdainfully as rhc "slavocracy."
Thus the G lobo can be sccn almost as a symbol of t he ncw order:
gr:mdiose in appearance wirhour heing a really good hotel ; shabby
bedrooms and inadequare bar h facilities, bu r salons of the g rea rcst
possible lu xury wherc the new m agnates c ould sarisfy t heir narcis-
sism by exami ning thcmselvcs in full-Iength mirrors (frarned parri-
orically by gilded mcrifs re p rcseming pineapplcs an d or hcr narional
fruirs) whilc sip pin g rhcir apritifs of gin o r champagne.
Cerrainly rhe H orel G lobo artracred perseos of all shadcs of P'"
lirical and cconomic opinin. Ir was rherc t har j oo A lfredo, a pulir.
ical conservativo bur radical aboli rionisr, ro ld a banquet audiencc
that "r he Conservativo Parry must, can, an d is wilJing ro scnlc rhe
slavery que srion." And ir was there thar rhe Haron de Corcgipc. a
slaveh cl der o f the old order w ho nevcr wou ld have sharcd j oo
A lfrcdo's senrimenrs. used ro go when t hc cccasion prorniscd an
encounrer with onc of rhe cleganr F rcnch ladies or fashionable co-
cotte s for which he had a noronous weakness. A nd ir is quite pos-
sible that nn such occasions he found hirnself d ining nea r suc h avid
republican s as F rancisco G lycrio, Q uinr ino Boca)"lwa, or A ri.
st ed cs Lobo who, spu rning rhe rradi tio nal conspirator ial t avem,
used to meet ar thc G lobo d uring rhe last d ay s of rhe Empire ro
disc uss p rcpararions for thc coming new order.1 O ther frequ cnrcrs
of the G lobo ar rhis timc \I/ere Jos Bonifcio the Younger, ,\ larrim
9 Sce A Dcildil (Rio de J ane iro, 1&)Q- IQOI J.
Repll b/j(~ n~
1 Promincnt republican figures o f rhe periodo ( Tra n ~lato r" )
 Agrcutural and Connnercial Develapment 24]

Francisco, Jos .' tariano (rhe same Jos " tar iano who in his native
province could ofren be seen caring s.rrap,uel ar sorne sidewalk
lunch counrer wi rh pcrsons of d ubious occuparion, sorne of whom
wcrc his bodyguards). ami, occasona lly, rhe Baron de T rr cs l Io-
mcm. whc con rinued t hc t radirions of Pedro 11 and the davs of
Francioni by always having ice cream for desscrt."
Afrcr rhe comi ng of rhc Republic, rhc G lobo alsc arrracred an-
orher formcr aristocrat who disringuished himself in thc scrvicc of
thc Republic . Jos Maria da Silva Paranhos, Baron do Rio Hranco.
1 lis companions wo uld sometimes be Sourh American di plcmars
like Fernando Guachalla or C1udio Pinilla, sometimes narive fig-
ures like Euclydes or G asro da Cunba. or Assis Brasil. It was an
ideal restaurant for rbis sraresrnan. who in his old egc secms ro have
replaccd his yourhful passion for womcn wirh the sensual passions
of the rabie. A norhcr disringuished fi gure of rhc Brazilian foreign
scrvice who found rhe Globo :10 idcal spor for encounrers wit h col-
leagu es and narional lcaders was Salvador de ,\ Iendon;a. e ne-time
Arnbassador ro the Unired Srarcs. wherc hc concludcd ao econornic
pacr wirh his bosr country widcly criricized by Brazilian republi-
cans as bei ng dct rimcntal ro rheir counrry's inrercsts.
The Globo also was suired to foreign busincssmen. and ir is nor
unlikely rhar irs privare dining rooms wcre a frequent scrring for
inti mare dinners of Frcnch roast bccf fei joada Brasileire, or peixllda
.i b<1 na. Bur rhesc glorious day s, cn hanccd by rhc exccsscs of rhc
E1U:ilh<1111emO, wc rc doomed ro oblivion afrer rhe rurn of the ccn-
turro 'Vhen rhe vertiginous boom of rhc nineries had expended ir-
scl f thc horel sank inro dccadcnce, irs clegam salon shabby, irs
painrings blackencd wirh mold, irs famous r nirrors covcred wirh
leprous spo ts, in wbose d ullcd and Iusrer less sur faces survivors of
rhe grear days "could scc rcflc crcd rhe passagc of rhcir glory." a
The G lobo had its succcssors: rhc Hotel dos Estrangciros, the
Internacional. tbc Avenida; thc ground fl oor of rhe lasr housed rhc
fa mous Brahma Restaurant, ro which rhe Baroo Jo Rio Branco
rransferred hl'i allegiancc during rhc fi nal days of his g/outollnerie.
T hc Brahma also attracred rhc Cearense historian and erhnologisr
Capisrrano de Abreu, noted for his almost Germanic devotion ro
drafr beer. It replaccd rhc Globo aS rhe rendezvous of thc grear in
alI walks of life. particular! y in rhe ficl ds of cornrnerce and iodustry
2 Senna: op. cit., pp. [011. lI S.
' ,-,..nna,
"~ . p. 11 1.
op. elt"
 Order md Progrets
w hich by now e-e re en joying thc prcsrige nnd sha ring rhc powers
formerly rhc prcrogarivcs of rhc landhold ers. the profcss ionals. and
rhe milirary.
"T be bcsr hotel in those days was th c Estrangciros." says An-
renor Nasccnrcs (b. Ric de j aneiro. 1886), an opinion sharcd by
severa] orher wimcsscs. alrhough rhe Avenida also had its suppo rt-
crs. In Sao Ps ulo. the pri nc ipal hosrclries mcntioned we rc thc
G ran de and rhc 1l ord d'csrc, whilc in Pein o A legre ir was t he
Brasil. considercd by one cnrhusiasr equal ro rhe Esrrangeiros of
Rio de j anei ro, although irs sllpremacy in rhc sourhcrn capital was
c hallenged in 1908 by rbe opening of thc G rande .
'1'0 reto ro ro t he Amazon. anorbcr earlv adventurcr was j oo
Barrero de Xlencscs ( h. Pernambuco. 1872) , who a1so wcnt ro rhc
arca as a )'ollng man after a pcriod of scrvice in rhc Arr ny, during
which he servcd in [h e "Revolution " of Septcmbcr, 1893, and in
Canudos. T hough circd for bravery and slated for promoeion ro
officcr's rank, he dccided t har rherc was somerhing inco ng ru ous in a
man of his "ardcnr liber al tcmpcramcnt" wcaring a unifonn which,
"howcver glamorous. ncverrhcless denotes t hc idea of fo rce, always
rhe enemy of ideas." As a rcsulr, he resigned and "soughr or her
fi clds ro conquer." And fo r a Brazilian of his ry pe, whar ficld more
seductivo rhan rhc Ama zon tctritory ? Therc he could sran a busi-
ncss or industry an d evenrually rcru rn ro his nat ive statc ro live like
a naboh. Unforruntcly . he nevcr succeedcd in advancin g beyond
rhc posirion of dcpanmcnr head in t hc office of [he Secretar)' of
Srare. afrer having hegun as a modesr policc clerk. Dcspire rhe
abundara opportunrics in Manaus for all sorts c f iniriativc and
spcculativc daring, the "ardenr liberal tempcramenr" of Tobias Bar-
rero 's son somehow ncvcr managed ro adapr ro rhc dreary and ut-
rcrly nonlibera l Jife of a policc departmcnr burcaucrar. Probably
rhis was thc rcsulr of his inde pcndcnt ntt irudc which, he says, he
rcccived as a binhr ighr Irom his famcus father.
I lis cxubera nr rel11peramem fou nd an outlcr. howcver. in his par-
ncipation in rhe so-callcd " Acre Revolution." Joao Barrero de
Xlenescs servcd in t he "assault on thc fortress of Prt o A lonso. hc1d
by the Bolivians. who still cxcrciscd control ovcr the rerrirory."
T his assaul r w as " beforc rhe time of rhe inflllential acrion of Placido
de Castro" and resultcd in " rhe expendirure of scveral rhollsand ca r-
t r idges, rhe use of one cannon and one maehine gu n. :lIld the loss of
a few companions. O bliged ro rer reat, \ve nev ert he1css learned Jarer
thar. in addirion ro inflicting materi:ll damage, we had also k illed a
 Agricultural and Commercial Decelopment 245

campany commander and wounded a bigh-ranking officer. Among

my unforgctrable companions in this expcdition were my fellow
Pernambucans Trajano Chacn and Samucl Rios, as well as
Efi genio Sales, who later becamc a federal depury and govemor of
,
Amazonas. "
\Ve know from the gcograpbcr Elliott rhat che Acre Terrirory
was rhickly sown wirh rubber trees. It was in rrcpicallands such as
rhesc of che Amazon Basin rhar rhc He...ea negra could produce rhe
srrongcsr rubbcr, in contrast to the product of the " whire'' varice)',
which was weak, and rhc red, which coagulatcd badly. Ellion sa)'s
ir was rhc seedling of che wh itc variery which \Vickham had smug-
gled OUt of thc T apajs in 1876 for dc velopmenr in rhe Oriento
Inferior in qualiry ro the black rubber of Amazonas, rhis oriental
rubber was nevcrtheless dcvcloped so systcmarically by rhe Brirish
as to reduce rhe superior Brazilian varicry ro economic insignifi-
canee.'
Thc hero- -or, from rhe Brazilian viewpoinr, villain-of rhis eco-
nomic rape was Henry Alexander Wickham. Wickham was a son
of precursor of Lawrcncc of Arabia, an agcm for [he developmcnt
of Brirish intereses in tropical arcas. His fi rsr visir ro rhe Amazon
was as a scicnrist inrercsred in the tropical forcst. and espccially in
rhc ru bber trcc, which he saw growing in grear abundancc along
rhe Amazon, rhe Orinoco, and rhc Rio Negro. The rcsult o rhis
firsr difficulr expcdirion was his Rougb N otes of a [oumey
T brougb tbe Wildemess, publishcd in London in 1872 .
In 1876, \Vickham rcrumcd ro Brazil. This t ime, he wcn t up rhc
Tapajs [rom Sanrarm and in the coursc o his expcdirion col.
lecrcd sorne 7 0,000 sceds of H eces bresiliensis, which he trans-
poned in a rnulrirudc o boxes to Kew Gardens in London. There
che secds wcre succcssfully germi nated in grecnhouses and the re-
sulting sprouts transponed wirh loving care ro Ceylon. J ava,
Bur ma, and Singapore. Two thousand were planrcd in Ceylon
alone, and by 188 1 thcy had begun to fi ourish. Ir was a signa! vic-
to r), of scicntifi c rcchnique ovcr the noncha lance which characrer-
ized Brazilian pracrices in explcring its vasr richcs in ltex; practiccs
thar were withour method, wirhour planning, carricd on r nerely as
an insensirivc and insano advcn turc."
FJliott sratcs thar when the firsr ne'..s o \Vickham's triumph in
' 1.. 1:. f-:i lion : Rraul, "l"oda ] a"d T omorrow ( N ew York, (9 17), p. l~.
GThe w hoJe ~d "c nture is tre~red in ~n excellent ~tu dy by C. E. Ake rs: 1"be
Rubber InJut/ry in Bra:il and rbe Oriem (l.ondo n, 19 ". ) '
 arder and Progress

Ceylon reached Brazil, nobody would bclie ve rhat the Amazonian

ru bbc r ind usrry could he duplicared in the Oriento N evertheless.
legislarion was cffec red, and in a law of alrnost Byzamine com plica.
rions. rhe export ation of rubbcr seeds was probibired, along wirh
rhc cxpo rt ation o f rhc ouricuri nurs uscd in smok ing rhc l tex. Too
late. Bnrish asrurcncss bad dcalt a dearh blow ro rhe Amazon econ-
o01y.6
By rbe rurn of rbe centur)', rhc effecr of rhe Anglo-Orient al
com pcririon began ro be fclr. The 4 rons of crudo rubber produced
by rhc Easr in 19 00 beca me 145 in 190 5; 8,000 in 19 10; 28,0 00 in
1912 ; 7 1,0 00 in 19 14 ; near ly 107,000 in 19 15 ; and abour 150,000 in
19 16 . AI1 t bis from a sysrcmarically ordered planration of 1, 350,000
acres scanercd rhroug hour Cey lon, ,\ Ialaysia, Ind ia, Borneo, and
rhe D urch Easr lndies,"
Even so, unti l 191 0 there w as grcar reluctance on rhe pan of
large bu ycrs ro replace blac k A mazon rubber w ith thc new plan-
ration product of thc Easr. They were accustomcd to working wirh
rhe Brazi lian p rod. l1 cr an do bcsidcs, ir w as considcrab ly supe rior in
qualiry . Apparenrly only rhc excessive cosr of A mazon rubber, ro-
get her wir h th c larger margin of profir insisred on by irs producers.
torced manufacrurcrs to t urn ro t he plant ation varicry . An inc reas-
ing variety of prod ucrs-c-from tires ro rhe most delicare arricles of
medica l prophylaxis-c-were using rubber as a basic clcmenr, bur in-
srcad o f being beneficia! ro Brazil, this incrcasing industrial use fa-
vorcd lcwcr-priccd Brit ish ami Durch compctirion. Brazilians could
rake sorne sarisfacr ion, of course, in the fac t thar on the New York
rnarker " fi ne hard Par" w as selling at 75 cents a pound while ori-
ene al rubbcr broughr only 65 cc nts. Bur rhis t ribute to quality was
of hrtle value in the face of rhc grearer quantities and smaller
marku p of rhc Eastcm rnerchanrs.

6 Elliort : "p. cir., p. [89, .\ so see Akers : o p. cit.

T See Do cumento s Pa ramenrares, Po/ riciJ Eco nomiCiJ . y,,/orr.,df .io J o C" fi (1896-
1.906) ( Rio d e j aneiro. 19' 5), p an icularly rhe pa rliamenl ary report of the rep-
resentatiw I eom R io Gran de do X orte, n M de S<.l US;I. T his rep<lrt was larer pub-
li,hed under ,he ride A CriJe d" Borril chil (T be R" bbrr Crisis ) ( R io de ] and ro,
[9Q) . See also ]. C. ." acedo Sones, A Borracbe-s-Euuda Econ mico e En.ust co
(P ari., [917 ) ; C. F.. Akcrs: R eJatclrio sobre o V a/e Jo A ma zones ( R io de ]aneiro,
' 9[Jl; Rub brr Producton in tbe A m.Tzo n Y.TI/ey (Publicarion N o. J, Unired
Stales Dcpart mcnl o f COlll nlCrcc. \ \ 'ash ingto n. D .C.. 19'5 ); ]o< ] obim : H istoria
das lnd,strias no Br.Tsi/ (R io de ] aneiro. 19+0 ) ; Artur E . M. T orres: E:rpanriio
S con mica do Brasil ( Rio de Ja nciro. IQH ); D urval Bastos de .\ ten~s : A .\fargem
JiJ BorriJ cba ( Rio de ]aneiro, lQ4 j); and \ \ 'illard Peice T be Amazfng A m aum
(N ew York. '950 ) .
 Agr cuitural and Connnercal Deoeopment 247

Tbc srory is lucidly rold [rom a Hrazilian point of view by Eli

de Sousa in his A Crise da HOrr.1Ch,J (Tbe Rubber Crisis). publishcd
in Rio de Janeiro in 1913 . For Ellion "rhcrc is perbaps no hener
prescnration of rhc subjccr" rhan rhar of rhc rhcn federal depury
from Rio Grande do N orte. ElIiott agreed with t hc Brazilian parlia-
mcnrarian in considering thc Amazon rubber indusrrv an "eco-
nomie paradox'' which creatcd millions in wcalth wirhour cmplov-
ing evcn rhe smallest port ian of rhis afflucncc ro achicve sysremaric
improvemenrs in thc regin irsclf. Nor C\'CIl in cstablishing a goo d
hotel. hc adds rucfully.
Neverthclcss. it was during rhis pcriod rhar consrruction was
begun on rhc .\IaJ eira-,\1 amor railroad, a projccr which in irs early
stages COS[ many lives. Also ar rhis time attempts at urban improve-
mcms were bcing madc in Xlanaus and Bcl rn, t hose of th e latre r,
under rhe leadership of Mayor Ant nio LCI1los. being particularly
impo rranr. Hoth rhe consrruction of rhe railroad and rhc improve-
menrs carried Out in norrhern cities had their effect on the Brazilian
sccnc as a whole. Osvaldo Cruz, called ro rhc Amazon during
rbe
consrruction of rhe railroad. produced a notable repon esrablishing
rhe nced for general prcphylaxia againsr hookworm. dysen rery,
beriberi. and the trop ical pneumonia brought about by sudden
changes in temperature. In addition ro his recommendarions for t hc
control of these standard tropical diseases. he aIso advocated an agri-
cultural program whi ch would give rhc region thc fresh vegeta-
bles nce dcd te form a balanced and healt hful dicto\Vith all the opu-
lenr grcwrh of H C'I.'ea brasii ensis, rhe region passcd rhrough the
enrirc rubbcr boom wirhour cvcr atrcmptn g to grow the food
products neeessary to human health. In 19 15. Par . Amazonas. and
Acre were still impornng bcans, rice. sugar, dned beef salt codo
animals for slaughrer, and canncd goods in such quantiries and at
such fa ntastically high prices thar (me would have thought rhe re-
gion urterly barren and roral ly incapablc of producing for irs own
needs.
Al rhc samc time it bccerne apparem rhar rbc exploiration of rub-
ber was being realized in some places only through the often cruel
oppression of the narive popula[ion. Ir is shamef ul ro have to notc.
in aH objecrivity. that during this period whcn so man)' mcn of
"arJ enr liberal temperamenr" were seduced by rhe romancc oC the
Amazon. not one showed the daring to penetrate the tropical forest
and observe t he drama of the rubher plantations in 0111 its minutiae as
Euclydes da Cunha had done in the case of rhe Bralian backlands.
 arder 411d Progress

Such an observcr could have presenred a mosr inreresring documcn-

ration of tbe cxplcitation of native labor on the pan of profit-
hung ry w hires and gi ven a dcfin itive accounr of the terrible strugglc
ro construcr the Madeira-Xlamcr railroad. But except for Eoclydcs
himsclf or Firmo Dutra, Alben Rangel. or a few wriecrs of the
days before the rubber hoom such as Ingles de Soasa (O Jiis
sion rio v or J os V erissirno ( A Pesca na A 1J1JzOl1iJ), nene among
rhosc migrant Brazilians bad [he literary ralcnt 10 w rite even a pam.
phler or a brief joum alisric accounr o rhe sutferings of thc nativo
population.
T o awaken European sensibilities 10 this siruation (whicb was
common to rhc enrire Amazon Basin and w -as nor exclusively Brazil-
ian}, it was necessary for a romanric Irishman, l lcr Britannic ~I a i
esty's Consul in Rio de [ anciro, to prod uce a v i~o ro llS repon in
English, a repon which. while vehcmenr. was also well documenred
after carefu\ researeh in rh e arca. 1lis name was Roger Casemcnt,
and he revealed himself as ene of tbose rare Europeans wh o could
summon up [he courage ro dcnounce rhe cruelries perperrared by a
so-called "cvilized" socicry againsr rhose generally designatcd as
"savagcs." Bis book on the situarion in Brazil and Pero rakes its
place alongside Os Sen es of Euclydes or CJlIJ: o GUija Aranha
as a critical nccount of a mejor crhno-culrural conf licr. True, the
work was that of a European diplomar in rhe service of his country
anJ not of an lndo-Larin wrirer closer [O [he subjecr and having
more [rcedom of cxprcssion, but ir was rhe first of irs kind."
It is a pity thar Euc lydes da Cunha had nor anriciparcd Sir Rogcr
by wriring an Amazonian cquivalcnt of Os Sert es, rbereby regs-
rcring SOIll C spccies of Hrazilian concem for the drama-c-ene might
evcn sa)' rragcdy-c-which was bcing playcd out in the regin.
Dcspire rhc temporal)' prestigc it afforded thc Brazilian econ-
omy, the rubbcr boom did nor begin ro be as imporrant, eitbcr eco-
nomically or culrurally. as rbosc in sugar and coffec. Nevcrtbeless.
ir served for a time ro awakcn narional awareness of the extreme
nonh ami ro bring abour a ....ogue of Amazonisms of all kinds. Visi-
tors 10 thc region brought back a [aste for such dclicacies as duck
w ith tu cupi sauce, turde soup, Brazil nuts, afai, guJrJnoi, copuaf u,

H Un fun unau:ly Ca","'cm ,,,on afl cr..-ar kcamc a " oluriou, Initor 10 Ihe go'"-
cr nmcnl he was serving un Ihis .'Ceasio n. Com'ieted o an act of e' pinna:tc in
fa"ur of che G c rman Em pirc, hl' wu COn<!cmned 10 dc"h and cxccuted by the
Brilish gOH rnrncnl,
 Agricuimral and Commercial Development 249

puxur . ground-c herry roors: for a huge varicry of aromaric. medic-

inal, aphrodisiac. prophylacric. or dccorarive planes. and for exotic
woods fr om Par. for ludian hammocks, and Panam hars (which
Brazilians call cbap us de Chile or Chilean hats) . 111e Panam hat
be camc exrrcmely popular ar rhc time wirh Hrazilians anxious ro aJ d
a narive touc h ro tbeir Europcan elegancc, ir madc a happy combi-
narion wirh rhc English froek coa r, the high.laced American shocs,
and the Doucet silk ries currcn rly spo rrcd by rhe fashionable male.
Pinheiro Al achado. a /{atcho as famous for his elegancc as for his
image as virile ami romaneic lcadcr. madc t he whirc Panama almosr
hrurgically de r gueur for use on ho rseback . and no land holder or
public fi gure would have bcen withour one. They also madc the
mese app rcciatcd gifts. and the bc sr on es werc so light and fi ne they
could be placed in a rissuc-paper cnvclope . Women from the nort h
were broughr tu various parts of [he cOllntry ro tcac h thc fi ne arr of
wcaving this dclicar e hcadwcar, bu e rhei r effo rrs wcre in vain : [he
fabricanon of a Panam har preved ro he a profoundly ceologiea l
process, unrcachablc ro rhosc ourside rbc rradinon.
Whirc F nglish-typc jackers from Par also becamc fashionablc ar
rhe time ami we re sold in all p:lftS of t he count ry, as were rhc fa-
1Il0US Brezil nurs (cestanbas de r ur ), canned swectrneats made of
tropical fruirs, and even tamc snakes for household use as rar carcb-
ers. Ar rhe same rime rhere was a hoom in nonhern medicinal hcrbs,
and rhc newspapers would be fil lcd wirh advcrrisements such as
rhesc from the Rio de J aneiro Toy upra of ' 909 : "Brazilian vegera-
ble tonic, a pure vcgcrable produce for syphilis and skin discascs.
Conrains rhc active ingrcdienes of the most prccious purifying
planes ro be found in rhe majcsry and ahundance of Hrazilian fl ori-
cultu re," Thcsc planrs bo re such cxoric narnes as azogue-dos-
pobres, veieme-do-campo, sucupira. nranac; and iunca. The ma nu-
facrurer of rhis magie elixir was Silva Arajo & O). , who had ro
compete wirh such foreign producrs, also advcrtiscd in the T al u-
pira, as "Pilu1cs Cronicr, L'Iodure de Fer er de Q uinine," or "D r.
Churehill's Limc Phosphatc Syrup for tuhercu losis, anemia, neUT:lS-
thenia, rickcts, cough, bronehitis. and gener al weakness," ro "Q uina-
Laroche, for stomach diseases, fever, lack of strem,Jt , h." 9 O f the
Amazonian KIl<lr all, Lus Pereira Barrcto states; ",' 1ctchnikoff
9 Alm..nllqU<' Br.Jildro G.Jrn jer (Rin de janeiro, 1909). Sce also Rel..t6rio Jo
Delegad o Engenheiro f oo A lbert o .u.Jsso sobre o G II.Jrtn,i e Su.os f' ropried.JJes
(Rio de Janeiro. IQ ' l ) , p. ' o.
15 a rder and Progress
kncw l{1I.lTil11 only as a uscful rcmedy fcr infanr diarrhca." H ad
th c Russian scienrisr, celebrared Ior his srudies of old age. k nown of
rhc full propc rries of rhe plant he wcu ld havc recommended ir in-
srcad o yogun as a mcans of presc rving and prolunging life. " lf
rOl! are wisc. you'Il follow rny advicc and adopr rhe Indian
merhod." conclu des Ba rrero.
AH in all, thcn, a vasr number of Bahians and nonhcasrerncrs le ft
home ro scek t hcir fortuncs in orhcr parts of rhc cou mry. sorne
marrying inrc rhc w hire arisrocracy. orhers taking wivcs o African
U f ln dian blondoand nearly all managing ro improvc t heir ccon omic
condir ion rhrou gh success in bu siness or rhe profcssions. Sorne
lcarned from thcir con ract wirh forcigners. jofio d'Albuquerque
,\ 1aranhao (whosc youehfulAmazon adventure has alrcady heen
dcsc ribed ) rccalls his larer days in Rio G rande do Sul, where " 1 had
rhc opporruniry ro sce the superior cffecrivcness in comrncrce and
industry of Braxilians of G erman or lralian originoThey kncw how
ro read. writc.Iivc and eat prc perly. and many of rhcrn had training
in cconomics.' This w as in sha rp cont rast ro what he h ad sec o in
rhc norr h. parricularly 0 0 onc erip ro rhc rerrirory of Acre ncar rhe
Peruvian bo rder: "Ir was almosr a descrt, alrhough rhere wc re
signs o f incipicnr life in Sena Ma d ureira. a to wn founded by Si-
qucira de .\I enescs and airead)' posscssing mail, telegraph, and
srrcctcar serviccs, as well as newspapers, clubs, ami a rhcarrc." Ile
spem rhree years on t he bordcr, where he had bccn scnt by Pandi
Calgeras ro ser up a cusroms ageoc}' at th e mout h of thc Santa
Rosa Rivcr. "1 managcd ro put up wirh rhe dcscrr . . . Euclydes
da Cunha had also bc en here when he headed a commission re de-
termine the boundaries berwcen Peru and Hrazil resulring in rbe
rre:tty of November, 1903 . Ir was as a resulr of rhis rhar he wrcte
his Famous A ,l1arge7ll da H ist ria. , ." T hc rrear}' addcd "rerri-
rory more exrensivc rhan that of an)' one of rhc srarcs of Cear . Rio
G rande do N ene. Paraiba, Pernambuco, Alagoas. Sergipc, Espirito
Santo, Rio de j anciro, or Santa Cetarina," and prod uccd an annual
income "grcarer than th ar of any onc of half rhe su res of rhe
U nion." Ir was dllring his sral' in rhis newl)' acqu ired rerritor),
rhar )oao d'Albuquerque l\ laran hi o made contraet wirh rhe semi.
eivilized tt ibes of Colina and T uearina. members of wnom "visired
me ro obtain an icles oC domestic use in rerurn for xerimbabos, a
spccies of ramed jung le animal. These Indians were peaceful by na-
tu re and wou ld come oCten [() garher t un le eggs from rhe shores oC
 Agricttltural and Connnercat Developmcnt 251

rhc Purus R iver.' Bur apparcnt ly ncit hcr rhcv nor rhc civilizcd
whites of rhc extreme norrh had rhc " rraining in econornics" which
caused rhe Germans and lral ians of rhe south ro play such a dynamic
role in rhc modcrnizarion of the narional cconcmy .
1'0 return ro thc more progressivc sourh of joo d'Albuq uerquc
;\ Iaranho's post-Amazon days. rbc real' 19 15 markcd a signal vic-
tory for ene of Rio G rande do Sul's mosr rradirional industries, an
indusrry which far preceded rhc wavc of Gcrman and ltalian immi-
grarion and hall cxisrcd, in facr, as long as Brazil was Brazil. This
-
was, of coursc. rhe ra isin ~ of hecf carric. Frorn che carlicsr rimes,
Brazilians hall considcrcd dried bccf a sra pie of rheir cveryday diet
and an indispensable ingrcdicnr ro rhc nario nal dish. thc feij o.1d.1.
BU ir srill secmcd fanrasric ro rnosr Brazilians when in 19 15 rhc
French govcrnmcnr ord cred largc quanriries of this commodty for
rheir arm ies engaged in rhe Firs r World War. The ordcr carne onl y
one real' afrcr rhe Brazilian mcar-packin g industry bcgan ro adopr
modero pracrices wirh thc installation in Sao Paulo of rhc country's
first mear refrigcrarion planr. From this rime on, Brazilian mear
prcducts. bo rh dricd and frozen, bcgan ro assume importance in the
European marker, and rhcre wcrc sorne who saw in this devclop-
menr a possible compcnsarion for rhe disasrer which had ovcrtaken
Hevea brasiliensie. In 1916, rhc encou raging total of 29,000 rons of
frozcn mear was exportcd. wirh an cqually cncouraging rise in rhc
sale of dried becf from rhc sourh ami norrb east. 1'0 make rhe pie-
rurc still happier. rhc industry was creared. nor by foreign capital.
bur entircly by Brazilian iniriarive. as in thc case of rhe Companhia
Frigorfico e Pastoril de Sao Paulo, prcsided over by a genuine
Paulista of ludian blood, Antonio da Silva Prado. In N ovembcr,
' 9 14 this company, as an expcrimcnt, shippcd th e firsr ton of frozcn
becf from Brezil ro England. Thc attem pt was a success and was
followed by a second shipmcnr of -+,360 tons, a rhird of ovcr 1,000
to Iraly, and a fourrh of abo ut rhc same sizc t O rhc Unired Srares.
Encouraged by this Brazilian succcss. rhe Chicago fi nn of Sulz-
berger, in conjun ction wirh rhe Brazilian Farquhar group, insralled
a new refrigeraring planr in ()sasco, a suburb of Sao Paulo.1
Ar rhe same time, Brnilian experimenrs with Par grass esrab-
lished a better rype of forage for rropical bcef carric. In rhis case jr
was not T exan or Argemin ian experiencc which was caBed in, hur
rarher a Brazilian cominu:uion of the Portugucse merhod of learn-
1 Ellion ; op. d I .. pp. l o<rl O. 1 1 1 .
 arder and Progress

iog from thc tropical popularion how bcsr ro adape to local condi-
tions. lt was in this same spirir rhat similar experirnents were made
in canle breeding, pamcularly in the crossing of the Indian Xellore
breed with local stock tu creare a mixed trpe, in the form of rhe
zehu, highly adaptable ro tropical Brazil. These experimenrs, which
wcrc particularlv succcssfu l in ,\ tinas G erais and had much ro do
wirh making the ;\ lineiro T riangle one of rhc most irn portant re-
gions in tb e Brazilian economy. wcre also ver)' significanr in en-
cou raging a regional approach tu Brazilian cconomic problems.
T hough ir was possible ro impon Europcan breeds of ca nle-c-
Dcvon, H crcford, Flamengo. Durham, Jersey-for Paran and Rio
G rande do Sul, ir was heginning to be understood rhar for rhe
warmcr pans of thc count ry a stronger typ e of animal was nccdcd,
une which could resisr nor only rhc intenscly tropical climare, but
also the insccr pests and discascs peculiar tu such regions. For this
rcason Brazilians. disrega rding the wamings of American expenso
dcveloped t hc careen brced and preved, in the words o one Eng-
lish writer, rhar spccificallv Braxilian problcms in can le ra ising we re
"nor ro be sclvcd by applying [the ] experience of T exas or Argen-
Tina." 2
Anot her rout ine aspecr of rhe cartle ndust ry during this period
was the exportarion of hides ro rhe U nired Srares. This acrivity
madc a fortune for rhc YOllng Dclrniro G ouvcia. who larer ca rried
his industrial daring, as we shall scc. into a vasr pro jcct of regional
rehabiliration by harnessing rbe energy creared by the cararacrs of
Paula Afonso.
At rhis time. Brazl alsc be gan tu gain prcsrigc in foreign corten
markers. although the producrs of rhc no rthcast. such as rhe "toc
of Cear and Paraba and rhc Scrid of Rio Grande do Norte, srill
lackcd t he srandardizarion oecessary for effective comperirion with
cotton from orher narions. Brazilian textiles werc also developing
and formc d an ourlct for thc cotron prod uced in Pernambuco and
Parafba.
Still anorhcr dcveloping indusrry was rhar of mat (Paraguay
tea). thanks ro rhc energetic effo rts made rhroughout rhe country
by onc of rhc sons of Silva Jardim. So grear was rhc incrcasc in
Brazilian consumprion of this producr rhat the powerful Com-
panhia ,\ Iat Laranjeira of ,\ Iato G rosso \Vas forced to discontioue
2 }. O. P. Bbnd : .\len, J fd.m ers, d'ld Mora/s in Sm.tb AmtTiCd (London, 19' 0) ,
p. 8, .
 Agricultural and Connnercial Decetopm em 1 53

irs exports to Argentina in ordc r 10 supply rhe dcmands of thc local

rnark er.
Thc producrion of cocea. tobucco, corn, rice, and bcans was not
ancnded by rhc polirical. social, or cultural changes noted in rhe
rubbe r, sugar, corren. coffee. or hccf canle industries. N cvenhelcss
rhcsc produces, hard hit cconcmically by rhc abolirion o slavery,
had to srruggle for t hcir economic exisrence under thc new order.
Thc sugar indusrry. on rhe orher hand. was able ro sorne degrec ro
compcnsatc for rhc loss of irs forcign mnrkers by dcveloping thc
manufactu re of swcer foods for narional consumprion. T his devel-
opmem will be smdicd in gtcarer dcrail in rhc next chaprcr. Here ir
is ooly ncces.~a ry ro cmphasize rhar wirh thc Repuhlic thc economic
life of certain regions of Brazil continued to impinge strongly upoo
the forrunes-c-or misforruncs-c-of rhc sugar r narker, jusr as ir had
from rhc earliesr days of rhe Empirc, alrhough rhe political infju-
ences cxerted by rhis indusrry were somcwhat lessened. Neverthc -
less, in rhc early days of rbc Republic, ir was srill nccessar)' ro main-
rain a polirical equilibrium bcrween rhe cotfee and sugar inreresrs,
an acrivity in which Captain-Doctor Alexandre Jos Barbo sa Lima,
g{)\'crnor of rhe statc of Pernambuco. was parricularly assiduous.
Barbosa Lima, following thc prcvious example o [he Baron de Lu-
cena, underrook en rcsrorc the presrigc of sugar by an extensivo
modernization of rhc industry. T he anempr was only part ly suc-
cessful. howcver. and rhc rcgion never managed ro rcgain evcn half
irs former eminencc, whcn mosr uf rhe poliricallcaders of the early
Empire had come from rhc canc fields of rhc north. Thc ncw order
cante from rhe south, by rhc lasr decades of rhc Empire, ir was
cotice thar was king.
lo 1 Ho, on rhc eve of abolirion. Brazil had exporte d 3 ruillion
sacks of coffe c. by thc end of tbe century. despite the shifr from
slave to frce labor, this figure hall risen ro 10 rnillion. It must be
norcd. however, rha[ rhc changc from Xcg:ro to free Italian labor
could be cffcetcd only through rhe inrervenrion of thc stare, whieh
instituted an Agricultural Protecti\'e System (Patrollato Agrcola,
in Porruguesc; note [he prcscrvatioll of rhe Imperial parernalistic
principie io [his designarioo) ro guard rhe ocw Iaborcrs frorn rhe
greed of rhcir cll1ployers. This was perhaps the fi rsr insrancc unller
thc Republic of the dircct intencntion on rhc part of a state in
economic affa irs of national imporrancc. Through thc Patronato
Ag rcola, thc stare :m elIl pred ro cnd rhc laissez faire of the first
 a rder and Progress

disordered years of rhe Repub fic , whcn landboldcrs werc rcraining

a11 rhe vices, and none of the virrucs, of {he old parem alisric slavc
system.
Srarc inrervention was also a factor in t he so- called " V alorizarion
Plan." an attempr ro systemarize rhe resources of rhc nation, espe-
cially in rhc producrion of coffee. This plan was vchcmcnrlv JC 4

bared in a11 quarters, bur was imirarcd in severa] orhcr countries

and , al! in all, consrirurcd one of Braxil's r nost notable conrribu rions
ro world economic progress, having pnrri cularly disringuisbed ir
sclf in rhc eres of one foreign c bservcr ( Ellion), rhrough "rhe
merit of boldness." 3 By rhc re rms of rhe Taubar Agreemem, Bra-
zilian coffee prod ucers werc prohibited from sclling the ir produce
for less than tbc fi xcd pricc and from cxpo rring be ans of anr grade
bclow 7. Thcy wcre required ro prom(l{c foreign sales by advcnis-
ing abroad, ro collecr a surt ax 00 every (ag exponed. and ro limit
prod ucrion on their plantarions. Thc surtax would remaio in the
hands of rhc fe deral govcrnrnent. where ir would be uscd ro
amorti7e t he cosr of establishing rhc Frnission md Co nversi n
Hank. w hic h handlcd thc financie! aspects of the plan!
Thc full economic w cig hr of rhis plan. one almosr fanrasrically
advcnrurous fa r its rime. fell ar fi rst on the shoulders uf rhe state of
Sao Paulo. alrhough larer rhe federal government also rook up its
share of rhe burden . Abroad, financia ! Sllpport was obraincd, not
from French or A nglo-Saxon intercsrs. which were [00 conserva-
eivc ro approve of st atc intervcntion in matrcrs of this k ind, bur
rat hcr from rhc Germans who, rhrough the Brasil ianische Bank fr
Dcutscbland, furnished a prc1 iminary loan of L I million ro the
underraking. Ir wns only after obta in ing the G enna n funds rhar
such finos as J. l icor)' Sch roc dcr & Ce. of London and, larcr, rhe
Nacional Ciry Bank of Ne w York werc w illing ro subscribe rhc
adirional [, 3 million necessary for acquiring and warchousing
coffec undcr thc tcrms of rhc plan. In 1907 thc Brazilian federal
government gave furrher sup port by buying up coffee of inferior
grades and by obraining from Roehschild of London an additional
loan of L 1 million for rhe rcdemption of co ffee consigned to
commissioners. Th is sum was later duplicated ro enable rhe srate of

3 Elliott : "p . Cil ., p. " .

~ s.,c Do clnm'1ltr)/ P" . /amentaTN , Po/tk" E COIun niea . . . See 31m " n nci'lC"o
Ferrein R31110S: L, Q1Ii!Jfjo n J I' {, Va/or isJtio n J II Caf all Brhjl ( Anvers, ",007) ;
Am3ro C3' 3lc3nt i: A V jJ, Eeono micJ e fi n, ncei." J o BrJtil (R lo ,J I' J m eiro ,
' 9 '5) . ao,J Af o" "', CO; l3: Q " eStOes ECMU;",;CM ( Rio de J30" ;I"{}, ' 9 , 8).
 Agricultura' and Connnercial Dcce opment 255

So Paulo ro lcasc thc Sorocabana Railway from rhe syndicare di-

rccred by rhe American promorer Perciva l Farqub ar."
Ir is necessary ro emphasizc thar rhc co ffec indusrry. which
rcach cd irs peak of inte m ational impo rrance during t his penod. wa s
a ccmplerely Hrazilian developruent, as had bcen the cultivatjon of
sugar, corten. mat, becf carric, and-e-ro a ccrtain poinr-c-rubber. 1
stress th is not out of simple par riceism, but r arhe r rhc nccessity ro
emphasizc thc capaciry of [he Brazi lian for economic accivirics-c-
agraria. industrial, and conuncrcial-c-borh int ra- and ext ra-politi -
cal and dcspirc rhe tradicion al rnvstiquc of rhe fid'llgo (thc belicf
rh ar, in addi ric n ro Iandholding, t hc only occ upanons worthy of a
ge ntlem an of qualiry wcrc rhosc of judgc, milira ry officcr, co llege
profcssor. doctor. lawv cr, or civil scrvanr). Evcn after rhc forma-
tion of thc Brazilian \ Varrant Com pany , predcc cssor of t hc Silo
Paulc Purc C otee Companv, wirb hcadquarrcrs in London and
branchcs in Santos and Rio de j aneiro. a considerable majori ty of
coffee exporters conrinued ro hc Brazilians. As Ellion pUf it :
"Coffcc is not onc of rhc businesscs which the Sou th Am erican
lcaves for rhe forcigner." o (T hc sarnc could have been said of
sugar.) And sincc coffee at rbis period constitutcd almcsr half thc
counrry's tota l expo n , it is easy ro undcrstand t har thc industry in
all irs phascs-c-commercial as wel l as agricultura ! and indusrrial-c-ar-
tained considerable soc ial prcsrigc and rhar irs promotion in orhcr
coum rics bccame an act o patriot ismo
Ir was not only in promotion o cotfee or rubbcr or mat rhar
Brazil was rnaking great publicity effc rts at this titile; thcre was also
a good deal of propaganda of a parrioric nature bcing disseminarcd
in Europe and the U nited Starcs. T hc Ba ron do Rio Branco preved
tu be a master in thc crcation of thc mystique of thc Brazilian
"genios." "culture," or "civiiizarion," a mysriqnc which was given
~ Farquhar is an inteTe'>"ting figure wh o frum rbc bcg inn ing uf the twcm ieth cen-
tu r), was d....ply implic aled in the ecunom ic p l't>gre~ uf Rrn il. Born in rhe U nired
Starcs uf a respe ctab le religiuu, famil}", he heeame an arden t d umpiun uf Brazil,
fo ce'leeinS a rnagnifice n r fm ure fu r Ihe co ulltry wh ich Sre w tu he more h is uWIl
lhan lhe b nd uf h~ binh, O lher Ame rican m l husiasls fro lll b le Imperial ti mes
werc the s eul" g il.rs Jo hn Caspcr Bran ner md O n 'ill e D crby. The !alter, whu he-
carne a naturalil.ed Hru ilian cil il en , wa, a friend and ~' uH al-"'rat{)r uf Fu d ~'d e' d a
Cunha and wur ked un seH ral " ulumes uf Hral ilian hiMury and geugra phy. Aft er a
life uf grcal imc l!eclual and eeo nmnic \" alue ll> Ilra l, Dcrby cununittc d suic ide a,
the result uf a scan dal (eau.ed b y the ilIc un'idcrcd, pcrhaps rncrely jcsring te-
marks uf his superior oflicer, lhe powerfu l and illustrio us but foul-llIuuthed ~Iin_
isler of Agricultun:, Jos BClcrra ).
d Ellioll : " l" cit., p. 179.
 a rder and Progress

urrbcr c rede nce by rhc im pacr of R uy Barbcsa at T he 1la gue

Peace Co nfcrcnce in '97. O r one co uld cite rh c counrry's attempt
ro share in thc g rear populanry at taincd in F ranc c by A lberto Santos
D ur no nt. And during rbe presidency of Rodri gues Alves. proba bly
undcr t hc guiding hand of Fo reign Minister Rio Branco. t here was
considerable r ctnne ovcr rhc achicvcm cnts of Osv aldo Cruz in rhe
fight against yellow fcvcr. of .\ Iay or Pereira Passos in the modera -
izing ami bca unfication of thc nat ion's capital, of Ficld Marsh al
H ermes da Fonscc a in rhe reo rpanixarion of rhe Army, an d of Ad-
mi ral Alexandnno de Alcncar in rhe improvcmcru of t he N avy an d
particularly t he acquisirion of rhc famous drcadnoug hr ,\fin s
. ,
Gr erns .
In t his campaigo for prestige rhc N egro was considered a " blot
00 the narional civilizarion." nnd was a sourcc of great shame ro
A ryanisrs and rac ial pu rists of rhe rime . Ir was feh in rhcsc 'luaners
thar only rhro ugh g reat waves of whire Europcan immigrants e ould
Brazil develcp a modern economy an d a m odern c iviliz ation and
culture. lo addition ro iovigorating the ec onomic life o f rhc coun-
rry. rh csc immigranrs would hopefully also d ischargc a en genic mis-
sie n. rhar of "Ary an izing" rbc c ouotry through rhe abso rprion of
thc Negro, prod ucing lighrer-skinned c hildren whose ap pearance
and fearurcs w ou ld c ar ry sorne disringuisbable rcscm blance ro rheir
G erm n, lra han, Spanish. or Portugucsc parent . In this way the offi-
cial propaga nda would be susrained, pro paganda which in Europe
prescnrcd Brazil as a "greer Larin narion" o r as a " new European
civilizanon,' complete wirh photographs of whire-or apparenrly
white-c-cirizens. European-srylc avenucs, ncoclassical theaercs, and
elegant Norman toe-n ho uses.
T he grearesr ho pcs wcre placcd in rh e Italians. O f al! rhe new
imruigrants. rhey werc rhe rnost wantcd, rhc rnost imirared. and re-
ccivcd rhc higbcst praise. T hey were not rude like the Germans.
nor wcrc they rhc count ry bumpkins who furnished so rnuch m ate -
rial for Ponuguesc. G alicia n, o r Spanish jokcs. Thcy were inrelli-
gent. ad aptable. fricndly. Jikablc, ami rhey workcd very hard . Tbey
werc no t clanmsh, bur rathcr mixe d happily wir h Brazilians at r eli-
gious festl vals and during Carnaval. They quiek ly learn ed to sing
B ra;~il i an songs along w ith [heir tra ditional operatic tunes. They
\Verc of g reat valllC ro the cc onomy. ro the material p rogrcss of the
T lt was aboard Ihis !>'I me drca dnought in ' ') 10 tha! a :s'egro seama n, Joao Gn-
dido, ted a re,olt again'it the shil's offiecrs and, involuntarily, .lid mueh to eo untcr-
aet prc \"iously fno l'2blc impressions of Ihe Bn zilian Nny.
 Agrculmral and Commcrcia Dcveiopment 257

counrry. and ro rhe rransirion from slavc ro free labor, and at rhe
samc rime helpful in rhc " Aryanizarion'' of rhc population, for th ey
we rc nor lacking in a raste fo r darker-skinncd women. And sincc, in
thc eyes of m ost Braz.ilians, ir was not possiblc for rhc country ro
achicve greatnes"i wirhou r this "Aryanization," rhe role of rhc lral-
ians in Braxilian society bcgan ro assume almcst mcssianic proror-
tions. Accordi ng ro rhe patriors, if Negrees continued ro prepoll4
dcrare in rhe working class, ir would arpear as rhough slavcry srill
cxisred , if Pcnuguesc and Galicians alone wcre brought over, the
cultural and inrellig cncc leve ! would nor be improved. T hc Gcr-
rnans would nor quick ly bring abour rhis dcsircd "Aryen izarion"
bccause of thcir tcndency ro Iivc apan rom rbc Braxilians. Reac-
ticn ro rhc japanese was mixed, bur in an)' case rheir part was at rhc
time insignificant; ir was nor until the ' 9 zo's rhar rhis group began
ro come to Brazil in any grcar numbcrs.
\Vh en, in a lccrurc dclivcrcd in Buenos Aires toward the cnd of
rhis pcriod. Ruy Berbosa dcclarcd rhat Brazilians werc descendams
of Larins and nor of Guaranis. he was simply rrying te ger rhc Ar-
gcntines to Inok upon his countrymen as nco-Eurc pcans. He was
no doubt exaggcrating bur he revealed a state of wish ful thinking
common ro many Brazilians of rhc time, llaving performcd thc ap-
parent mi racle of replacing slave labor withcur disrupring rhe eco-
nomic ordcr, rhc ltalians wculd alsc reinforce thc Latin clcmcm of
-
(he culture. From IBlO through 19'4, 10361.266 ltalians had come
ro Brazil; by the end of 1915, rhar figu re cxcccded 2 million, form-
ing a graup which surpasscd all orhcr European narionaliries for thc
periodonot only in numbers bur also in cultural and economic value
ro Brazil.
Thcse c rher groups-apan from rhc G alicians and Spamsb. who
were diff iculr to conside r as foreigners-were rhe Russians and
Peles in Paran, more Russians in Nova Odessa in rhe state of Sao
Paulo, Austrians, T urks, Syrians. Lebancse, jcws, French, English.
Swiss, Swedcs. ja pancsc. and Germans throughout the sour h. The
rnost import3nr of these \vere rhe Gemla ns, who began cOllling to
Rio G rande do Sul as cari), as 1826. In , 847, others settled in
Es priro Santo, and afrer 1849 there was a continuOlls and vigorous
influ x of Gemlans ro Santa C1tarina. Afre r IBp Gennan immigra-
tion also extended ro .\tinas Gerais.
Ir is no exaggeration ro sal' that. before the settlemenr of Ger4
mans in southem Brazil, this arca had been a poO l' Telation wirhin
the essentially tro pical Brazilian economy. Elliott points out that
258 Grder ond Progress

" rhc South anracrcd [cw Brazilians," possibly bccausc of rhe prcf-
crcnce Ior t hc tropics whi ch scems always ro havo cha rac rerized rhe
Spanish and Porrugucse colon isrs and ex plorers. But he docs rccog-
nize rhar ir was rhc Bandeiranrcs who prcvcn tcd rhcsc lcss t ropical
lands of sourhcm Hrazil from fa lling mtn rhc hands o rhc Spanish
scrrlcrs of rhc R o de la Plata and who brought Portugucse card e ro
rhc region and cnccuraged Azorcan serrlcrs tu live in st rategic eco-
nomic and rnilirary poin ts rbrou ghour rhe arca."
Thcrc is no dcnying rhat rhcse Europcen immig ram s conrributed
grcarly 10 t hc dcvclopmcnt of rhc sou rh. parricularly in such rowns
as Blumcnau (Santa Cararina ). T efilo O roni and Visconde de
Bacpcndi ( Minas G erais), and V crguciro (Sao Paulo) . T hc lasr is
ass ociarcd wirh t he svste m of sharecropping uscd on rhe coffec plan -
t ations. a sYStclll praise d by J. L. .\ tor in bis Le BrsiJ ( 1852 ) hu t
sharply c riricizcd by othcr studcnts of rhe subjccr. A similar systc m
was later artcrn prcd by a grou p of F rcnc b Fou ricrists in Sama Cata-
rina, bur thc only socialisr colony in the nin crecnrh century w as one
Fou ndcd at the end of t hc pe riod nea r Cllririba by a grollp o R us-
sians and Gcrmans who acted as though t hev had arrivcd from the
moon, raking no accounr wharevcr of the cliruate, or of rhe pcliti-
cal. soci al, or cultural aspee ts of Brazil. They insisred Oll culrivaeinp
thc subrropical ficlds of Paran as though they were steppes an do
living undcr a comnumisr systelll. kcpt rhc local policc bu sy sctrling
rhcir inter cummunal disputes. .\t oSt of thc group evenrually re-
rurned ro Europe, rhosc who remaincd adaprcd themsclves to local
con dirions and hccamc uscful cinzcns, dcvcring the msclvcs ro rrans-
porration and ro t he cu lrivarion of grains aml mt,
A lr nosr as unprcpa rcd for Hrazilian condirions wcre rhc sourhcm
Am ericans whn le r rheir count ry after rhc vicrorv of t he Union
Army in the Civil War. Arriving in 186 . sorne scttled in Santa
Brbara and larer in Vila A mericana in Sao Paulo, whilc others
we m to rhe Ama7.on. where [he more adaptable ones cffecti\'cly
"wem nat ive." A few attempted to set tle in Pernambu co but failed
completcly . A pparem ly expcct ing ro encounter ideal conditions for
rhe com inuat ion of their former Jivcs as gem lemcll farm ers. these
former slave ow oers, according 10 EIJiml. " were less fitted tn make
a liviog from the soil rh:ln t he X egroes rhey Icfr behiod." 9 R llined
by the war, they we rc not able ro acqu ire sln'es aod the 001y c rop
~ ElI ion : up, cit., p, 59,
11 bid., p. 64.
 A gricultura/ nd Commercial Dcveopment 259

rhcy kncw-c-corton-c-could no r be raiscd in Brazil by American

mcr hods.
.\l orc successful wcre the j apancsc. c-he larcr esrablisbcd the m-
sclvcs in lnnds ncar rhosc whcrc rhc Amcricans had failed and de-
vorcd rhcir cfforts to t hc c ult ivation of rice. Accustom cd to tbis
son of clim ate, adaptable. and hard -working, less rigid rhan thc
Anglo-Saxons ami orher northern raccs in rhcir anitude rowa rd the
land and pccplc in thei r ncw homcs, rhc j apancs c becamc happy
ami prospe ro lls farmcrs, t houg h wirhour rhc com plete e xibiliry
and almosr tota l succcss of rhc lralians.
Thc econcmic succcss of rhose who, along wirh rhc Germans

wcnr irno agricuhurc was also preatlv favored by rhc reform movc-
rncn r againsr thc l<ltiflI dio in t hc fo nn of so-callcd " territor ial
raxes." Thcse taxcs. con sidcred "rcpugnanr" by rhe largc land-
hold crs, favorcd thc owners of t hc srnall fa rms. nat ivo Hrazilian as
wcl l as European imm ig rant. Conside rable rcfonn scntnu cnt w as
gcncrared on be half of rhese helplcss vic rirns of rhe land ba rons.
lndecd, by rh c end of rhc pcriod rhe land barons no longer domi-
narcd t he aff airs of t hc narion, which e-ere now heginning tu be
di recred from kcy arcas wit hin t he coffee plar narion s of t he sour h,
 ~[VIIIJ~

The Growth ofIndustry

I x Le I1rsil d'Aujourd'hlli, Fat hcr joscph Burnichon

H IS ROOK
reachcd severa! inreresting conclusions abour the rropics based
en his obscrvarions during his visir ro Braxil. Ir is an incontestable
f:!Ct , he S::IYs. that tropical lands ex ercise a powe rfu! r-h arrn ; meo
have always been atrracred ro places "where rhe ornnge trces
bloom." H uman rnigrat ions hJXC ncver becn madc from hot or
temperare regicns ro cold arcas; rhe dircction has always bccn from
cold ro warm or temperare.
But not evcry rhing in rhc tropics is con ducive ro rhc good of
mankind. Perhaps the srruggle aga insr rhc rigors o a cold climare is
neccssary ro rna n's prcscrving his physical and moral energy. W hcn
Father Burn ic hon, new lv arrivcd (mm Francc, declared in Bahia
that he found rhc climare bcarablc, he was rold: "You havc just
Come from Enropc and srill havc a reserve of energy . \Vait a co uplc
of years and thcn ler us sec how you feel abour our indolence." 1
Cenainly thc climare of the rropics arouses lin le inclinarion Ior
hard labor. The rhy thm of life which prcvailcd in Braxil was one
rhat favored casy living. difficulr tu reconcile with rhe type of exist-
cnce Iound in Franco or England or. espccially, in the United
Starcs. Ncverrheless, this reconcil iation was bcgi nning to rake place.
Elihu Roe r. who visited Babia shortly befare Bumichon, praised
rhc Bahian way of life, and Burnichon himsel , afrer spcnding scv-
eral momhs in thi s city, not 0 01)' carne ro undcrsrand rhc Brazilian
placidirv hut abo ro ask himsclf if A mericans d id not suffcr from
t he equalIy cxaggerared reciproca! defect of too m uc h cxciterncnr.
In any case. during rhc coursc of [h e nineteenrh ccnturv, a grad-
1 j cseph il urn ichno, L e Br si/ d'A II;0 1<rJ'htli (Paris, " iI O) , p. ., .
, 60
 T be G rowtb of l ndustry 26 1

u;11 harmnnization of rhcsc extremes carne abour wieh rhe arriva] of

a growinp numhcr of Europcan inunipran rs. w ho planncd to r nake
rhcir living not as nonwo rking slavcowncrs, bur rather as arrisans,
skillcd w orkcrs. machinisrs, and industrialisrs, and who. inirially ar
lcast. had tu diny their lily-whire hands in csrablishing new rcch-
niqucs of producrion and rransportarion. This rrend, of cou rsc, was
accclerat ed during the last dccadcs of thc cemur)' and afrcr the
prcclamarion of rhe Rcpublic.
Ir is true thar rhc mx:ess was lcss marked in Bahia rhan in Sao
Paulo, bur ir did rake place rherc-c-as also in Rio G rande do Sul, Rio
de j aneiro, Pernambuco, .\ Iinas Gerais, and Par . Industries wcre
founded in all rhcsc pro vinccs-c-includinp Hahia-c-housed in facro-
rics using modern rec hniqucs of producci n . Sorne of rhcse cstab-
Iishmcnrs wcrc the resulr of European ininan ve. orhcrs werc of Bra-
zilian origin; bur in eir her case the result was to spced up rhc tempo
of lifc, if nor to the pitch of Europe or thc Uni rcd SUtes, ar leas! ro
the point of crcaring nn intermediare rhyrhm thar could be called
th c Brazilian tempo. Ir was this new "rhird rempo" which Ramalho
Ortigo secms to have had in mind as thc "r factor" which he s:iid
separated rhc mosr enlighteneJ clement throug bour much of Brazil
[rorn rhc monarchical sysrcm of governmenr und er an Empcror
whose archaic liberalism stcmrncd from rhc time of Vclraire-c-an
Empcror who lacked rhc "cnrcrp risc and daring" ro undertake " big
rhings" rhrough "progressive rehabilirarion projecrs" such as "sani-
rarion s),stems in the coasral ciries or rhe rebuilding of rhc ciry of
Rio de Janeiro." lr was not a "T ime is money'' rncnrality which
O rrigo was striving ro implant : ir was mcrely a less rourine and
more innovativc coursc of existence, a renunc iation of rhc cigar
smoked slowlv in rhc hamrnock, ro rhc accompanimcnr of popu lar
rnusic played 00 rhc guitar, wirhour rhe eonsequem adoprion of
Yankce extremes of "hurry-hurry." 2
A good Hrazilian Empcror. by ehe vcr)' faet of represeming in
America a nohler past than rhar indicared by rhe unsrablc republi.
can goYCrnmems of rhe comincm, was in a unique position ro cor-
reer any rendency on rhe part of Brazilians ro fall ioto the "Time is
money " artirll de which ebaracecri7.cd rhc Vni ted Stares, redueing
e"eryrhing ro otone), ae rhe expense o human valucs. And Dom
Pcdro U- let rhere be no doubr about ir-id oppose roo rapid a
ehange from slavery to free labor. Ar firsr he also appascd whar he
~ R amalho O rt igio; "O Q uadrn Social da Re\"olu~ ao Bra_ leira," Rr.:ista de
Purtugal <O pu M: o) , II, <q .
z6z arder l111d Progress

considercd ro be rhe cxcessive Ame r ican materialisrn o Xl au's dar-

ing plans for indust rial developmenr. 00 the ot her hand, he had
becn opposcd since his ear-lv youth ro rhc archaic fcudalism o the
slavocracv. Bis failure as a po lt ic a! leadc r la)' in his inability ro
dcvclop t he " rhird tcmpo" in Brazilian life, falling somcwherc be-
rwccn rhc medieval agrarianistll o rhe planratic ns an d the Euro-
pean-Amcrican industrialism which utopian-mindcd individuals
wished ro transplanr bodily ro Brazil in com plete disregard o Bra-
zilian gcography and Luso-Spanish rradirions.
Did rhe Repu blic attempt ro rec rify rhis Imperial failurc ro estab-
lish a "rhird tem po"? There are (hose whc fcel thnr ir did not, [or
rbe pro visional govem ment imrncdiately dcclarcd itself in t erms of
rhc narrowesr trpe of prngressivism: rhc idenrificarion of nacional
g rowth wirh t he de velopmenr of indusr ry. S orne studcnts of rhe
period bclieve rhat a broadcr hase should have beco adoprcd ,ami
rhar rhe programs of (he early R epublic should also have included
plans for a sysremat ic valunzarion of agriculrurc and stock raising
as wel l. 1 rak c the vje w cxpres...ed by rhe Baron d'Anthouard,
Frcnch minisrcr ro the early Rcpubhc. in his book Le Progre!
Br sen. In rhc facc of rhe exaggcrared protecrion affo rdc d Braxil-
ian ind ustries. Anrhc uard asked : " \ Voul d ir not have bcen less
cosrly and more profitable to have given ag riculture rhc suppOrtS
rhar have bccn granred ro manu facruring>" s I lis argurn em ran
rhar ag riculture fumishcd t wo-rhirds of the counrry's expo rrs,
w hile prod ucrion was shac klcd wirh a "secular rourinc'' of periodic
criscs thar placed (he economy in no posirion ro wrhsrand rhe com-
perinea of bcttcr-cquippcd narions. Support ro industry is ncccs-
sary , of course. bur shouldn't the country t ry ro colonize and de-
velop irs ag riculrural lands> Prorecrion ro ind usrry w oul d only
bring a rush of workers ro the ciries ro com plicare rh c alrcady nu-
r ncrous urban pro blerns wirh an additional conflict bcrween c apital
and labor. Good scnse would secm ro indic are rhat, in a country as
prcdorni nantly agnculrural as Braxil. the mosr urgenr nec d was to
dcvclop rh c agrarian cc onom y w hic h airead )' cxisred before rrying
ro crea re an artificial one through manu fac turing, Aid ro industr),
should he limited and sclecti\'c. following a " rational" prorccrivc
po licy tha[ ran no dange r of bec oming an arbitrarily directcd econ ~
(10)'. 4

J Baroo d'A nlhoU:lrtl : f.e PTOKrh Rrsilien (Pa r~, [911 ), pp. [4<rSo.
t Soch arb it rary direction was nnf unlm" wn tu Br:uil in [9011. \ \'e ha' e al
 T be Gro".xtb of lndustry

In 190 R, O RT<1Sil, rhc o mcial publicarion of rhc Ind ustrial Center

of Rio de [ anciro, gave thc nu mber of manufacruring csrablish-
r nenrs in the eountry as apprcxi ma rcly 3 , 000 . The mosr imporrant
manu fact uring sturcs wcre the Fed eral Dist ricr. witb 35,000 indus-
trial wo rkers, 550 Paulo, wirh 24-00 ; Rio G rande do Sul, wirh
16 . 0 0 0; Rio de janciro, with 1'',OOO; and Pernambuco, wirh 1 2 . 000 .
T ite principal ind ustrv was textiles. ,\ Iinas G crais was st ill of con-
siderable importance in mining. ami t here was an as yer small-scale
salr mimng ind usrry. locared princ ipally in thc region of Rio
Grande do N orte. Other man ufact ures mentioned werc furnirure,
bcveragcs. cigars. cigarcrtcs. robncco. mosaic riles, soap, marches,
ceramics, c anned foods, and wagons.'.

A r rhc Rio Exposition of ' 908, Brazil atrcm prcd ro demonsrrare
irs progrcss by a d isplay of t he bcsr producrs of irs young ind ustries.
Pcople carne from al! parts of t ite eotlnt ry ro visir rhis exposition,
sorne arriving via t hc Llcyd Brasileirc srcamcrs considercd chic at
tit e rime, orhcrs corning [rom rhc sou rh oc rhc interio r by train. The
horcls werc fi l1ed w ith visirors an xious ro scc nor o nly rhc exhibiricn
pavilions. bur also rhc work t hat was being done ro modcrmzc t he
nation's capita l: rhc wid cning of st rcets and boulevards; rhe de-
strucrion of thc dilapidated old buildings used as gru bby srands by
rhe sidcwalk vcndors, ami of houscs w irho ur run ning water; the
const rucrion of new buildings, rhe rnost clegam hcin g in " ,\ lno ri~ h "
sryle. marvcls of drt 11Ou ..-ean, And cvcryrhing so brighrly lighrcd
thar eve ry nighr sccmcd a festi val. T bus Rio was "civ ilizing" itself
as one o f irs journahsts pUl it. ";O m ore ycllow fcvcr. no more st recr
srands. no N egro women sel1ing things on rhc c1egant nc w mosaic
sidewalks. Ir was a ciry w hich sccmcd ro be making e\'ery cffort tu
show how differen r rcpublicnn Brazil had bcccme from rhc Brazil
of Ped ro 11 . And wirh a differenr te mpo of progress. Ir was a differ-
cnce fo r rhe berrer, nearly e\'eryo ne egrced. though rherc was the
occasional protest rom an old dichard. Even e rime was c hanging .
no longcr mercly rhc com mon rustic disorder perpetrated by lo ur-

ready ""~ f\ ... 0 ~xa1l1pk nf ~tale inr~ r \'l:'nri" n in rhe Patr"nato At"rieola e",ar~ d in
Sao Pauln for rhe ad julrment uf relariollShips het ween plantets and immigranl
workcrs :m d fo r rh ~ promurion of Brn ilian e()!fe~ in lhe fur~ign market . Such
inrcn enrin n in h e t fittcd the lu d itional Lu.....Spani5h en1"nia l poJicy of ~t atc aid
lO weaker eeOllomics and I'''p ulat ions.
.~ O Br,~jf (publicalion of lhe I nd u ~rr i a1 C.tnrer uf Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro ,
19(8 ) , m, ApJH=ndix I J.
 arder and Progrese

ish Xcgroes . ir wa s bec omiog Ecropean in pa n ern ami bcing prae-

riced bv soph isricarcd lralians. T ite greatcst contributors ro tbc re -
newcd Latin quality o f Brazilian cutr urc, rhc ltalians als() liccam e
noronous for robbcries and lcgcndary murdcrs. Dunng a visir ro
Brazil in 1 B90, .\ Iaturin ., 1.
Hallou no rcd "rhc objccrionahlc charac-
t er of rhe Italian emigranrs. w ho come hit hcr as w cll as to our own
Srarcs," and found t he ltalian concicrgcs, d ock workcrs. and bo at-
m en of R io ro be "a lawlcss. vagabond clcmcnr of rhc com muniry,
g i\' ing rhc policc fo rce a g reat deal of rrouble." ij
T his is undoubrcdly Anglo-Sa xon cxaggcration. bur rhe fact re-
mains rhar rhe police were forced ro respond ro rhe wa ve of ind us-
trial urbanization by I>ccoming mu re astu rc and considcrabl y less
easygoi ng than in rhe days bcforc abolition. T hcv wcre dcaling
with a more su brlc typc of c r iminal: whire-skinncd. fla sh)' ry pes
with rings en rbcir fi ngcrs and gold bunons in thcir shi rr cu ffs. [t al-
ians. French, j cws, conrrab andisrs. pim ps. swindlcrs. Comparcd to
suc h mcn rhe "capoeirss" who plagued Sampaio Fe rraz wcrc re-
dnccd ro rhc srat ure of disc rderly ove rgrow n c hild ren. m ulattos
w ho sadisricallv carvcd "P Portngucsc bellies out of pure adol cscenr
jealousy of rhe adult rich. Th cy did nor sreal rhcir vicrims' pockcr-
hooks o r rake rhc diamond rings from t heir fingers or go ld cuff
links from rhcir slccvcs. T bcy didn't inrcnd ro kili rhem ; rhcy
simplv kn ifed rhem fo r rhe plcasure of knifi ng. Bur wirh thc
g rowt h of ind ustrialism carne a corrcsponding growrh in violencc
in rhc cines. T he police wcrc forced ro bccomc much more scien-
rifle in rheir mc rhods o f ccmban ing rohbcrics and assassinarions.
sorne of which, like rhosc of Carlcro and Rocca. fascinared rhc en-
tire cOlllltry and passcd into fo lklore.
Ir is certain t har rhe cxaggcrared prcrecrion of narion al ind ust ries
contributed grcady ro rh e growing rraffi c in cont raband. Contra-
ban d in hncns, silks, watchcs. Sorne articlcs werc brought in in rhc
hollowcd woodcn imagcs of saims. others betwecn che breasts or
under t he corsets of elega n tly d ressed wo men, rhe larrer method
g reatly aidcd by t he fashion for large hosom s and narrow waists.
.' tan)' a forbid den anicle wem t hrough Brazilian c ustoms benearh
rh e protubcrances of female anatomy o r the folds of ample attire .
Bm ir \Vas neitller thcse d eve!oprnents in crime whieh arr racted
the attem ion of che \'isirors to rhe R io Exposirion of 19oB, nor the
city's abundant natural beaurics. T he rhousands of posrcards senr at
ij .\ 1Jturin .\ 1. Aallou: Eqllo1torio1/ A mericlI ( :-;' r w Yor\ . I&l ) , p. ,61.
 Tb e Grounb of Industry

rhis tim e ro all parts o Bra zil showed nor so much the sple ndo rs o
Corcova do or rhe Tijuca Fo rcsr or rhe palm rrces o the Horanical
Gardens-c-sc cn cs bcloved by fore igners bur less ime rcsnng ro Bra-
zilians-c-as pictures o rhc Monroc Palace. Central Ave nuc. or the
A venida H otel, Ami on thesc cards (which at rhe time wc rc care-
Fully pasrcd inro handsomclv bound albums an d plac ed alongsidc
rhe slamp c ollcction an d fam ily pho tographs) COlme t hc scndcr's en-
rhusiasric ccnuuents 0 0 rhc urban progress of rhe narion's capital.
On rh c docks. rhe shipvards. t hc cinemas. rhe wondcrs of the expo-
sitien, and the new Brazlian m ineral watcrs served, a\ong with the
"
customa ry heer ami sofr drinks, on rbc ca f terraccs of t he H otel
A venida. O n rhe elccrric srrccrcars. the clcct ric lig hts, rhc elevators.
the aut omobiles. rhc ncw fi re engincs. wirh rhcir cxrcnsic n ladders
which rnade t he fi remcn scem likc circus acrobats and cnablcd rhcrn
ro fight fi rcs in rhe rall ncw buildings, in rbc facrories. and in the
sbops. w here new Brazilian produces abounded alon gsidc th e more
fam iliar imponed an ides. On rhc swcct shops. rhc dresses wom by
prett), womcn, an d the elegan r-c-bur. 10 rhc simple provincial. sean-
dalous-male artirc, com plete wir h monoclc an d spa ts. Seen from a
disrance. rh c we arers of rhesc lasr ircms appcared ro be Englishmen,
but any Englishman would havc bccn horri ficd by rhe exccssive
rings an d [cwclry, rhc brilliantined hair. an d the pe rfumcd handker-
c hicfs and fi nge r rips.t A closcr cxam ina rion of sorne of these "Eng-
Iishmen." however. mighr ha vc revealcd t he t hick-skinncd provin-
c ial w ho. o n arr ival in Rio de J anciro, adopted su pc relcgant anirc
and acquircd a few perites m aitresses or s rsudes cocottes ro ad ver-
us e his prospcrity . Sorne of thcsc ne w arrivals sougbr st ill funher
distincrio n by insisring on spc lling t hcir namcs in a fo reign man-
ner- "CaYalcanti " w ith the ti or W an dcrlcy as Van dcr Ley-c-and
ar leasr une dcsig narcd himself "Prince ," a riele which, by hook or
crook, he had ma naged lO o btai n f rom l he V at ican.
These Vatican rides, ncidentall}', w ere granted quire frcq uemly
d uring the period :lnd a n umber of iIIustrio lls Rrazilians we re na med
('...ountS of lhe 11 01)' See. Bra lian recept ivity ro s\lch t itles (ro some
? J.O . P. Bl~n,l , M en, .1f.lnll..rJ. 'IIJ M or,h n 5aw b A /Jl~ricQ Il.ond"n. ' 9! 0).
f Ihe ahuse nf perfum es hy rhe Rra1.ilian male "f rhe I'crinJ, Rh no;l \Vr",e, "1'he
Rra7.i1i ans pc neh am fo r scc nts 111lnunts ro a 1':I"i"n: upon fheir ""min: abo~ rJ, aH
rhe perfumes uf .." rabia eon ten de.! fu r ma~fery in rhe ,ocial hall anJ c'cn in rhe
smnking.roolTl rhc frago ran,'c uf Ih vana and bird's-cye .... a~ sl1l<>l hcreJ by palchuuli,
verbena, aod f1cur damuur. . . . T hc race's \.Cn\.C uf srncll ,cems ro havc gone on a
perx- rual 'jag:' rhar n",hing Uut rhe su o nge'f CXl"il el1lCnr ,'1n , ari , fyO! (pp. , <'>-7).
266 G rder and Progre!!

cxtent substirurcs os thc losr Imperial nobiliry ) secms ro have becn

great. despirc rhe Frcnch obser ves A. D'Atri's remark thar Brazil-
ians regardcd such rhings as a jokc. " re h;1VC airead}' sccn how
ruuch rhc ncw lcadcrs (such as Francisco Glyc no and Ruy Bar-
llosa as G eneral o rhe Arm y and Imperial Counselc r rcspc cti vely )
cnicycd rhcir ncwly granrcd tirles. \Virh th c com ing o indust riali-
zarion, ir is inrcresting ro note a similar acccptance o such fOTcigo
rirlcs as "Counr" os "Comman dcr," rhe ncw ordcr's wa)' o dcrnc n-
st raring sta tus in thc facc o rhc barons ami viscounrs sUf\'i" ing
from rhe od davs.
Sorne of the cx posirion visirors w rote rhe ir familics and fricnds
rhar, whilc walking 0 0 rhc Avcnuc. tite), had passed " rhe Baron'' en
rourc ro rhc Brahma Restaurant ; or rhar rhcy bad seen R u v Bar-
bosa. small. ugly , wcaring pnce-nez and gray frock coat, desccnd-
iog from his V ictoria re vl..ir rhe booksrorc (Ir his Iavorirc cinema.
Or Lepes T ravo, with his mon oclc, Pinhciro ,\ fac hado, wirh his
Pan am har, his proud an d masculine air, and his small, alm ost giri-
ish feer; or Ksr cio Co imbra, pale, handsome, rornantic, w earing
t he inevitable glovcs. O r Sisrcr Paula. wirh hcr severo black go w n
and whirc cowl. collecring alms from rhe rich for rhe poo r w ho
wcre oc king ro rhe city and w hose nu mbers were rising as alarm -
ingly as wc re rhosc of rhe F rench cocones, rhe m ulatrc prosritutes,
and th e homosexuals w ho could be found every evening in rhe
Praca Tiradcntes.
Vererans of rhc federal ca pital wamed their ncwl y arrived
Iricnd s of rhc confidcncc meno rhc fake promote rs, rhe sociery
thicves. T here was a certa in " D r. Anr nio," black shcep of an im-
po n anr Rio Grande do Sul fam ily , w ho was said ro be a perfect
gentlema n in appcarance bur a terror in rhe arr of rohbing the in-
gc nuous in fashionable horels. Provincia l YOllng girls werc likewisc
wamed of rnellifluous Don juans, of w hom rhc ca pita l hcld an
abundancc. Ami rbc old folks, with rhcir ourdatcd clothcs and ar-
c haic hairdos. were equ ally cam ioned against the ridicule of stu-
dents. l);l rtieulariy studenrs of enginecring and medicine. Conserva 4

tive dressers were aJv iseJ ro get rid of thcir provincial styles in
sllits, dresses. hats. shocs, false te eth, jewclry, and hairdos and rc-
place t hcm wit h the newest thi ngs ro hc founJ in t he stores and
1110J iste shops of Rio. Rare was t hc bac klandcr who did not rcturn
frum his advemure in the capita l ",it hout his tailor-made suit, his
hat (rom \ Vatson's. his silk tic bought 0 0 ('...cnt ral Avcnlle. his
 Tbe Groiub of lndustry
glovcs. and his spars, rhc last two items carcfully prcservcd in bU4
reau drawcrs as souvcnirs of rhe visir, sinee ro wear them at home
would only incur the ridicule of street urehins.
In Le Br sil au X X" Siecle. Picrrc D cnis t rcars some of the aspeers
of rhc Hrazilian sce nc of t he early eemu ry from t he standpoin r of
the economic gcographcr. T he policy of tariff prorecrionis m. he
found , had l1lany fl aws and was abuose always coorrary ro rhc na-
riona l in terest . T hcrc was a high duev on woolcn gcods. for exam-
ple, wirhour rhe counrry's having its own woolen milis or having
adoprcd a sysrematic program of wool growing. Therc W3S rhe
manufacture of umbrellas. where rhc handle. framc, and triangul ar
marerials had ro he imporred. lcaving rhe "manufacrurcr'' only the
task of assembling thc componem parts. Thc same unnccessary im-
portarion cccurrcd wirh wallpapcr. Or marches. Brazil. thc coumr)'
of vast virgin forcsts. was imporring laminared matchwood from
N or way."
In shon. ir was an industrial econom)' almosr camivalcsque in
narure and a dream of prog res.~ more fi cririous than real. The Expo-
sirion of 1908 secmcd almos t prctcnriously self-dcccpt ivc, and rbosc
from Amazonas ano Paran who carne ro visir ir on rhe proudly
narionalisric ships of Llo vd Hrasilciro must havc feh the cruel inj us-
rice of a protccrion which r ncant norhing for nonmanufa eruring
rcgions like rheir own exccpt a rise in rheir already precariously
high cose of living. As the Bar n d'Anrhouard norcd, the state of
Amazonas, not having irs own ma nufactu rera, w as payiog " a veri -
rablc tribute" ro rhc manufac ruring starcs. "so rhar thcy may kecp
rhcir markcr." " Ir is curious rhar a Frcnchman hao ro poinr out rhis
inrcrregional mala dj ustmenr so rcminiscent of condirions beewecn
colonics and mothe r co untr)' .
No wo nde r, t hen. t har ar rhe rim e uf rhe exposieion rhe stare of
Amazonas pcririoned rhc narional Congrcss. complaining of the
abuses of merropoliran indusrrialism. This perinon ga\'e amplc
cvidcnce of [he economic impcrialism pracriced by Rio de J anciro
and perhaps also So Paulol ar rhe expense of their hclpless sisrer
s P ~r re Dcnis, Le B ~hil m XX- Sihl(' ( Pari~, 1\1( 9 ) . p. ~II.
~ Anth"uard : o p. ('ir., p. ' 411.
1 A nd to a le~-.;er degree hy .\ I i n a~ G euis, Ri" Gunde d" Sul, and Pernamhucu
o..cam.e o rhe prcval ng impo rt durie s: 561 pe r cent un ric e, ,ll] pe r c~nt on
whr~ l'''I1IUt:S, n l per cenl on on (J n~, . 6 , per ce ne 00 be11ls, f1 1 per cent on
hU1!er, and 5 0 pt'r ce nt u n tillncd mcaes and C01f~ d olh. See !be AII..i, J .. Ca",..r..
J ru V ep!ltJJ ru ( A nn..h al rhe Ch,wlb., 01 /J epmicll ( R u de j anc iro . 19"11). Fu r
,68 arder and Progress

starcs. an impcralism ,.... hich rcmindcd rhcsc su tes o rhe old prac.
tices o t he Imperial court. Rising Ih'ing costs brought aboue by thc
ind ustrial mvsriquc had rhc paradoxical effect in nonm anufacturing
areas of acting as a recessive force against progress tbar consrirured
a grave cconomic, social. and polirical dangcr for rhe couotr)' as a
w holc. This was a situarion in short w hich causcd rhc bcst Euro-
pean imrnigran ts to avoid Brazil in favor o A rgentina ami U ru-
gua)'. rcpublics which hao undertaken a hcalthy program o agrar-
ian dc . . cloprncnt, wirh a balanced producrion of agricultural. mear,
and da iry producrs and a group o rclared industries to proccss
rhcse commodit ies. As a rcsulr,life in rhese cou nt rics was chcap and
casy in comrasr t Hrazil, whcre similariy fa vorable agro-pastoral
opportuniries had ncver heen properlv dcvcloped.
Eccn rhough Braail, du ring the pcriod covcred here. did nor have
rhe concen rrarcd industrial arcas fou nd in t he U nircd States. and
even rhough its disbursed rnanufactu ring was carricd 00 largcly in
wha r Pierre Denis called "minuscule factories in cvcn the small vil-
lages," rhc rcsulr was snll disrupti ve ro imerregional uniry . In later
rimes. bcyond rhc scopc of this book, rhis disruprion was int ensified
wirh rhc dc vclopmcnr of rhc lllegalopoliran industrial ccmplex of
Sao Paulo and thc rhen Federal Disrrict.
One arca that benefircd from [he co ntinua! devcloprncnr of Rio
de j anciro inro a modern ciry was rhat of .\ 1inas G erais. Nor on ly
did its mines furnis h raw marerials for manufacrur ing . its agricul-
tute. which had ncver bccn neglected. also supplied rhc ciry wirh
food . Pierre D enis had suggestcd thar R io de Janeiro, siruaccd as ir
was on the seacoase and bordcrcd by tropical foresrs, co uld easily
"snrround irself wirh a beh of orchards and rruck ga rdcns. like
most of rhc orher grear ciries of thc world." 2 Bur wir h the growth
of ies popularion and wit h its increasing ntten tion ro manufacr uring.
Rio had ro consrirure Minas Geras.. as irs "green bclt." T he ciry
lived on prod ucrs from bcyond rhe Serta do .\lar; each dar long
rrains nrrived from .\ 1inas Gcrais loaded wirh milk. mear. ami fresh
vegcrables. Feeding [he natic n's capital bccame a lucrativo business
fo r rhe .\ 1ineiros, and their hutler, cheese, mineral watees. amI pork
products bccame famous throughollt rhe land.
In ' 909. Denis had foreseen the de\'e1opmenr of a rruly narional

the la~t )'un o Ihi. p~ rioJ ""~ Pedro Cautcam i: A Prrn d/ncia V rn cr,lau RrJ,
(t 914- 191fl ) (R io de Janeiro. ,,,, 11) amI haltino 0)';1a: A In.i,strjJ Text jl Rr.ni/;ira
e os .H errad01 Sllf .An1l: r;ranos (Si n Pauto. 1920 ) .
'Den.,;:
' op.Clt. . p.l u l .
 T he Growth of lndmtry

cconomv. with a balance of indusrry and agriculrurc and a grearer

coordinarion of mark ers and prod ucrion among the various srares.
For cxam ple. ranc hcrs in Rio G rande do Sul impon ed salr for thcir
stock from C dix when rhis nccd could be fille d by devcloping rhc
salr indust ry of Rio G rande do N orte ami Cear . R esinous woods
could he obraincd frorn Paran insread of from N orway. \\'heat
tIour frorn Argentina could be rcplaced by rhar prod uccd in sourb-
cm Bra7.iJ.3 A later wrircr, Isaltino Costa. in 19 20 wc nt bcyond
Denis ro suggesr rhc expansin of rhc Brazilian rcxtile indusr ry ro
co vcr expon of corren fabrics ro orh cr Sourh American rnarkets.
Denis also foresaw the emergence of Sao Paulo as " a grcat COI1l-
mcrcial and industrial ccn rcr." Irs prospcm y had already given ir
t hc srrcngth ro resise the "coffcc crisis," and irs dcvco pmcnt .
rhough disorderly , was vital and prog rcssive enough ro realizo the
indusrrial potcnt ial and at the samc time wirhsrand crees of an
agrarian narurc.' Nor only did t his growth represem a combinarion
of agriculr urc and indust rv, it also reprcscnrcd a ncw combi narion
of pcoples, as we havc seco, wirh largo numbers of Europcans ar-
rrac rcd to t hc arca because of irs cxcclle m climare and economic
0ppOnUOltleS,
Leaviog aside rhc ch ronclogical limirarions of this study for a
momento rhc progress shown by Sao Paulc in its urban and indus-
trial growth ro the present day has beco due largcly ro irs immense
efforts ro assirnilarc thesc foreigners inrc thc prepooderantly Span-
ish culture of Brazil. This was done through rbc city and suburban
schools, a proccdure rhar was impossiblc in rural arcas; hence rhe
mueh slower assimilation of rhosc foreigoers who scrrled in R in
G rande dn Sul, Santa Catarina, and Es pir ito Santo. lo rhe latrer
regions. rhe scn lers could enjoy rhe luxury of an isolarion dcnied ro
those in urhan industrial cenrers. The Iralians who carne ro thc
coffee planrations 0 0 the cve of abolirion rarcly rcmained rhcrc as
field hands, aftcr a period of farm labor, rhcy we rc arrracred by rhe
commercial and industrial opponunities of rhe provincial capital.
Undcr the Republic, this Ill igrarion imensied. Once in the cir)'. the
Italians had ro compere with oativc Braziliaos. The)' had to speak
the PortuguC5e language. koow the geography and hisrory o Bra-
7.i1, amI acquire rechnieal and scientifie koowlcdge rhrnugh reading
books in rhe vcrnacular. Aod they did so,
The Republie well uoderstood irs own role io th is dclicate pro-
3 Ibid., p. ' 04.
' bid., p. 1~6.
 Order and Progress
CCSS of assimilaric n. at least in rhc two largesr
, cities. It was less active
in Rio G rande do Sul ami Santa Cata rina. w herc Iralians, G ermans,
and Peles werc allowcd tu conrinne as ethnic minority gro ups so
long as they voted en bloc for govcrnment candidares in clec rion s.
Bccause of rhc large num bcr of fore ign pupils in rhc schools of the
Federal Disrrict. supcrintendcnrs of education from rhc ourser of
rhe Rcpublic dirccrcd their tcachcrs ro make rhcir pupils under-
stand rhat rhc idea of "counrry'' refcrrcd nor ro rhe land of one's
birr h bur rarher ro the land of ado prion. Furthermore. the school-
master must insist tha t Brazil was "of all rhc cc unt ries in the world.
rhc mosr bcautiful, thc noblesr. and rhe mosr wort hy of ou r love."
V aniry rrmde offi cial. Ir was from such parriotic cxercises rhar books
like Afonso Celso's Por que Me U ano do M eu Pas ( lVhy 1 A m
Prou d of '\/y Coumry or V irclio , (Iliveira's A I' tr a Brasile ra
( Tbe Bnr zitian .V ation ) emerged. Nor was ir long bcfore 013vo
Bilac was c reat ing pat rioric propaganda for rhc country and its mil-
irary sen -ice by gi\'ing ralks in schools and barrack s and, along w ith
orher intellcc ruals. by w ri, ing arricles inspircd or commissioned by
rhe Haron do Rio Branco in favor of Hraxilian foreign policy. Therc
are rhcsc who allege t hat thc Baron. using a spccia l fund placed at
his dispcsal. brought em inent Europcans such as Ferrero, F erri,
Anarole France, and Paul Adam ro Brazil for cxactly rhc same pur-
pose.
,
D enis found tha r rhc schools o f S30 Paulo we rc nor dcing as
good a job as those of rhc Federal Districr in assimilaring rhe newly
arrivcd immigranrs. Thc Paulisras appc arcd ro he satisfied to allow
tbis assirnilation 10 take place rhrough business acriviry and through
parriciparion in rhc "inrensc lifc" of rhc cirv. Conracr wir h "a peo ~
pie full of energy and arnbiricn" was sufficicnr tO abso rb tbc edulrs.
says rhc French observer. "Economic prosperiry has gi"en Sao
Panlo a power of absorption superior to thae of a1l rhc orher Brazil-
ian provinces." r. T his power applied not only to foreigners but also
ro Brazilians \... ho arrived from other states or provinccs and
quickly bccame e",cn more Paulista than the P.mlistas in devcloping
a spirit of initiati" e ami business cllterprise. And such enterp rise
hrought about good resllIts, socially and cconomically. for such
transplamed Brazilians as Saldanha ,\ 1a rinho, of Pem ambuco ; or
~ In his imelligenl U "l' of { hi~ funo hl.' ~nl kip ~ted the modern po li tiC'~1 praC'tice
of spending b rge sums on propaganda and infonnation.
Dems:
op.cn.,p.'5J
. .
 T be Gro-unb of Industry

Artur Xci va. of Bahia. or Albuqucrquc l.ins, of Alagoas. or Wash-

ingron Lus, from the stare of Rio de j anciro. Thcre were also
rhosc who failed, borh narives and imm igranrs, Illany foreigners in
particular being too stccped in t bcir native tradit ions ro adapt ro rhc
unscrupulous mcthods of quick succcss. r ncrhods which would havc
-
been considered shamcful in rhcir coun rrics of origino
I':Ot aU t he new arnvals wc rc arrracr cd by t hc mysrique of rhe
"red land s" , sorne of rhcm carne dirccrly ro rhc cities, drawn by
rhe prospecr of rapid-c-evcn rnagical-c-prcspe rity. J\ 1any of rhese
sta rred as bocrblac ks, scissor-grindcrs, strccr pcddlcrs. But w her-
evcr they began t heir Brazilian expericnce. whethcr on t he st reers
of So Paulo or on (he coffee plantarions of rhe interior, t hey
quickly leam cd rhc Portugu ese l:mguage, employing it by prefer-
cnce in dircct proportion to t heir ascensin up thc econ omic laddcr.
Tbcir own lralian was gcncrally a dialccr and so clcarly bctrayed
rheir humblc provincial origins rhat thcy madc every efforr ro learn
Portuguesc in order ro kccp their background [rom bccoming ap-
pan'nt to Brazilians and, especially. te new arrivals from the old
COllntry. Sorne of rhose who carne dirccrly ro the city bccame polir-
ieal journalisrs, willingly turning out polcmical arriclcs and political
handou ts so unscrupulous rhar no narivc journalist cou ld be found
re handlc the assignmenrs. The brillianr Portuguesc j oo Lajc was
perhaps the mcst famous of these political journalisrs, bur rhere
wcrc Iralians as wcll, wrirers capable of cxrraordinary violcnce in
rheir adopted language. which they lcarned to wrire in masrerful
fashion. Some of rhcse moved ro other st atcs w herc, as complete
srrangcrs. tbey we re undcr obligation t o no one and could wirh
impuniry ;lCCCpt ordcrs ro arrack or praisc any polirical dignirary
rhe higher-ups chosc to give their attenrion ro ar the momento
T he industrial progress of rhe counrry alsc encou ragcd mobiliry
in field s orher rhan those of communicarion. particularly among
unanached ma les, and rhis tendency not infrequenrly resulted in
(he formation of a doub le moral standard. Young men w ho \\'ere
rimid under the sur\'eillanee of thei r fami lics suddenly became com-
pletcly uninhibited in their !le\\' horn es. In tbis respect, ho\\'e\'er,
(he Gennans of Rio Grande do Sul and Sama Catarina seerned su-
perior to other immigrants o no n~Lusitanian origin; perhaps their
strongly moral upbringing and their prcference for agrarian pur-
suits protected them from the " get-rich-quiek" fervor of the urban~
ized Iralians.
 Order and Progress

T his last statemenr docs nor mean tbar [he spirit of industri al
prog rc ~,s had out reached the Gennan colonists of rhe sourh. Ir hado
"From Sao Lcopoldo ro Ilamburger Berg (he smcll of hides fol-
lowed us," w rote Dcnis.' T hcse hidcs wcre not of local origin, bu r
rather from thc slaughrcrhouses of Bag and Pelotas to the sout h.
Originally rhis prod uc e had bccn exponed, but t hc Gennans bad
devc lopcd it imo t he besis for a loc al ind ust ry. thanks to rhcir narive
skills, nnd were now shipping rhcir learher anides to all parrs of
li razil. A good cxam ple of rhc cffcct of protecrionism, onc could
say, bur ir also had its disadvant ages. Drawn into thc mysrique of
industrial prngress, t he G ennans of R o G rande began ro desert ag-
ric ulturc." As early as I HQQ, Presidcnr Campos Sales, wirh rhese de-
velopmcnrs in rnind, had wamcd Brazilians of rhc dangers of the
"com plercly art ificial industries" which had begun tu appear in rhc
ncw Republic.
0 0 the ot her hand , the drifr toward industry on t he pan of (he
G crmans hcld in adventagc which might havc ourweighed rhe pre
vious obi ectio n : ir inregrared rhem more rapidly inro Bra7.ilian cul-
ture. Ir hrought rhem inro grearer contact w irh rhc Porruguese
language and caused rhcm t e think along nat ional rar her rhan paro-
chial bnes. "T he Germ n fort ress in Rio Grande do Sul wil l soon
su rrcndcr ro economic prcgress," wrote Dcois. " Al ready rhcrc are
grcat breachcs in the walls." 9 And these rema rks eould equally
have applied, for rhe samc reasons. ro rhe G ermen strcngbolds in
Santa Cara rina.
"S'orhing could be more corrccr t han D cnis's generalizations to
rhc cffccr that thc prorccrionist polic y, inrcn ded ro proreCf che na-
t ino, w as in rcaliry prorecring a class or a rcgicn . Bur one musr srill
admir rhc advantagcs of rhis policy for Brazil as a whole, bccausc
rbe protccrion of so-callcd "national industr ies" after (he ccming of
rhc R epublic encouragcd thc develo pment of new enrerp rises.
T hese ncw enrer priscs madc use of hithert o neglcc ted raw marerials
aod at rhc sa me time crearcd jobs for rhosc young mcn who, w is h ~
ing ro be considereJ socio!ogically white, shuooed agriculrura!
T lbid., p. 3'7.
" Fo r he progrcss of G crn u n R ru ili~ ns in Riu G ra nde do Sul, S.n. Cata rin. ,
and other p. rn of Rr. lil. .;ce he collabo r.tin work direcred by Alfredu Fllnke:
O 8 rl/$;1 e .. A le",..nhll ( 9 22 - 19 U ) Okrlin, 1<" 1), cspecially he charr eN "A
Ci,iln",io Brasilcira e o ElemenT o Alemi o no Brasil" (Alfredo Fllnke) m d "A
Coopcra",iu do Trab~lh n ;" k mi " na Indst r;a Bra~i k ra M ( ~ la rk S e,"cn du M onr ) .
" O cms:
"p. Cl.t., p. JlQ.
 T be Grounb of l ndustry Z7J
t asks as appro pria tc o nly for X eg rocs or slaves. Such indust rial de-
velopments also served ro prom ore ber tcr com munica tion wirh re-
gions whicb hao forrncrly lcd nn isolared agrarian exisrcncc ami, in
devcloping rhis communicarion. also promoeed (he gro wrh of rrans-
portation facilities.
Whar was unfo rnmarcly rorally lacking, ho wevc r, was a m aste r
plan for nat ional developmenr in which agriculrure would not be
subordinate d ro manufacturing. or rhc eount ry ro thc cit v, or rhc
nativc workcr ro the fo rcig ner. as was rhe c ase in the Patro nato
A g r col a of Sao Paulo. w hic h c ffercd no co rrcspondin g support to
rhc ex-slavc o r [he mig rarory workcr from Cear or thc norrh cast .
The freed man. ccing rhc rural arca s, wandcred throuph {he cit ies
in a stare of morhid anx iery. rhc an xicry of an ex-slavc w hc also
w ished ro bccor ne an ex-Neg ro. An d an ex-Negro w irh opportuni -
rics equal ro thos c of [he lt alian. rhc Europea. or the whire man in
general under t he pate rnal bencvolence of t he R epublic as rcpre-
senred in rhe Pat r onato. rhe lmm ig rario n Servicc. or t hc Mi nisrry of
Agriculture. Sorne of thcsc fo nncr slavcs bc camc nosralgic fo r rhc
rno narchy and Pn nccss Isabel ; ir is quite pcssiblc rhat such m alad-
[usted ex-slavcs were am ong t hose who joined t he rcbcllious w hites
an d caboclos un dcr A ntnio Conselhciro in rheir uprising against
rhc republican A rm y-c-an aspe ct of thar st ruggle bc t we cn soldicrs
and bac kla nders which scems ro tuve csca pcd t hc noricc of rhc
enginccr-socioJogist Euclydcs da Cun ha.
Ir has already been suggesrcd rhat. along w irh t he mvsnquc of
industrial progrcss, rhc posirion of u rban cnginccr bo gan ro acq uirc
c ons idera ble status. A s early as d l75, Lus Rafael V ieira Souto had
wr irrcn in his O ,Helhora11lem o da Cidade do Rio de [aneiro (The
Improventent of tbe City of Rio de imero rhat "rhis grcat city is
a cenrer of inrelligence." whose "agglomcrate popularion," wirh irs
"divisi n o labo r," would facilitare the "growth of production'' and
t hc dcvelo pmcnt "of all SOftS of industries." lt was thesc en gincers
who bcgan ro evolve a soeiology rhar could nO[ faH ro hcl p Brazil.
\Vithout hccoming politicians, they became publie figures. The
J1lost enlightc neJ among rhcIll w ishcd ro do through eonstruction
what J os de Alenc ar and hi<; follo we rs had done in Iirer aru re; t o
dc \'elop a style th;lt "'o uld represen t nor merely the ind ividual but
rarher " t he people; rha[ is to say, rhe nation as a ",holc." Fo r Vieira
Souto this style w as preeisely ",har w as lacking in the urban areh-
iteeture o [he Empire. that " icrim of rhe " perniciolls prac ticc of
' 74
modcling our consr rucr ion along forcign fi nes, wirhour paying rhe
slightesr at rent ion tu rhc cou nrry's clirnate. resources, or rradi-
t inos." This was rhe result, as he saw ir, o lcaving rhe design ing of
buildings in rhe han ds of "eny construcnon boss nr simple worker"
w ho liked ro feel himself "a qualified enginecr or architect." Per-
haps rhis last statemcnt was a bit unjust . more t han une consrrucrion
boss ar rhe time showed himself superior tu mosr cnginecrs in such
marrers as regional appropriatcncss and rraditional style of design.'
Given t his call ro archirccrural narionalism, ir might have been
expecrcd t hat, wirh rhe coming o indust rialismo such cirics as R io

-
de J anciro, Sao Paulo, and Rccife would becin ro show an archircc-
tute similar ro rhar of Barcelona of rhe same pcricd ; thar is ro sayo a
combinarion of Spanish rradirion ami industrial neccssity. This,
however. nevcr occur red. The besr ur ban rcsidcnces of rhc tim e
werc thosc which continued rhe basic co lonial Portuguese dcsign
and mercly add cd a modcrn rouch hcre and rhcre. And as for the
railway srations, slaughrerhouses. commcrcial and public buildngs,
milis. Facrorics, machine sho ps, industrial schools, ccmeteries, and
bridgcs. norhing bu ilt ar rhis time rcvcaled the slightcsr inclinat icn
on rhe pan of t he archirecr tu rise to rhc lcvcl of Jos de Alencar or
Goncalves Dias or an)' orhcr narionalisr wrirer in his :lttcmpr ro
develop an architcctural sty lc rhat would cxpress rhc new Hrazil.
[ven the great Amazonas Tbeetre-c-wirh its fusion of Europcan
stylcs wir h American- Indian motifs glorifving Carlos Gomes and
Jos de Alcncar-c-was hardly more rhan superfi cially Brazilian, a
combinarion of Iralian spirir wirh Brazilian decorarion,
Ir is rrue rhat rhere were t hose w ho sincc 1872 had wishcd ro use
the lands adjacent tu rhe ditch rhat ran bchind thc eountry house of
rhe Viscou nt de :\ Iau for t he consrruction of " a vast edifico de-
signed ro serve as a permanent exhibir of m ac hines and apparatus
used in manufacturing. and espcciallv in agriculrure. rhc larrer
being rhe principal source of our nacional wealrh," Ir would not
have to he a monumental strucrure: mercly a "largo bu ilding, well
lighred fr om all sides." illuminating the "machin cry in move-
menr." 2 \ V e are not toldo how evcr, what son of arChitcctural sty le
Pereira Passos and his collaborators wished w adopt fnr such a ca-

1 Lus Rafael V ieira Somo : O M ..Jh or.7mento (..,,, fn . J. p. ,, >l, pp. 6. 7' .
2 Fnnd'l.'o P~reira P;L\1OS. et J I.: I ~ R e/lltrio dJ Com jJJjr Je M t lhornlle1ltol d ll
CiJ JJe Jo R jo J f j Jlle,rO (R io de J an eiro. ,11; 61. p. u .
 T be Grouitb of Industry 27 5

rhcdral in ho no r of Hrazrlian ind ustrial progrcss. \Ve only know

rhar rhis rnodcl bu ildi ng would nave no place on irs facade fo r Por-
nJguese colorcd riles, Such mat crials. according to Passos. abso rbed
rhc sun 's rays and madc rhc interior unhearably hor. N or would
rh erc be "wmdows of mul ricolorcd, badly com bined sraincd glass" ,
such anachronisms. "bcsidcs being harm fu l, are also an eyesore."
Thus Pcreira Passos, fut ure rcbuilder of Rio de J aneiro, rcvcaled
himself in 8i S as a terrible en cmy of rhe colorful st rect srands
wh ich hindcrcd rhe ciry from assuming rhc appearance of a m odern
industrial Europcan ccntcr. an d wh ich wc rc "clurtcring rhe few
public sq uares t har we have." '1 Ir is quite possiblc rhar t hesc stands
were of no valuc. and ene can rcadilv admit thar in rhe trad icional
Pon ugucsc sobr ado rhcre was linlc thar could he adaprcd ro an in-
d ustrial civilization. But rhcre is no cvidcncc that cirhcr Passos or
any of his collaborarors. in t hcir dcsirc ro achie vc rhis adaptation,
evcr designed a projcct or urrcrcd rhc slighresr suggest ion leading ro
rhc crearion of an arc hitccrurc cxprcssing the Brazilian wa )' of life.
O r t har tb ey cver approached. as V ieira Souto did , rhe criterion
larcr dcfi ncd bv Professor Lcwis ,\ l um ford in his Sncks and Stones
by which a building designcd ro rakc c ate o nly of rhe physical com -
forrs of irs futurc Occll pants- ro rhc exclusin o f biological. psy-
chological. and sociological considcrarions-c-is sccn as rhe prod uct
of " a lirnired conccpncn of scicncc." I From t his point of vicw, ir is
a pity rhar non e of the g rcat Brazilian enginccrs of the pcriod we re
influcnccd in their scicnce of ,\ l an, 1lome, and Ciry by a somewhat
less scienrif ic, more human Posinvism graced wjth an additional
rouch of cre arivc genius, Ir was Profcssor Mumford w ho had ro
poirn Out rhat th c rnachinc age in t hc Unircd Statcs had pr o," ced
an archirecrurc adaprcd mercly to hOlIsing machines and d ynamcs
at rhc expense of the human values wir hour which m aterial exise-
ence is incomple re." Inc om pleto, ar id, and mc1aneholy. Through-
o ut the \vhole long proccss oC induslTializat io n, in Cacr, there was a
lack of scientinc conside rat ion of the wo n h of human beings ro
com plemem the wort h of things. ;\luch anem ion wa s giHn to na t 4

ural and animal producrs; hides, w oods, stones, drugs, resins, plams,
m inera l.~. w ater rcsources: all c ame ro assume an em irely nev.' value,

a Ib id ., p. l/.
. Lewis .\ fumford: Sricks a1/(i Sroner- A StuJy nt A merican A rchitecw re and
C'dliZdtion ( ~e w York , r9, ..l , p. 179.
~ Ib id. p. rllS .
 arder and Progress

and thcir expl oit ation gave Brazilians a ncw scnsc of t he spccif ic
materia l possibilities inherent in natural and ani mal resources, a
sensc o f value q uite differcnr from thar w hic h obraincd d uring rhe
days of a purely pastoral or agrarian econorn y . N everthelcss. in t his
new pcrspccrive therc was a lack of rhc ind ustrial scnsc of rhings, of
any inst inct fo r the quickcned tempo of Jife or cfficicnt use of t ime
and space rhar would havc rnadc it possiblc for Hrazil ro lx-come
anot hcr Unite d Srares. Probably rhis was t hc rcsul t of having devcl-
opcd f rorn an arisroc raric-democraric monarchy wirh a different
social struc rurc ro t hat of rhe U nired Srarcs. Differenr, but st ill
compatible.
" Under D om Pedro Hraxil was free from despot isrn ami ar rhc
samc time fro m d isorder." observcd Ballou in d192 . In com paring
rhe Hrazilian sirua rion wit h thc Unired Srares. on rhc one hand . and
wir h rhc Spanish- Ar ncrican republics on rhc ot her, he charac rcrized
thc larrer as bein g subject to "an alremation of rcvolurion and
milirarv despo risrn." In com parison w ith Chile. Braxil, by virruc of
irs Lusiranian and monarchical background. seerned much superior
" in inrelligcncc and civilizatio n." Hallou singlcd out scvcral ;lspeCtS
of Rrazilian progress. praising rhe count ry's railways. irs strectcar
sysrcms. rhe grear shipyards of R io de j anciro , t hc public and com-
mercial bu ildings. At rhe same time. he remarked on rhe "picnic mode
of lifc w hich has conformcd ro climatic in Auence. . . . E verything
is very qu ieto rherc is no hurry . lt all secms t a stranger ro be t he very
poerr), of life. . . ." Srill, in Par . where he madc his fi rsr contact
wi rh rhe Hrazilian people, he norcd "an exccllcnr pon of great ca-
paciry " w here large ships we rc loading and unloadinp rhc producrs
of rhe rropics. particularly rubber." Thus a land of easygo ing
telllpo could sdll rnakc irsclf respecrcd cconomically. socially. and
polirically.
For rhosc Brazilians w ho wc rc un easy at thc thought of being t he
only monarchy in the 1\'e\V W c rld. therc were gra"e doubts as ro
whcrher t heir eo unt ry rcally was superior t irs neighbo rs. T o rhcm
rhc Empire secmed arc haic and ro utine, rhe wry ncgaeion of prog-
rcss, part icularlv in (he field of indllStry. As \Ve havc seen, there
w ere Brazilians w ho , in childhood. had read J ules V crne and had
become ineurably enamored of machines and inventions, and of
French, British. and Yan1.ee gadgcrry w hic h aeeelerated t he
rh)'thm of progrcss-gadgerry w hieh w ould givc t hem far more
6 Ballou: op. cit., p p. JO), <;/J. lO. l07.
 Tb e Grourb of lndustry

m asre ry over rhc vast expanses o f Brazilian rcrrirory rhan t hcy

cou ld cver ho pc ro gain undcr rhe lcadership of a Volraircan Em -
pe ro r w hosc solc gadget w as an e\'e r-prcsent urnb rella.
Thc rriu mph of Santos D umont in Paris did lI111ch ro sc c thc t h e
spi rits of rhesc early rcad crs of j u lcs V erne and ro sarisfy rh cir ap-
pe rite for mag ic carpers ro whisk pcoplc fr om Amazonas ro Ri o
G rand e do Su l or from Rio de [ aneiro ro ,\ 1ato G rosso. Pcrhaps rlus
triumph wculd mean a ncw life fo r Brazil, :1 life [aster even t han
rhat o f Furopc , fastcr rhan thar of o ther Amer icans, inc lud ing rhe
Yank ccs.
Nobody was cvcr more o f a hcro to his peoplc rhan Alberto San-
ros Du mon r. a pion ccr in hea vic r rhan air navigat ion who m ade a
much-publicized biplano fl ighr in Paris in 1906. Thro llg h him, rhc
Brazilian had his re" en ge o n rhosc pcrulant forcigncrs w ho disdain-
fu lly dubbed Brazi l thc Iand wherc pcoplc werc told ro "havc
paricncc," ro " wair unril romorrow," c r cven the " d ar after t omor -
ro w." Sant os D umont hccamc sud denly a sym bc l in Braz.ilian er es
of a narion capablc. by irs o w n cfforrs and invenrions, o f raising
irsclf t o a lcvcl of p rog re!>Si\'ism w here thc impacr o f irs rcchnical
advanccs w ou ld h e felt t hroughour rhc world . Thus. almost by a
miracle and complctely ro bis surprisc. t hc y ou ng ,\ l inciro acquircd
a charisma rhar made him rhe most glorious fi g ure o f his periodo
The myrh o f Santos Durnon t soon bccame part o f an even
g reater myrh : t har of Bra...ilian progress t brc ugh scicnce. This scc-
on d my rh essumcd its g reatest lcgcndary and he ro ic sv r nbolism dur-
ing rhc last dccadcs of the period oHrazil ncedcd a Santos D umonr ro
awaken its fairh in a messianic fururc, and rhc lin lc aviaror re-
spo n ded t u rh is nced in the most sp lendid manner imaginable, p :1SS-
ing rapidly in rh e eyes of the puhlic from individ ua l to svmbo l. and
from sym bol ro nryrh.'
Ir is q uite po ssiblc that Hrazilians cxaggerared rh cir glot ificat io n
o f Santos D umc nr , bur rhc signific ance o f their fcc lm gs lics in rhe
faet t ha r D umont bec ame a symtx)1 of Brazit's ab ility to conq ue r
space an d time, elem ents w hich hitherto had be en the g rcatcst ene-
mies in its st ru gg le ro ga in p restige in the eyes o f rhe \\'orld. in its
anemp t ro appear m odern, even derllicr cri, and ar t he same rime to
.. The urignal Hrnil;an rexI nd udes the J<:,pm irions uf 6 ~ r<:' prcsc:ntath'e co n-
rempura ries uf Sant os D umon! as lO Ihe ni awr's impact on rhe Brazilim public,
particular!), Bra1ilian yuur h, Since all hew merely support Ihe cu ndu,ion al re aJ ~'
o lfered by he authur, (he)' ha\'e becn orn iu ed in he inlcl"Cl.t uf hcc\"il): , (T rans-
btne.)
 Order and Progress

he maste r of the vasr tcrrirories wit hin its boundarics. Ile was a
symbo l also of Brazilian capacty for rechnical. mec hanical, and in-
dustrial progress in spirc of pbysical appearance. As we havc scen,
sorne famous Brazilians of rhc time (rhe liaron do Rio Branco. Sal-
dan ha da G ama. j oaquim Nabuco. or Santos D umont's aeronanrical
rival Augusto Severo ) were strong and bandsomc in physical as-
peet. But thc majoriry of Brazilians werc noto and tu rhcsc small.
thin. and palhd individuals, rhc fi g ure of Santos D umom corre-
sponded more ro t hc Braxilia n of rhc " Amarelinho" myt h. rhe lirt lc
ma n ca pable of perfo rm ing great dccds of valor against blond, pink -
chcckcd gianrs, t hc Brazilian D avid againsr rhe N ordic G oliarh.
The " Amarclinho" sto ry acrcd as rhc Brazilians' compensarion
for rhc climate, tropical condirions. impropcr food, malar ia. and
ofrcn inadcq uare clothing w hich gave so many of rhcm rhc :l ppear-
ance of convalcscents or chronic invalids. but srill did nor hind er
them from perfonning great decds of physical endurance in rhe
Amazon or at Canudos. Santos D umonr rcprescnted t he idealiza-
tion. par excellence . of the Iinlc roan of yellowcd counrenance. rhe
Cearcnse. t he tr pe which dur ing t hc early Republic many felr (O
have bcen responsiblc for retaining Brazil's dominion ovcr the A m-
azon in rhc face of t he Unite d Srates. This was rhc rype which
spread rnost rapidly rhrough out Brazil. not, like so many ot hcr
nort heasrerncrs. as a lawy er or juJ ge or politician, nor cvcn as a
scldier, but rat hcr as a man wit h a t alent fo r crcarin g and develop-
ing wealrh throu gh cornrnerce and indust ry . So m uc h so rhar D u-
mom be came a fi gure inseparable from Brazilian cconomic prog-
ress. particularly in rhe ficld of t rade. H e srood in cont rasr ro mosr
Brazilians of the non h or from Bahia or Rio de j aneiro. pco plc
whose t alenes and inclinarions lay more in arts and lerrc rs. w ho
were desirous of triumph ing through genius or simple inspiration,
rat her rhan through parie nt and incessanr cffort. Thcre were excep
t inns, of course. such as the engineer and indust rialisr Xlcneses in
Pernambuco; or De1miro Gouveia, another Pernamhucan. a se1f-
made man w ho in harnessing t he ene rgy of t he falls of Paulo
Afonso exhibired a daring unmat ched by t hat of any Paulista or
Cearcnse. Or Lus T arquinh o, the complete negat ion of the slow.
soft Bahian. Or O svaldo Cruz , Pcreira Passos. rhe Baron do R io
Braneo, Roqu eHe.Pinto-alJ negat ions of t he legend t hat the at
mos phere of R io de Janeiro w as as host ile to c reative t echnical or
indust rial effor r as t hat of t he north. This legcnd \vas belicved by
 T be Grosub of Industry

the econc misr Roger \V. Babson. wh o too k quite seriously rhc
words of a ccrtain Brazilian [ ercmias. whn told him. "Tbere is
somcthing about rhc climare hcre in rhe rropics which takcs out rhc
ginger in all of uso Di" r ou evcr hear of a great inventor, arrise.
wrirer. or any orher man of real note who did his work in rhc trap-
ics> " ~ A srarcmcnr typica l of the atr irud c of mallY Brazilians of thc
periodo and responsiblc for mm)' a rich man's son being senr ro
eooler, more stimulating counmcs to complete his cducaticn.
Nor werc rieh childrcn scnt only from Sao Paulo for their highcr
srudies. they also wenr frmn Rio de Janeiro or Pernambuco or Bahia,
and rhcy ofren went ro England, as wel1 as to Paris and Swiraerland.
Sr. j oscph's, a boarding schcol near London ru n by a ccrtain
Hrorhcr f Iyacinth, arrracred a considerable number of Brazilian
bo vs. O ne was a Per nambncan named Emlio Cerdoso Avres (rhe

famous caricarurisr}, born in Rccife at the end of the ninerccnrh
centur)' and broughr " P by his morhcr wirh an indulgence which
allowed him ro satisfy e\"Cry whim. l lis farhcr, who at times pro-
tesred againsr rhis pc mi issivcncss, was an elcgant bo urgcois, nwner
of a pink chlcr complete wit h Freneh gardcn and Brirish rennis
court, and proprietor of une of the richcsr sugar warehouses in Re-
cifc. Emilio could not conrriburc pcrsonally to the quesrionnaire
on which rhis srudy is based. Ior he coru mitrcd suicide in France in
191 6; but from lerrers prcscrved by his family we can gain a good
impression o his English schooling. In a lcrrcr di rcc red ro ".\1ama"
and dared Ocrch cr 11. 19 0 4 . Emlio wri rcs: " \Ve have becn at
schoc l for several days now. I arn very wel l plcascd and nothing is
lacking. ,\ 1)' room is ver)' good ami contains evcryrhing 1 need.
Papa was hcre eoday tu sce if we werc well esrablished. H e gave me
rhree postal cards from yo u, whic h gavc me great pleasure. Tite
food is good and very plcnriful. \Ve havc breakfast at cighr, wirh
bread. buttcr, and milk. Lunch is ar midday, wit h soup, two main
courscs. and dessen . Later \\'e have tea and supper. wh ich are also
ver)' good. . . . T he class is good and we hope to show sorne
progress shonly. . . . 1 began to stlld)' piano today and tomorrow
my painting instructor will come. At prcscm I am stu dying only
English. ami when I understand it well 1 w ill he transferrcd ro a
class where 1 can take aH ,he other subjects. T he director is very
gooJ ami the other padres are agreeable ; I hope the), stay that
way, Every da)' we go [ O mass in the chapcl. whieh is very
KRog er \\'. Bab~"n : T be f"urure of 50m b A me,iea (8 <>sron, '9 ' S1, p. 19J.
z80 arder and Progress

prctty." lI e nsks his rnorhcr ro gi"c a hug ro his aUlHS ano cousins
ami also ro Xladcmoiscllc. rhc French family go\'c rnc~s. ( Mademoi-
selle, as wc havc sccn, was almost a mcm bcr of t ite family among
thcse rich Celliciecd hourgcois w ho would no more rhink of en-
rrusring their pink-faccd child rcn ro tite care ofaXcgro hl/JJ titan
of allowing thcm to spoil rheir pale corn plexions by cxposure ro tite
vicious rays of rhc t ropical sun.)
In anorhcr lcttcr, dared May 7. 1905. Emilio told his mothcr
titar. alrho ugh ho mcsick for Pernambuco and dosing himsclf wir h
medicines ( he was always a sickly boy), he was still enioying foor -
ball, cricker, ami tenms. At t hc t ime, suc h gamcs werc played 001)'
by thc clcganr bourgcoisic of R io de Janciro, Sao Paulo , or Pem am-
bu co, madc popu lar rhrouph rhc infl ucncc of rcsident Englisb [ami-
lics. as well as rhrough t hat of Hrazilian children who, likc Emilio.
wcre rcccivinp rheir ed ucarion in the Brirish Islcs.
Along wir h bis intcresr in spom. which he cujoyed more as spec.
m or rha n part icipant. Eml io also liked ro paint water colors. play
the piano, and ccllcct posrcards. Thc ccllcct ion of postcards be-
camc a c razc of rhe periodo Thcrc wcrc cards showing aspcets of
t he new R io de Janeiro or thc ncw Manaus or the new Belm or rhe
ncw Sao Paulo. And t her c wcrc cards witb colored pictu rcs of
lovers, of preny women, of golden-haircd childrcn. of Eu ropean
pcasant girls. In the Tbievcs' ,\ Iarket in Lisbon [oda)' suc h posr-
cards frcm early rwcntierh -cenrury Hrazil, senr by rccenr arrivals in
Rio de j aneiro or Belm or \I anaus ro rela n ces hack in Portugal,
can still be fo und . Thcsc eolored pictu rcs showcd a Braxil whosc
progres.s con rrasred sbarpl y with t he routine life of the Pormpucsc
villagcs of the time ; thcir messages wc re emhusiasric in praisc of
Braxilien urban and indust rial dcvclop mcnts. messages which ccr-
rainly arouscd rhc env)' of rhc placid, agrarian fricnds and relatives
ro w hom thcy werc addressed . And it is qu ite likely rhar similar
cards went from S10 Paulo or Rio G rande do Sul to equally cnvi-
ou s relarivcs back in ltalv.
Such postcards consrit uted on e of the li"clicst expressions of Bra-
zilian sociahil ity ar t he heginning of (he twenticrh century. People
prcse rvcd t hcm with great atfection. nut only for rhe pictures, bm
also for the messages. One received from Swit7.erland in 1907 by
D ona .\taria (Iai) Cavalcami de Albuqucrquc. of Pernambuco,
showed :1 colored figure o f Sr. J oseph holding a book and containcd
rhe message. w rirt en by a t r:l\"cling Bahian lady fricnd : ".\ Iay this
 T be Grouub of lndttstry

messenger plunge intc seas of happincss the one who today plucks
o ne more lily from thc garden of her precious cxisrencc.' Typical
langu age of the per iod, found not only in postcards bur also in di-
aries and public uttcrances.
There wcrc also colo red cards advertising commcrcial producrs,
sucb as rhar for Rochc's Syrup, portraying rhc bappy life of an
lndia n family, rhc man Iy ing in his hammock ami rhc wifc scercd 00
rhc ground wirh a pet pigeo n. O r rhar for ,\ Ianon's Purgati vo,
which symbolizcd irs virrucs in the fo rm of an auromobilc, whilc
"ot hcr purgari vcs' were portrayed as lumbcring oxcarrs. Or of
Nocl Sy rup. which showcd a Santa Claus disrributing bis producr
ro a group of happy childrcn.
Incidenrally, ir wa s at about this time thar rhc figure of Santa
Claus bogan ro displace rhat of thc Chrisr Child in the mo re pro-
grcssivc bourgcois ci reles o Brazil. T o suc h parcms, thc ChilJ, t hc
mangcr , t hc linle houschold chapels, and Chrisemas Evc pastores all
seem cd r idiculously archaic.
In ' 9 ' 1 relarives of lai Cavalcanri de A lbuquerq uc w rotc her in
Sao Paulo, w here shc was living, ro rcll hcr of rhc progres..~ bei ng
made in her narivc R ccife, and scnding picrurcs of the Central Sra-
ricn, rhc new po rt fac ilit ies, lndcpendencc Squarc, and Rcpublic
Square ( fo rmer ly t he Sq uarc of t he Princcsses) . Ncr all rhcsc rcla-
tivcs wcrc enthusiasric ovcr th is son o prog ress; nor, as members of
an old noble famil y. wcrc they symparhct ic ro ward the "o thcr peo-
pie " who w cre becom ing more and mo re a pan o rhar sociery. lo
19 12 D ona Iai rec cived a card from a Recife rclative stating thar
"ou r coumry is full of illitcracy, politice! shenanigans, ::"'cgrocs and
m ulan os and is definitely goiog ro t he dogs." Progrcss in Recifc is
"comical, l can assu re rou. In rhe sq uare bcfore rhe City H all rhey
have m ade more ower beds an d havc raken away more of rhc
fcnces. And Jo rou know what rhe ma yor plans ro do w it h rhesc
fl ower heds? In rhc middle of one of them in front of the Treasury
an d t he P ublic Li bra r)', at the en d of the Buarq ue de '\1acedo
Brid ge, as a lTlooument to the foreigoers w ho have just d isembarked
in this Venice of A meric a, he has huilt (this is wonderful! ) a pis-
soir.' It mu st he seco to bc bclicvcd. . . ." A mI later: " \ Vhat
sh ameful peo ple w it h t heir heads full of t ap ioca, mush, black beans,
anJ saw dust! "
At t he same time another rclative wrote asking " D inda Jai" if,
immersed in the Sao Paulo fag, she cve r m issed t he " no rt hern dcli4
 a rder and I'rogress

cacies." She musr have felt suc h longings. dcspire rhc rcndcncy in
Rio de j aneirc and Sc Paulo ro ridiculc anything smacking of the
provinccs." In rhesc m odern cirics, ir was considcrcd inelcgant ro likc
regional foods, whcr her "non hcm dclicacics'' or ,\ linciro mashcd
beans, Rio Grande barbccue, or cccn t he cuscuz of So Paulo. Any-
thing from R io de J aneiro, 011 th c other hand, was hcld in high
estecru and in sophisticarcd circles ehrougbour rhc coun t ry turkey
Carioca bccamc rhc su pre me concession ro t hc narional cuisine, re-
placing feijoJdJ. caruru, t'tap, and orber dishcs repugnam to
Frene h rastes-c-dishes which. abovc all, wcre muc b too A fr ican and
plebian in origin ro continue as part of [he narional culinary rradi-
non .
O nc dish of Amcrindian origin which did not lose casre was rhc
rie h c hic kcn soup known as calIja, Pedro lI 's favorit c dish and one
highly praised by Tbeodore Roosevelr during his cxpcdition to the
Br azilian back land s in 19 13. Accc rdin g to Xl arshal Ronda n ( rhc
m ilita r)' cngineer w ho dcvorcd his life to the berrer menr of living
condirions fo r rhc Brazilian Indian and for whom t hc rcr rito ry of
R ond na in wesrem Brazil is named ) wirh w hom R ocseveh ma de
t hc jc um cy: "T his dish was a vcrirablc revelation ro our new ac-
quainrance. H e was ncvcr rircd of pra ising ir or seeing ir as pan of
thc menu of e\'e ry single mcal. H e vowed rhar he wc uld make it
known in rhc Unired Srarcs. Whencvcr w e wcre in a place wherc
wc could buy chickcns, we fixcd a cania for \ Ir. Roosevch's luneh
ami dinner. Whcn we were dccpcr into the interior, navigaring [he
warcrs of t hc River of Douht , we shor wild jacu and [acnrmgas,
w hic h wer e as good as chicken for rhis purpose." 1 le is unfortunarc
rhar canja de jacu, a Brazilian dish of [he firsr order, ncvcr bccame
known in [he ciries, not cven in Bclm. Hur thc cirics werc studi-
ously avoiding suc h rusricisrns, ro their own loss. The samc could
be said of t hc rustic use of medicinal hcrbs, w hich ncvcr rcccivcd
the bencfirs of indust rial developrnent.
Thc fi rsr Roosevelt did not rest riet his admiration for t ropical

9 Th e iond nl'S~ (or e~ re a t ll ri ng rus tic c haractc rs is cxemplifi ed in che e an"cd

fi gu re Di the nl)"lhical " Iinciro .\ la nucl T ilJ rd o de Anuncio.o, crealcd lJ y Ihe
you ng: humo ri' l "hrio Rrant ; or in Ihe ty pieal ,"ulgar comedian uf lhe hu rlc ~u c
,ho w,
I Mir o RQnJ ml" A po1ltamNllOr robre or Tr.>balhOf Realizador pe/a Comirriio
d e Linhar T e/cgroificar ESl13tgicas d e Jf3/11 G r o 1l0 30 Am.tW 1l3r $Ob a f) ireriio
d e Coronel J e F.llgI"II!;3ri3 CoindidQ .~' .tri.:m (l Ja Si/:Ja R ond on d e 19119 a 191f
( R iu de Janciro, ' 9 ' 6 ), pp . 416-7.
 T be G roiu b of l ndustry

dishes simply ro Cul1j,l. "Thc illusrricus gucst found our beans exccl-
lent and ofrcn rcqucsrcd rhat a largc po r of rhcm he prcpa rcd for his
fricnds and for mcmbcrs of rhc pan)'." In addition to food, Roosc-
vclr {whnsc cnrhusiasm [or Brazil suggests that of Law rcnce o
Arabia later for rhc O r ient } praiscd t he caboclos he saw in the
bac klands st ruggling for existencc against the mosr r igoro us natural
hazards. "A countr)" which can produce such so ns as thcsc," he
stated, "is bound to go far.' ~ Thar Theodorc Roosevelr could sal'
t his of a people wirh a rouc h of African hlood must ccrrainlv havc
disconccrtcd rhc Brazilian A ry anisrs. horrificd as t hey wcrc by lile
number of Xcgrocs and mulattos thar wcre filling the eoumry.
T hey rnusr also havc dcplorcd bis praisc of foods of cqnally non-
Europcan origin, foods which would ncver he scrvcd in the fi ne
houses of the time.
\ Vhcn Em lio Ca rdosc A yrcs rerurncd ro bis native land in 1910,
afrcr finishing prcp sc hool in England and srudying painting under
Frenc h masters in Paris, w har disrurbcd him was rhe lac k of dcprh,
as he saw ir, of the artisric life of rhc country, "an artisric life so
lim ircd rhar o ne could say ir scarcely cxists," as he wrote his mot hcr
from R io de J anciro on A lIgusr , 29 . Ir was an artistic mi lieu domi-
natcd in painring and sculpturc by sue h figures as Bcm ardelli, Ed-
uardo de Sd. Amodco. Parreiras. T hc Sc hool of Fine A rts sccmcd to
him "a miserable place in the er es of anyone who comes from
whcrc I have bccn.' AmI rhis could he said withour implying rhar
cvcryt hing abroad had bcen so perfccr as to prccludc his recciving a
good imprcssion o f his own countrr.
Tbc m odcmixat ion nnd rncrro politan progre5S of thc ciry did not
discou ragc him, as ar leasr one of his letters shows, bu t he was sad-
dcneJ by t hc pm'erry ami srcriliry of rhe artisrs in a count ry whosc
charmlay prccisely in th c facr tha t it 'tras so differcm from Eurcpe.
It was a pty rhar Emlio did nor also go re Baha. or ro Pcr , or to
rhc interio r on (lne of Rondon's expcd.it ions. 1'he)' might ha\c sup-
plicd t he " ita lit)' esscm ial to his sickly natu re. A handsom c lad, al.
wa)'s "er)' clegant in his dou ble -b rc a ~t cd c uats ma de by Rrandao,
he su1fcred, like Ru)' Barbosa, from \"Cr)' bad ey esight, as weH as
from ot her less e" idem ailments. B is disene hantmcnt w ith Brazil
probably explains w hy he subsequently becall1e a caricaturist- per-
haps tbe besr of all Brazilian ca ricaturists and ccrrain ly the besr,
most acut e, and most eomplex oC his t ime. D ur ing his later life in
~ Ihid. pp. 4J7. 4J8.
 arder and Progress

frica," he bccamc a painrcr, particu larly of pcnraits. Ir is signifi-

cant th at in Brazil. whose spirir of industrial and commcrcial p rog~
rcss he esscciatcd unfa vorably wirh his far her, rhc only portrait he
evcr painred was t hat of Dona Emilio, his rnorhcr.
lf Santos D umonr W:lS thc supcrhcro of t hc " A marclinbos,"
Emilio Cerdoso Ar res sccms ro havc bcen rhe supermanyr of a
myrh. His suicide in a provincial French hotel is significant in irs
soc iological implications: rhe inabiliry of rhis small man, ailing from
bin h, to accept whar his sbarp caricarurist's eye saw as bcing his
almosr scandalous physical dcrcrioraricn, in co nrrast ro rhc vigor-
ous, athlcric, rosy -chcckcd youths he hao seen in Swcdcn skaring,
skiing, romping in t hc snow. Th example of Santos D umonr was
no consolation ro him. lnsread, ir was a different pan of Brazilian
fo lklorc rhar dc fearcd him- rhc myr h of rhc palc linle wea kling who
turned himself, not into a hero bur into a werewolf a wcrewolf
fared ro roam the docks and stcws of F uro pe. ro the scandal of his
fricnds and family and that Brazil which thc Baron do Rio Branco
was trying ro make rcspecrable in the sight of Amcricans and Eu ro-
peans. Emlio Cerdoso Ayres did not wish to becomc a negarive
"A marclinho." His suicide was rhat of a wilred N arcissus, 3S well as
of an artisr falscly convinccd of his failure. Had he bcen anot her
Santos D ur nonr in spirie. he would have compcnsarcd for the physi-
cal inroads of time by rurning ro t hose materna l aspects of his na-
tive land rcprescn red by his mcrhcr. rhc misrress of rhe Gaipi
plant ation. rat hcr rhan ro thosc of his fathcr. rhc rich sugar ware-
houscman anxious for his son ro rakc ovcr rhc business and mak c his
mark in t hc bo oming eco nomic lifc of rhc ncw Brazil .
.1 In ' 9' 4 Em ilio w r"lc Irom Tcguer, a ,mal! narive \" iIlagc in T uni, ia: "T his
i, a beauriful place, hiJJen in an na, i, of 400,000 palm trc c, . an Anh town f un o f
intercsring ty pes,' in co ntra,t to Algicrs, wh ich had "uorhing uf imere'r al" ng
native ln es, bcc ausc thc Frcuch have ~poilc J en rp h ing wilh t hei. modern build-
ings and havc don e aw a~' wit h everyehmg rhat i, ,\ rah. There i~ o nly u ne narlve
q uarter lefl and this i, intcn , ring unly bee ause of thc types one ""C'S th crc."
 ~ [I XJ~

The Religiolls Order

I
~ 18 79 TII E C IIA:\lllE R UF DF.PCHF.S was discussing thc problcm o
tb e relationship bc twe cn the C hurch and highcr cdu carion in
Braxil. O ne of rhc speakcrs. a l a certain poinr during a long discus-
sino, was moved ro exclaim : " 1 am nor an cncm)' o the Carholic
Ch urch. gcnt1emcn. Bur ir is cnough for rhis Church ro havc CIl -
couragcd the devclopmcnr o rhc arts. 10 havc played rhc part ir has
play cd in hisrory. ro be rhe C hurch of t he grcat majoriry of Brazil-
ians and of OU t race. I am nor againsr :10)' of rhcse th ings. And when
Carholicism bccomcs pan of rhc soul of C"CTr One, I rcspeet ir: ir is a
religi n of conscicnce.. .. Bur whar I do opposc is rhis polirical
Cerholicism, rhis Carholicisrn which allies irsclf wirh all absolure
gcvcrnmcnts." I
Thc speaker was a dcputy from rhc province of Pernambuco:
j oaquim Nabuco. j oaquim Au rl ic Barreta Xabu co de Arajo was
born in a Recife sobrado ami brougbr up in th c Big I Iouse of an
arisroc raric sugar plantario. ,\ la r;angana, propen y of his gcd-
rnorher Dona A na Rosa; thc planrarion whcre he lcarncd ro rcpeat
his I'aternoster in [he chape! of 55:0 .\ Iateus. Whar he was opposing
was t he Brazilian rendcncy to creatc more free Carholic collcgcs.
similar ro rhose of Belgium, ccllegcs which he fcared would bccomc
bastions of orrhodoxy in oppcsition ro scicncc. And wirhour sci-
ence there could be no t ruc Brazilian progress. "Scientifically speak-
ing," he said, "rhc pcople who know Brazillcast are rhc Brazilians
rhcmselves . . . the domain of narurc, so prodigiously opco hcfore
our very cycs, has ncvcr bccn devclopcd rhrough Out own
1 Joaquim Nabuco . Discursos PJ,bmemJ , es t Rio de Janeiro, ' 949) , p. ,o.

'"
286 Order and Progress
cfforts. : ' T bis was his goal : "narional progrcss, scicntifi c tee-
uom.
.1 " ..
~

Brazil was then [use at rhc beginning of a pcriod vvhen Progrcss

was rhc god and Sciencc che goddcss of rhe intellectu al lire. so
much su rhat it was considcring, wit h .' l art ins J nior. rhc replacc-
ment of ly ric poerr), wirh "scienrific pocrry'' and. wirb orhcrs, of
subsritunng rhc tradirional fairh wirh "scientific religin." "Scicn-
nfic polirics, " "scienrific dic rarorshi p," "sciennfic critcism" were
)'cr furthcr cxpressions currcnr in a Braz.il already republican in
sorne aspccts of its lifc. T llUS it was rhar mcn like t hc young jea-
q uim Nabuco could not conccivc of religi n exccpt in a scienrific
conrext.
Tbis was rhc war nnorhcr ardenr apolcgisr fo r "nacional prog-
ress,' Ruy Barbosa, also fclr abo ut marrers of religi n. In rhe Impe-
rial alliancc of Chu rc h and St arc, he, along wirh other young pu blic
figures of inrcllccrual bcn r. perccivcd rhe principal obsracle tu both
scicnce and progrcss in Brazil.
O n Seprember JO. 1879. Nabuco rerumcd ro t he subjecr, rhis
rime wirh a proposa! in favor of t hc sccula rization of ce me rcrics. H e
was not defending Proresranrism or j udaism. he explained , borh had
show n t hcmsclvcs qu ite ablc ro handle rhc problcrn of burying thcir
dcad. "T hc En glish race could not havc populared thc world. could
not havc cr eared great cclon ics which restificd ro rhe future destiny
of Brirain ro rule thc world. withour baving cvcrywhere, in sorne
form or other, Found rhe mcans to bury irs dcad according ro the
dictares of irs rel igion, irs c usroms. and rhe scnrimenrs which ob-
raincd in rhc .\ Iorher Co untry." T he A nglo-Saxon Prorcsranrs
would not have bccomc csrablishcd in such cirics as Ric de j aneiro
"if rhcy had nor bcen ablc ro livc according ro rheir rel igion in mar-
rers of borh lifc and dcarb." T he sarne could be said for rhc j cws,
who fo r religious reasons prefcrre d ro inrer rheir dead in separare
cemcteries. Therc werc orhcrs, howcver, who in Brazil conrinued
after dcat h to be subjccted to w har ~abllco called " religious perse-
cution" in the form of the temporal ju risd ic ron exercised o\"er the
cemeterics by t he Cat holic C hurch. Sta ting again his ea nviction
that rhe prescnt re ligio-polt ical order w as contra r)' ro progress,
:\'abuco told t he Chamber of D eputi es: "O ne of t he d uties of the
statesrnan, of the man v.'ho re ally interests himself in his counrry's
progress, is to sllccced in reso lving aH the antagonisms standing in
z luid., p. 1 10 .
 T he Retgious arder

the wa)' nf rhc echicvcmenr of such an cnd, so rhar the sennments

which cause citizcns ro Iove thei r coumry are constanrly multiply-
ing. so rhae the ideas on which al! are in agrccrnenr becomc more
ami more num erc us." a
Nabuco was also rouching here on a prohlem dcvclopcd furthcr
in a Iarer specc b ( rhar of j uly 16, 1880) on t hc subject of religious
frccdom in relarionship ro civil marriagc, ro rhc organizarion of rhc
fam ily and to immigration. He could nor conceive of a free ano
progressivc coumr)' in which "all of thc immense power invclved
in rhc authoriry to aurhorizc or prohibir marriage" was in the hands
of rhe clcrgy, anJ in which "all rhc questions relativo to rhe consri-
rurion of thc family" depended upon rhc judgment of the ecclcsias-
tical courts. Nor could he undcrsrand how such a coumry could
conrinue ro educare minisrcrs ami pricsrs for one spccificd religion
cnly. "Ycsrerday ! vcted against rhe appropriation for rhe scr ni-
narics'tla rgcly bccause in such seminarios childrcn are led t bccome
pricsrs through the glib pcrsuasions of rheir reachcrs. whc educare
rhem "in a spcciel armosphcrc of rnysticism, isolarcd from al l
ambitions ano parrioric aspirarion . . . ." ~ The Church, rbcrcfore.
oughr to do this son of cducarion ar its own expense.
In rhcse rhrcc speeches j oaquim Nabucc cxprcssed rhc leading
objecrions on thc pan of sorne Brazilians ro thc union of Church
and Stare. Th esc Brazilians wcrc for rhe mosr pan young men who,
wirh rhc aboliticn of slavery. were looking ahcad ro rhc day when
free labor would rcplace ir and werc aware of rhe nccessity of ac-
cording the non-Carholic immigrant thc same civil rights as rhosc
cnjoycd by membcrs of rhc rradirional faith. lt was a ncccssiry
which, once gcncrallv acceprcd, would profoundly alter rbe cxisr-
ing rel igious order, obliging rhe Chu rch to give in on the qucsrons
of civil marriagc and rhc sccularizarion of cemcreries. Such conces-
sions. brouglu abour by pressures from the stare in requcnr con-
fl ict wirh the Papal Nuncio in Rio de j aneiro. would fi nan)' bring
abour a complete scpararion of Church and Srare, as in facr it did
wirh rhc coming of rhe Republic. Ano in so smoorh a manner rhar
Catholicism did not resent this apparcnt lack of rcspecr for the
country's long rc1igious (radition. On rhe contrar)', because of thc
wal' in which thc Empire, through somc of its ,\ lasonic statesmen
(<lne of rhem the Viscount do Rio Branco) , had acred against the
3 Ib d ., pp. ",17, 190;1. : O~.
' bid., pp. 151. 151.
288 arder and Progress
C hurch in rhc cclcbrared affair o rhc bishops, man)' Brazilian Carh-
olics. including sorne parricularly conscious of rhei r rcligious re-
sponsibilirics. were already prcdispos ed ro accept rhis sepa ration.
Princc Dom Lus d'Orl ans-Braganca, thc mosr illu strious grand-
son of Pedro 11 and somcrime pretender ro his rhronc, rccognizcd
this in his perceptivo analysis of rhe ca llarse o rhe Brazilian mo n-
archy published in Pars in 1912 under thc title Sous la Crox du
Sud (Under sbe Soutbem Crcrr) , He rccalls thar tbc affair o the
bishops was t hc rcsulr of " too closc a union berwcen Church and
Srare," a un ion w hich had " numcro us inconvenicnces," including
a lack of tact cm both sides." \Vhcn rhe prelates insisted 00 pro-
hibiring rhc ent rence o f Masons inr o rcligious organizarions, the Im-
perial go vernmcnt "rook rhc side of rhe Freemasons." As a result,
rhe t wc bishops most active in t he anti-.\1 asonic cause, Dom Frei
V iral, Bishop of Olinda. and Dom Ant nio ,\lacedo Costa, Hishop
of Par , proclaimed an inrerd ict against the ehurehcs and chapels of
rbe ord crs rhar rcfuscd ro obcy thc anti-Masonic decree, a deeree
supporred by Papal bulls. The governmcnt, in its turn, responded
t hrough rhc courts, and thc bishc ps were eondemncd ro spcnd four
ye ars in prison at hard labor. Through an Im perial act of clernency,
the hard labor rcquirement was dispenscd with, bur t hc conderrmed
in en actually spent more than a y ear in prison before bcing released
in 1875 under a deeree o arnncsty following rhc fall of the Rio
Branco Cabiner."
Ir was because o this "deplorable conflict"-as Prinee Dom Lus
calls ir-e-char thc Brazilian high cle rgy losr intcrest in rhe monarchy
and carne ro rcgard rhe fi free nth of Novcmbcr as " a desirablc liber-
aricn." 1 This also explains the publicarion of a pastoral letter on
,\ lareh 19. 1890. in which rhc Braz ilian episcopacy expresscd its re-
joicing over thc cnd of rhc "rcgal opprcssion" under w hic h ir had
~ Lu s d'O rl ans-Braganca: Sous Id Croix d Sud (P ars, 191 2) , p. 15.
6 Dom V ital was a c h urchman wbos e influcnce was prclonged intc the carly
Republic, reccted nor onl y in thc ocwspapen; bu t also in maoy popular man i.
Iestation s whic h rumed lhe bi~h(Jp imo a charismalic fi gu re and the ob ject of al.
mOSI saintly dcvotion. Sume of rhcse tribu tes werc le,,~ ecclcsiasrical, howcver . 001'
robaccc fi no produced a cjgarerre namcd in his honor beari ng the masculine,
black-bcardc d port rait of the bishop a~ its rr adema rk. For sorne time il w as a
ta.otile hnn d wil h Carholics. whereas fhc am i-c1 cricals smoked ]ow .\ larianos
Of ] oaquim N abllcos. Rn ziliao newspapen; of lhe li me al~o co m ained ad \"en ise.
me Ols for Julions and brilliamin.-s wh ich assen ed tha! Ihese brands were ta H'red
by D om V ital in the care of his bc ard .
7 O rlns-BT:lganr;a, o p. c i!., p. , 6.
 T he Retgious arder

bccn living an d lookcd Iorward. undc r rhc dccrcc of scpararion en-

acred by thc pro visional govcrnmenr. ro a degree of liberty never
obraincd by rhe Church undc r rhc monarc hy .
Farhcr joscph Bumichon devores an enrirc chaprer of his Le
Ir si d'A ll jourd'lmj ro rhis affair, po iming out that under rh e Em -
pire pr iesrs had becornc go" crnmcm fu nc rionarics, paid by rhc stare
like an)' other cmployce, and consequcntly drawn spiritually into
rhe atmospherc o mona rc hic bu rcaucracy. No good had come of
rhc " Iarge proporrion of pricsts" in rhe fi rsr lr npcrial Asscrnbly.
particulrly since sorne. if not all, o f rhcse clerical dep uries were
among the prog rcssives w ho in 18z8 favorcd lcgislarion making
w ay fo r rhc eventu al suppression uf rcligious ordcrs in Brazil. T his
was the bcginning of rhc long-drawn-our dcath agon), of rhese or-
dcrs. d uring which old and illusrrious co nvenrs were dcgradcd by
being tumcd inro barracks. public offi ccs. librar ics, pro vinc iallogis-
lurive asscmblics, and asylur ns. An entire rcligious ordc r was being
disrupred nnder rhe prctext of hringing Brazi! inrc th c rhy rhm of
Anglo-Saxon Prorcsraru prog ress, an acrion w hich sucb men as Feij
an d Abreu e Lima ininally and lnrer suc h orhcrs as t hc y ou ng j oa-
qu im Nabuco and t he young Ru y Barho sa-of th c memorable
prefacc t o O Papa e o COllclio-l11aintained was not merely a pro-
g rcssive nct bur Prog ress itsclf. Absolurc. uniquc. all-inclusive P rog-
ress in which Brazilian rcl igion, rcpudiatinp rhe Hispano-Larin
Catholicism which was causing ir to fall hehi nd An glo-Saxons and
Proresrants. shoul d withour dclay ad jusr ro thc presento divorcc it-
sclf fr om rhc t utelage of Romc. and preserve mcrcly a personal Ca-
rholicism. a Carholic isrn of individual conscicnce and senriment and
no m ore. Such was rhc ad vicc o j oaq uim N abuco. Thesc radical
young men com plcrcly failcd ro scc the value of Cat holcism as a
preserver of rhc fam ily. hy thnt culr linkcd ro [he pat rias-chal sys-
rem in which [he pricsrs became a sofrcned vcrsion of rhc Parriarch.
rhe fash ionable c hurc hcs sllc h as !\Tossa Sen hora da G l ria in Ro de
Janciro sen 'ed as the locales fo r t rysts and social ga[herings, and
aristocratic r oung lad ies do nat ed their long, silken hair ro cove r
images of t he saints and the V irgin, making [hese images vinually
mem bers o f t he family . Foreign Pro[est ants naturally looked upon
t his poet ic associat ion w ith t he patron saints as a sim ple evide nce of
supecst itious po pe r),. but it is Jiffi cult ro exc use [he ~a bu cos. Ru ys,
anJ Silveira .\ la rr ins, w ho we re brought up in t he traditio n. for
rheir pedantic remdia[ion of [he valucs emhod ied in these ritual
 Order and Progress

relarionships t har wcre so vital a pan o f rhc religious order and so

clcscly linked ro t he tradirions of rhe amily.
It is possible rhar sorne of thcsc traditicns were a surviv al of rhe
Indian lim egy of che pagodas, absorbed by Catholicism t hro ugh
con ract with rhc tropical Oriento Ewbank was convinced of rhis by
rhc cu srom of votivo offcrings to the sainrs made in Brazilian
churcbcs and also by the Camival. w hich he had scen in Ri o de
j aneiro during th c carly reign of Pedro 11. But it has always bcen
t hc cusrom of rhc Church ro tolerare rhcse pra crices whencvcr th ey
are uscful to rhc Cat bclic cause and in no way c omp romis o rbe es-
scnrial onhodoxy of thc fairh .
It rnusr be noted rhar Pr orcsrants Iikc Kidder and Flcrcher fou nd
ir mcrely picruresquc t har Brazilians of rhe nin ereenrh ccnm ey
shou ld makc gifrs and vows to O ur Lady in rhc fonn of varicolcrcd
ribbons. owers, or precious srones. and of clothing for pecple of
al1 agcs-c-thc lartcr rhe gift of mot hers whosc VDW S were made
under rhe affiict ion of a sick child in rbc family." In facr, ths aes-
rhet ic of vc ws and offerings was mcrely an cxrcnsion of the patriar-
ch al era in w hieh rhc vcrv choice of clorhing, houscs. and furnirure.
insrcad of being made ar personal whim, followcd a rc!igious order
and s),stem that governed virtually rhc enti re cxisrcncc of rhe indi-
vidual. ' Ve need only note rhc infiucnce th is system has had on rhc
acadcrnic drcss. and particu larly rhc acadcrnic rings, of t hc different
schools and disciplines. in which colors. insignia, and jewels differ
entirely from rhe sysrem esrablishcd in Europe during rhe M iddle
Ages. in Brazil, for exarnple, the ruby srands Ior Law, t he emerald
for Medicine, rhc sapphirc for Engineering. Nobody has heen able
to explain rhis abc rraricn. but rhe Portugucse social historian j oo
l.cio d'Azevedo conjecturcs rbar it could indicare sorne rcmote
o rient al inuence , t hc sarne sort of influencc which probably
affcceed t hc Church in its con tact . horh direct and indirect, wirh
India and China,
So, too, the fi rcworks, to this day are inseparable fr om public cele-
brarion of saints' days. as well as from crher celehearions in honor of
impo rtanr pcrsons Oe c\'ents, O n such days t he fi rccracker. the set
piece. ami co loeed fi res played an important eole in t he vigorou s
enthusiasm commcmorating various saims, kings, princes, and also
Beazilian victories whieh wou ld aggrandi7.e rhc country in foreign
~ Jame, C. Flclcher and D aniel P. Ki<l l! cr : Brll W Jnd Ihe 8 r.r.:iliJ" (4th edn.,
H<>!iTon, 1879) , p. QR.
 Tb e ReJigious a rder
eres. For many of rhc ordinary pcoplc. cven thcsc secular dcmon-
srra rions had a religious flavor, suc h vic rorics could not have beco
gained, thcy wculd sayo wirhour the hclp and prorccrion of Cod
and the sainrs.
T he orie ntal art cf pyrotcchnics in Hrazil rcach cd a peak of
artistry perhaps un equaltcd in an)' ot hcr countr)' in the hcmisphcrc.
\Videly travelcd fo reign cbscrvers. on sceing rhc grear fireworks
displavs hcld duri ng Imper ial days on Glria H ill in R io de j anciro.
have srared thar such artisrry was marched only in China." This
skill had bccn dcvclopcd through rhe long associarion of rhis unde-
niably pagan art wirh rhc fcsrivals of t he Carholic Church, particu-
lady t hosc in honor of Santo An r nio, S50 j oo, and S'io Pedro,
whcn all Brazil-ccity, town, ano villagc, farm. planraticn, and
ranch-hecam e onc scinrillating d isp lay o f fircwo rks. Every puhlic
square had irs elaborare and dazzling ser picce, every home its
bon fire, and ever)' child bis cap pistol, pinwheels, and fi recrackcrs.
Then rhere werc the cclebrarions of regional sainrs, or of the par
ricular saints of rhe ncig hborhood. rhc srrcct , or neo rhc individu al
farm or plantation, celcbrations which ro this ver)' dar divide Bra-
zilians inro a complex o f privare c ults ami produce the addirional
spice of vigorous rivalries, wir h each group rrying ro outdo thc
ot her in irs devotions ro this or rhar Sainred Lady : th c followcrs of
O ur Lady of G uadalupe disdaining the follo wcrs of Sant a Ifi g nia.
both N cgrcsscs, rbosc of Our Lady of Carmo lauding rheir parron-
ess ovcr tbosc of O ur Lady of Penha. bot h whire, bur un e blond
and the orher brunetr e.
Bue these rivalries always paled bcsidc the rnassive solidar ity of
Brazilians of all colors, raccs. climatcs, and rcgions bchind rhe fig-
ures of Sao j oo. Santo Antonio, and Sao Pedro. In naming chi-
drcn, fo r examplc, rhe namc Hcncdito (a black saine) is givcn only
ro N egrees or descendants of Negroes or ro wlure boys whosc
pious Carholic mother, despcrarc ro scc her child su rvive, offers ro
humble borh herself and her child by giving him a Negro name. The
sanie could he said of such namcs as lfig nia, or ,\ taria do Rosrio
among the gir ls. Bm Joao, A ntonio, and Ped ro (along with Jos,
Francisco. and ,\ 1anuel) are names gi\'en ro boys of all ra ces, dasses,
aod regions. as are ,\ t aria. Ana, ami Teresa forgir ls.
Ir is interesting to note rhat , among thc founders of the Brazilian
Republic, there was ,\ tanuel D eodoro da Fonseea, whose name
& bid. p. 99.
 arder and Progress
(general ly undcr rhe form of Dcodoro rather rhan .\Ianuel) was
givcn ro m;:!ny a Brazilian born in 1889" And t hcre wcre many
Ruys. Hcnjamins. nnd Florianos afrcr thc fifrccnrh of No vcmber,
marking a ncw civic tcndcncy in norncnclarurc in a country where
thc tradition had bccn ro givc rhc names of saints, classical fi gures,
aurhors and litera-y c haractc rs such as .\Iilton or L amartin e, heroes
of rhc Paraeuaven

\ Var, men of science and invenrion such as New-
ton. Franklin, Edison. or-in an affirmarion of narivism-c-of Amcri-
can Indians. Nor was there any shorrage of Catholic name s among
the orr hodox. Viral. in honor of rhc bishop who bccamc disillu-
sioned wirh the roy alism of rhe Empire, or Po (Pius}, or Lcc
(Leo) . or Lus Gonzaga, or Francisco de Assis, or Vicente de
Paulo. There were also nurn erous \ Iarias de Lourdcs in honor of
t hc ncw Carholic devoree, or Xla rias de Nazarcth, or ,\ Iarias de
Aparecida, or ,\taria lsabcls-c-thc last in honor of rhe Princess con-
side rcd by lIlany, and cspccially by N egrees. as a grcar Carholic and
rcdcmptress of rhe N egro race. There were many Teresas, for tbc
Empress T eresa Cristina. "morhcr of Braz.ilians," as wcll as Franciscas
and j anu rias afrcr thc royal princcsses. And dcspiec rhe opposi-
rion ro j csuirism borh within ami oursidc thc Church. rhcrc con-
rinucd ro be admircrs who ga\"c rheir children the name o In cio
Lcyola.
One who cen ainly was no admirer and whosc younger years
wcrc markcd by strong anti-clerical feeli ngs was Ruy Barbosa,
aurhor of a proposal in 1890 to separate Church and Sute. Passcd
inro law and incorporatcd into thc Constirurion onc year laterorhis
proposal conrinucd thc inrerdiction of rhc Company of j csus and
prohibited thc foundation of convcnrs and monastcrics. Another, as
we have already seen, was Joaquim Nabuco, who rwenty-f ice years
ca rlicr had anticipatcd Ruy in his advocacy of a Carholicisrn of
"conscience and senrimenr." A Catholicism alrnost devoid of ritual.
wirhout proccssicns in rhc strccts or novenas m rhe saints; without
fesrivats. or chaplers or culrs of rhc Virgin in rhe horne. A Carholi-
cism which would bccomc Anglo-Saxonizcd, Protestantized. copied
from rhe .\l ethodism of England ami rhe Q uakcrs of the Unired
Stares as, in other ,valks of Jife, Brazilians had copied these coun-
tries' laws or custoJl\Sor SpOrtS (at a time. srrangely enough. when
[hese countries. rhrough the OxforJ .\lo\"ement and the growing
Romanisl1l of rhe Episcopal Church. were going rhrough the mos[
Latinizing process in rheir rcligiolls histor)' ). Acrually. it was 1\'a-
 Tb e Religious Order

buco's or RlIY Barbosa's kind of cxh onation which lcd a consider-

able numbcr of the Brazilian lire (O bccome indifferenr tu rhc
Church. wirh the resulr thar, evcu during rhe Empire. the priesr-
hood at tracrcd a subsrantially smaller num ber of can didares. A nd
wirh rhe Rcpublic, thcrc werc many who added ami-clerical semi-
menrs ro tbcir republicanismo
The c1ergy in du e rime rcbelled againsr rhc provisions in rhc Con-
stirution of the Republic which excluded thc Company of j esus and
rhc foundarion of monast ic insritutions. An d rhey rebclled wirh
such vigor rhar evcn R uy Barbosa had ro give way bc fo rc thc tradi-
rional Carhclicism reprcsc nrcd wirh unequalled aurhoriry by Dom
Anrnio M accdo Costa, Bisho p of Bahia. Tbc bishop demandcd rhc
right of all Brazilians ro worship God and practice rhc Christ ian
religion according ro the rraditions of rhe counrry, tradirions he
implicd, if not declari ng in so many words, werc Latin, R oman, and
Spanish, As a Brazilian Carholic, he was conscque nrly dirccrly 01'-
posed ro rhc un- Brezilian and un-Cat holic proposal which would be
rhe firsr srep in sepa raring Chure h and Srare.
As a rcsulr of rhis vigorous profesr on rhc pan of the Brazilian
cpiscopacy, thc scpararion law which was finally enactcd in 1890, in
the words of Fathcr j oseph Burnichon, "could hardly have becn
more bcnevolent and amicable." And the good F rench Jesuir, wrir-
ing in Iljoll. could nor forego rhc tcmptation ro add rhe ironic com -
mentary : ". , , rhe aurhor of thc law punishcd himself larcr by en-
rrusring rhc jcsuirs wirh rhe ed ucarion of his son ." 1 \ Ve shall see
later rhar j oaquim N abuco cnded IIp as a pracricing Carholic and
complered his rcinregrarion wirh Brazilian relgion when ene of his
sons cnrcrcd rhe priesrhood.
The decl ine in rhe calling ro rhe pricsthood. neverrheless, was une
of thc gravesr problcms of rhc period. Wir h rhc gradu al breakup of
rhe parriarchal sysrcm in family, economic, and polncal life, thc
priesr was faeed wi eh an cnrirely differcnt situarion. Formerly rhe
rcligious acr iviry of the cou nt r)' had been more under th e co nt rol
of rhe parriarch rhan of rhe bishop, with th e c1ergyman fill ing the
co mforrable role of uncle-priesr, more a member of rhe fam i!y t han
an individual priesr at th e service o f rhe Church, As this pleasant
and easy rclationshi p disappeared, Illa ny )'oung Brazilians who
wOllld fornlcrly have tamely cntered rhe priesthood in accordance
wirh rhe fondesf wishes of a pious mOfher or rhe stern ord ers of an
1 ]O"'ph Bum ichon : Le n . hi/ dAujou.d'/Jui ( Pa ri~ 1910) . pp. 191. 19, .
294 arder and Progress

impcrious fathcr found rheir intcrcsrs ruming ro orher professions.

Ano thc fonn cr parr iarch s thcmsclves were lcss anxious to havc
rheir sons entcr a calling whose durics. now become exclusivcly
clerical or monasric, wo uld be of considcrably Icss advanrage ro rhc
insrirut ion o t hc family. In an oral tcsrimony, onc illustrious Hraxil-
jan w ho al t hc end o t he past cenruTr dccided te enrcr the priest-
hood confcsses thar his cxperience was vasrly differcnt From t har o
his uncle, a classical trpe o u ncle -priesr. For rhc younger man, thc
association was nor ene o privare chaplain ro a family whose inrer-
esrs werc tribal and, by exrension, narional. bur rarbcr [O t he
Church, whose prcsrige now surpasscd thar o :lny individual patri-
arch ami whose laws dcmanded a religious dcvorion and a fidcliry ro
dury fa r grcater than anything which had cxisrcd in previous gener-
arions. In rhe tace of thesc dcmands, roget her with the simultaneous
decline in rhc prcsrige of the family, thcrc was a decline in rhe num-
ber of young men enrcring the serninaries. By 1907 Brazil could
claim only , priesr for every ' 5.DOO Cerholics, whercas rhc Unircd
Stares-,-a Protesranr co unrry-c-had a ratio of 1 to 867.2
This decline in numbers, howcver, scems to havc brought ahout a
nor inconsiderablc st rengt hening of rhc intellecrual and moral quali-
ries of rhe Brazilian c1 ergy. Under the parriarcbal regime, far too
many agrccd ro cntcr rhc priesrhood simply for rhc social presrige
rhcn art achcd ro an ccclesiusrical carcer, with t he result rhat t hc
Hrazilian clcrgy hccamc notorious for irs "imrnoralhy." "Thcrc is
no c lass of men in rhe whole E mpire whose lives and practiccs are
so corrupt as rhose of rhc pricsrhood," says Flcrcher and Kiddcr in
rhc , 879 edirion of BrZil l111.J the Rrilzilil1J1s}
Ccrtainly rhc duries of a priesr were not parrcul arly rmcrous, in
Fletcbcr's opinin. At a time whcn almosr evcryone suffcrcd fr om
wcaring clot hes "excecdingly inconvcnienr in a warm climate .. .
under a hot sun rhat makes everyonc else swclter, rhc pad re. wirh
his uncovercd ronsu rcd hcad. with his thin gowns and airy laces.
scems prcpared for a tropical clime." B is religious acrivity consiseed
largely in saying mass in the cool of rhe early moroing. bringing the
Hasr ro rhe dr iog. and accompanying funerals, almosr invariably in
a car or wagon. He also hapri7.ed. perforrn ed marriages, and hcard
confcss ions. Church holidays, both solemn and festive, werc no
Ionger so numerous as in fonncr times and by 1878 were confined
2 Ibid., p. l yl.
J Fletcher ~nd Kidd cr : 0r. cit. r ' 4' .
 T he Religious arder

generally ro Easrer. Palm Sunday. Allelujah. wit h its Jud as. and the
fesriva ls of Sao J orge, Sao joc, Sa nto Ant nio, and Sao Pedro,
wirh rh eir fi rcworks. rhcir horsc racing (a Brirish impon) , an d rheir
"aucrio ns." In sorne plac es, ro rhc scandal of Pr ctcsranr foreign-
ers, images of rhc H olv Spirit could be boughr in gol d, silver, or
sorne orher silver-likc metal ; cach wirh its resp ective pricc. Pricsrs
werc ofrcn profcssors, or poers, or joum alists; otbcrs were poliri-
cians, m embers o rhe Chamber o D cputies or thc Sellare. Thus
even t he average padre. according ro Fletch cr, was mcsr cloquenr
"i71 ore rotundo Lusit-mimn" and in rhe pulpir.
Anglo-Saxon visirors likc Ewbank, K idder, and Fletchcr, whosc
c losc arrenrion ro Hrazilian rel igious Iife during the late Empire con-
vinced them rhar rh c Brazilians werc victims o popery, were fur-
ther asro nishcd ro scc advcniscmcnts fo r prayers ro be used againsr
illncss and pcstilcncc appcaring in thc R io de J aneiro ne wspapers
alongsidc simila r displays pushing t hc sale of drugs and remedies:
"Praycrs ro bless rhc heme against t he present cpidcmic, orna-
mcn rcd wirh rcligious cmblems. Price 80 res, Rua dos Laroeiros,
N o. 59." Or "Sainted \Vo rds, Religion's w eapon againsr rhe te rr ors
of cbolera, wbich will he calmcd by Divinc justice, as was the c ase
in rhe royal manastery of San ta Cla ra in Coimbra in 14Ro. Sold in
the R ua da Quitanda, 1\'0. 174. Price, 320 reis" 5 Fletcher also
nored rbar many Hrazilians relied as well o n a scapula r worn Arab-
Cashion aroun d rhc ncck ro "roreet them from the plague.
Fo r this samc reason rhcrc werc frcqucnt proccssions oCpcnirents
during rhc Sccond Empire, with m en drcssed in rags and fi ne ladies
going barefoor. T hough such processio ns disappcarcd in rh c capital
cirics with t hc corni ng o t hc Republic, rhey co ntinued ro exist in
(he interior during the car ly decadcs of rhc cellt ury and, indeed, in
sorne plac es are st ill ro be secn ro t his day, parncul arly in sancruaries
suc h as rhosc of Lapa, Aparecida. Santo A maro de Serinbar m, or
Sao Sevcrinc dos Ramos, an d occasionally in urban ccnt ers as -well,
for cxamplc at N osso Senhor de Bonfim in Bahia o r Nazareth in
Santa ,\ 1ara de Belm. Thc puriran in t he Reverend .\1 r. Flct c her
caused him ro be re pellcd by " rh c g rand annual festival of N aza-
reth"; ro him sueh things were not religious edifie ation but rncrely
exc uses for dancing, flr eworks. and games o chance.6 And another
'bid.. pp. LH- S. l.p -ll.
5 1bid., pp. ,slH).
6 Ibid., p. 561.
 arder and Progress

Prorestanr clcrgy man, t hc Englishman Walsh, srarcd t har rhc Bra-

zilians wc rc n valled only hy the Turks in thc vase quantirics of gun-
powder thcv manageJ ro cxplodc 0 11 thesc fcsrivc occasic ns.
A II t hese observen; notcd, as mig br he expec rcd, rhar Brazilian
Cathclics had considerably less respec t for thc Sabbath than did the
Anglo-Saxcn Prc rcsranrs. In rhis che Hrazilians, of coursc, werc nor
exccprional, rhc samc atr itudc could have bccn fo und among rhc
French and It alians. Thcre w cre military parajes on Sundays, ami
rhc rhear rcs and opem houscs were evcn more crowdcd than on
weekdays. T his w as also rhc da)' for livcly percussive music in thc
parks aod public squares, playcd from thosc oncnral-styl c band-
srands fo uod in cvcr)' Brazilian smal l town durin g thc early cen-
t ur),.
Thc Chu rch. for irs parr, wa s gcncrall y indiffcrcnt at rhc time 10
thc significance of rhc Sabba rh, borh as an occasion of srricr reli-
gious obser vancc and as a pcriod of rcst for the workingman, includ-
ing rhe srore cm ployccs of capirals suc h as Rio de Janeiro, Salvador,
Recife , Sao Paulo. and Bclm. In 1878, while all t he fo reign com-
mercial csta blishmcnrs cl oscd t heir doors on Sundays. many domes-
tic rerail srores r emaincd open. at leasr duriog the m orning hours.
Sunda y was also t hc favor ito dar for aucrions, a Brazilian custor n
which com inucs to tbis day dcspiee a law prohibiting ir passcd in
1852. Hur t hose who were most scandal ixcd by
rhis rrcarm ent of
Sunday as just anothcr working day overlookcd the number of
sainrs' days du ring thc yea r which closcd the storcs and gave rhcir
em ployees enough holidays almosr ro compensate for rhc Sunday
r cse and recrcaticn denicd t hem by t heir cm ploycrs.
In this connccrion it is inrcresting to note the lisring of saints'
days fou nd in rhc T eologa Xorel of Farhcr .\1amlc1 do Alonrc
Rodrig ues d'Arajo. profcssor of religin at the Olinda scminary
and later Ninth Bishop o Ro de Janeir o anJ Co unt de Iraj. Ilere
it is show n [hac Brazil under l)om Pedro 11 cclebrated not (lnl)'
tll m e spccific days dec recd by U rban V III in i 6.,p , but also added,
as the dccree permincd. rhe local celeb ration o f tlle parra n saint of
the provinc e, tne cirr. and rhe ne ighhorhood. Sucll days w ere di -
vided int o days of rest, of w hicn there were from 20 ro 2 5, and
501ne 10 ro ' 5 days of d ispensation. whcn working was al loweJ bm
attendance ar mass was ohligatory . T his \Viii perhaps indi cate the
gr eater importance attachcd ro si nts' days than to Sllndays and
suggest the paralyzing effect such cclebrations tended to exert on
 --

Tb e Rcligiotts arder

commercc, ind usrry, ano fanning at th c time. Ir was rhcrefore in

thc cconomic inrercst of the country tha t rhc Church pcrmitrcd
Sunday labor, just as rhc busincssmcn, rogct hcr wirh t hc planration
OWIlCrs and indu stria lists, tacirly accc ptcd their ohligarion ro ob -
serve rbc splcndid rcligious fest ivals wit h which th c Cat holic
Church mainraincd rhc rcligious ordcr of rhc coumry wirhoue fcel-
ing irself obliged to takc up a srrice position on rhc kccping o rhc
Sabbarh.
T hcre wcrc rhose who norcd thar on Snndays. in cines through-
OUt rhe Empirc, "many shops are kepr opeo and sorne kinds uf
our door labor carricd on. Billiard rooms and orher places of arnuse-
mene are more frcqu en rcd th nn 0 11 workdays." 7 In fact, ir was (111)'
011 Sunday afrernoons rhar workers and shop clerks wcrc eble [Q
cojo)' a holiday. One clerk at rhc cnd of rhe ninereenrb century
srarcs t hat on rwo Sunda ys a month he had ro remain in thc sro rc 0111
day, acring as a guard whilc rhe othe rs rook rhcir afternoon off.
O nly rhe clcrks w hosc esrahlishments closcd on Sundays could have
rhc w hole day free from billiards, for lounging in rhc public sqllare,
or for the rhcat rc.
At rhe thearre ene o rhcir grcat favorircs a l rhe t ime was ster
de Carva lho, whosc fans amon g rhc c1erks sponcd a wh ite cam arion
as a sigo of rhcir almosr idolarrous worship of rhis arrisr. T hc uni-
vcrsiry students, who fevorcd rhe Spaniard Pepa Ruiz, indicarcd
t heir prcferencc by a red camarion." U nlike t hc clerks. thcy also
carried canes. Each grou p had irs own particu lar parron saine as
well and kepr ro itself in rhe religious processions. Ir was not lon g
bc fore t he milirary caders formed a rhird group, wit h th cir panicu-
lar favorircs among actrcsscs and sainrs and rhcir own fr atern al or
social organizations. And rhc same t hing happened with t ite young
prolctarians, excepr t hat, not having rhe money to att cnd rhc the-
atre, t hcy chose rhcir favori to pcrformcrs frou among t hc pastoras
of rhc folk plays.
In conjunction wir h rhe parriarcbal ordcr, th e Church t hrough
its various organizarions a1so took on t ite responsibility for t reat ing
illness and for assisting t he aged and th e need y; t he importance o
its contribution in these ficlds cannut be exaggerared. Some of these
organizations \Vere "-1asonic in nature, but despite the violence
wirhin the Church ovc r rhe question of .\ Iasom)', no one was in
1 C. C. And,ws: Braz.il, l rs ConJition anJ Prospu ts eSew Yo rk, 1!l!l7/ , p. 51.
~ Meio d a Paixio, Celwgr.{iaf ( Rio de j anciro. 1905) .
 Order and Progress
clincd ro faul r rhe order for irs works of benevolence. Enormous
sums wcre spent on rhcsc works, which wcrc the csscnrial ob jecnvc
of the order, nnd rhc organization of such scrvices was so highly
perfccrcd t hat no commentator on rhc rcligious life of rhe period
has failed tn rccognizc rhc positivo cont ribution of ;\Iasonic acti vi-
ties ro the Christian civilizarion of Braxi.
milc AlIain sap rhat thc Santa Casa de Miscric rdia of Rio de
j anciro was a "magnificcnt establishment of t hc firsr arder," able ro
accommodarc 1,2 00 parients; rhc wards and consulting rooms,
supcrviscd by rhe Sisters of Sao Vicente de Paulo. also served as a
clinic for t hc Medica! School." Hcrc in 1884 free trearmcnr was
given in dcnristry. clecrrorherapy. op ht halmology, gynecology.
Medicines were furnishcd without charge, and there was a division
for homeopatbic remedies. The poor could obrain rhe services of rhis
clinic th rough a simple cert ifi care signcd by a responsible aurhority,
ami foreigners would be extended the same privilegcs 00 rhc re-
quest of thcir respective consuls. Seamcn of al] nat ionalirics wcre
cntitled to free rrcarmcnt. nor only in rhis hospital but also in any
orhcr insritution of the ,\ Iisericrdia, such as rhat of Pernambuco,
Baha, or Santos. Nowhere in rhis association was rhere any discrim-
ination of parients 0 0 grounds of race, color, or creed. Othcr hospi-
rals in Rio de Janeiro at thc time includcd rhar of Nossa Scnhora da
Sadc. in Gamba. for trearmcnt of conragious discases, Nossa Sen-
hora do Socorro, in Sao Crisr vo, Sao j oo Batista, in Botafogc,
Cascadura, for tuberculosis; Pedro 11, for mental disordcrs, a home
for abandoncd infanta, and an orphanage.
T hc administrarion of rhe Miseric rdia had from early times been
in the hands of men who were "good" in a double sensc of rhe
word : in rerms both of public bcncvolcncc and nobiliry of family.
men whose devotion [ O charirablc decds was alike an cxprcssion of
Christian devotion nnd noblesse oblige. Jos Clemente Pereira was
one who parricularly disringuished himself in rhe administration of
rhc :\ lisericrdia, which he tu rncd into a son of superrninisrry dedi-
cared ro rhc prorccrion of rhc sick, rhc orphancd, the poor, and rhe
unfort unare in a socictv whcre the patemalism of rhc old order was
disappcaring. \ Ve know rhar rhc initiativc for erecring a rnerble
starue to this man carne from Pedro 11 himsel f, a descreed honor te
ene who knew so well how ro pUl his Christianirj- into practico and
whosc post in the \ liseric6rJ ia was raised hy his own work into ooe
9 tmile Albin: Rio d<: J~ n dro , Q ue1qu<'s Do nmiel <Ur I~ CJpit~le et sur I'A dm in-
stration dll Brh il (m ,1edn . Rio de Jl neiro. IH86). pp. I p -lI.
 T be Religious arder 299
uf the mcsr honorable offices aman could hcld in thc Imperial capi-
ta l. Indecd. this is arrcsrcd ro by the category uf his succcssors: the
Viscounr do Paran . rhc ,\ b rqucs de A hranres; Counsclor Zacha-
rias de Gis c Vusconccllos, who was director unril his dearh in
18 77 and was often caricaturcd drcsscd as a friar-c-or nu n !; thc V is-
count de j aguari, or rhc Bacon de Corcgipc, anot hcr figurc much
caricaturcd, though more Ior his tasrc for eleganr Freneh girls t han
his layman's piery. Nevcnhclcss. this man of the world was an ex-
c cltcnr administr aro r frc m 1882 ro his dcat h in 1889, and it was
during his adrninisrration that thc Pastcur lnsrirure "vas crcated
with in rhe ,\ l isericrdia svsrcm.
Un dcr Coregipe's succcssor, rhe V iscounr de Cruzciro, rhe
;\liscricrdia syst em was separated from rhc Church: t hc Viscount
resigned in protesto Undcr Couoselor Paulino J os Soa rcs de Sousa
( IR9O- I90I) rhe juridieal siruarion of thc inst irution was fi nally
worked out ro con form wit h rhe ncw pclicy of scparation of
Chureh and Sratc and rhc various Miscric rdias wc re givcn a tax-
cxempr status.'
Ir sho uld be norcd t hat rhc ,\ liserictrdias and orher rcligious
ordcrs w ere at rhis rime recciving sizable beq ucsts from Brazilian
and forcign businessmen who had made rheir fortunes in Brazil. In
rhis connccrion Allain wrore that "rhc lovc rhat rhese orders en-
gender in a great number of rheir members is r cmarkable, it is very
rarely rhat they are not includcd, somct imes very substantially, in
the lcgacics lcfr by mcm bers who havc been favcred by for tunc.
This pract ico is particularly frcquent in thc Po rtugucsc colony." 2
Ir was t hrough such lcgacics rhat rhe instiru tions wcrc ablc ro ex-
pand and improve thcir scrviccs. Thc pracricc of bestowing gifrs or
lcgacies ro rhc orders bccarnc one of the most characrcristic ex pres-
sions of rhc re1igious Iife of rhc rime, so much so rhar an)' rich Carh-
olic nor given ro rcligious or charirabte works was scen in a ver)'
bad Iight. The gesture also had irs ovcrtoncs of status; a rich man
gained prestigc as a rncmber or benefactor of one of the ordcrs able
to display its regalias and insignias. T hose of the \Iisericrdia \\Iere
long slecvcless garments and black sraves w ith gold rrimmings used
by rnembers at funerals, processions, and orher so\cmnitics. ,\ Iem-
bcrs of rhe gonrning board were disringuished from the ordinary
lllembers by a cross of purple vel"er on rhe lefr breast; rhe Pur-
1 Auulfo :'\poles de Pai' -a: A ssiStblci~ l'bJic~ e l'ri:.'"J~ no Rio de J.rneiro-
H istrjlJ e E S/lJt is/jelJ ( Ro de Janeiro. ' 912) , p. 187_
~ Allain: " p. cit. p. :.o.
]00 a rder and Progress
veyor, or hcad of rhc arder, by a jacket lincd with purplc silk, a cap
o gold clorh. ami a srarf bcaring rhc arms o rhc Miseric rdia, the
five wounds on a c ross circled by a c rown o rhorns.
Anorher prcsrigious order o the t ime in R io de Janciro was t he
Cand ail ria. D uring thc late Empirc ir took chargc o t he Imperial
H ospital for Lcpcrs foundcd in the eighrecnrh eelltury by thc
Count da Cunha. Tbis was a pu hlic inst irution, in contrast ro tIlany
o rhc nincrccnrh-ccntury rcl ig ious hospitals, w hich restricr cd rheir
cxccllenr medic a! and surgicaI serviccs (a no rhcir ccrncrerics) cxclu-
sivelv ro mcmbcrs o th e a rder. Such we rc rhc T hird O rdcrs o San
Francisco and of Carrno in Rio de Janciro :1.00 or hcr cirics: rhc larrcr
bccamc famous in rhc capital fo r rhc hurial of irs mcmbe rs in a pri-
vate ch urc h consrrucred for rhc excl usive m e of th c T hird Ordcr.
w hich formerly had conductcd in; scrviccs in t he Convcnt of rhc
Carmelirc s." Bodies of dcceascd brethren wcrc inrcrred in separare
graves under the interior of rhc tem ple, bur this practico w as later
disconrinucd bccausc of cxccssivc "olfactory discomfo rr" and
"danger to hcalrh," t hough rhe principle of burial in a privare
church rcmaincd unch angcd. Subrerra nean buria l was mcrely re-
p laced by a gallery of vaulrs, a system w hich was gcncrally prac-
ticcd in Brazil until interior buria!s were probibited in 1850. This
prohibition cnc ou ntcrcd sorne rcsistance from Cathclics, such as
rhosc of tbc T hird O rdcr of Carmo, who had becomc accusromcd
ro con sider rhc churches as rhcir priva re cer ncrerics. Bur in 1857 rhc
ordcr rcsigncd irsclf ro urban progress and acqoircd a portian of the
public cClllcrery of Si o Francisco Xavier for rhc exclusive use of its
dcccased members. O ther Im portant orders rhrc ugbour the country
generally followcd similar p rac riccs.
During rhe lasr half of rhc ninereenth centu ry. specia l charity
fu nds were institurcd for indigcne mcmbcrs, as in the case of rhc
O rder of the Blcsscd Sacram enr o f Sao Jos Par ish in R io de j a-
nciro. O ne was rhat of N ossa Scnhora da Picdadc. foundcd in 1855
at rhc Churc h of Santa Cruz dos Militares in R o de Janeiro largcly
t hrough the cfforts of t he Baroncss de T aquari. According ro its
somcwhar pocric declar urion of purpose, rhis fund was inrended "t o
perpetuare t he art o f clcm ency rhrough w hich t he Divine PrO\i-
dence, rhrough che nterv em ion of the Blcssed V irgin, Out Lady of
Piet)' . brought an eno {O rhe scourge o f cholera morbus which as-
sailed t he pcoplc of Brazil, and ro eOITllllemorate rhe aet (Jf humility
J lhid., pp. l H. l5~ .
 T he Religious a rder ]0 /

ami Christian charity on the pan of man}' ladies of rhe Church of

Sama Cruz dos Militares, who ser an example hy begging alms for
rhose affiicred by the plague: ' O ne of rhc activirics of rbis fund on
hchalf of ch urch memb ers was te> assist spinsters, widows, and
wivcs w hose husbands wcre "unahle ro providc supporr for rhe
family , rhough thosc who bavc fal len into indigency, as cenifi ed by
a commission of thc Order. will be judgcd dosel}' for rhcir moral
probiry." i
During this pcriod rhc Spiririsrs, wirh rhcir bcncvolcnr associ-
ations, also hegan tu playa notable part in Hrazilian religious life.
,\ lany of thcsc associat ions wcrc similar in narure ro rhcse of thc
Cat holics, one of rhc first being rhc Confucian Group, founded in
1873 hur dissolvcd two years later. A sccond. rhc God, Christ, and
Charity Sociery for Spirirual Srudics. was founded in 1876, out of
which was boro a rhi rd. rhe Socicry for Spirinsr Brotherhood,
which was given ro abolirionisr act ivirics. In 1881 the Federarion of
Brazilian Spiririsrs was organizcd , onc of its foun ders was a futu re
marshal of the Armv, Francisco Raimundo Ewcnon Q uadros. T his
fcdcrar ion incl uded an assisrancc fund for rhc ncedy and also cstab-
lished a "school for mediums." In 19 11 a Spinrist H ospital was
foundcd in R io de Janeiro for "pcrsons aff licrcd by mental aliena-
rion" who wishcd ro submir rhcmsclvcs ro trcatment "by t hc flu id
currents organizcd by thc upper astral regions." 5
Ir was also during rhis pcriod thar cvangclism hecamc a cha ractcr-
isric part of Brazilian rciigious life rhrough meeting houses organ-
ized for members of thc various cvangclical sec rs. M osr of thc per-
sons bclonging ro thcse sccts wcre Hrazilians of hurnble origin,
rhough thcre were also enrhusiasts of cu lrivarcd backgrou nd, suc h
as J lio Ribeiro, who for a time was a goreat advocar c of T olsroyan
Christaniey . In 1893 thc membcrs of onc of these congregations
founded t hc Brazilian Y .,\ t C A ., which in R io de j ancro ga\"c con-
sidcrablc irn pcrus ro rhc rcaching of physical edu canon." In 1887
anot hcr Prorcsrant group in rhe capital had organizcd ro csrablish a
hospital for Prctcsrants and for thc unforrunare. rcgardless of
creed. In 1911 rhis instinuion. thc Evangclist H ospital. bcgan a
coursc for thc rraining of nu rscs, an American innovarion in a coun-
tr), wh ere nurscs had cusromarily been Sisters of Chariry. Ir was
. alva:
" 01'. e ll.,
1'1' ' 35, '3"
.<

~ Ibi..!., pp. l oB. 145.

6 Ibid., p. 103.
 a rder and Progress

not long bcforc rhc American mission school, the Colgio Ameri-
cano, was cstablishcd in Rio de j anciro, follo wed by similarly spon-
sorcd and namcd insrirurions in Recife, Salvador, Sao Paulo, and
.\ f inas C erais. Thcse "American" schools gaincd sorne prestige at
rhc time t hrough rhc Pan-American Conference, w hich took place
in Rio de j anciro in ' 906 undcr the presidency of j oaquim X abuco,
fi rst Ambassador of Brazil tu rhc Unired Srares. The spirit of Pan-
Amcricenisr held a particular c harisma ar t hc time. Thc figure of
Uncle Sarn, which appcarcd H ry Ircquenrly in Brazilian magazines,
symbolized a new material and moral force in [he w orld, a syr nbol-
ism which also rcfl ect cd on t bcsc schools t bat called themselves
"American" and whosc patron was j oaquim Nabuco-cdcspire rhe
fa ct th ar N abuco ar rhis penod was no longer an anri-clericisr and
had returned ro rhe most cor rcct pracrice of Cat holic ritual.
Old cr rhan rhe Spirirists and rhc Prctcsrents among thc minoriry
groups wc rc [he j cws and the ,\ losle01s, bUI rhesc did nor make
rheir presenee particularly felt in rhe rcligious IHe of the nation.
During rhe lasr decades of rhc Empire, a considerable nu mber of
Negro '\ Ioslellls werc brought ro Brazil as slaves, and t heir brown
and black descendnnts, once having atraincd their fr ecdo m, made
thcir money in connnerce or rechnical rrades and rcrumcd ro Af-
rica. In Bmzil and the Brmilans, Ffcrcher and Kidder describe how
a rravelling group of English Ouakers in Ro de j aneiro was sought
out by a group of ,\ Iina Negrees. "Thcy had eamcd money by
hardlabor ami had pu rc hascd rhcir frcedom and wcre now dcsirou s
of rernrning tu rheir native land." Bur, having savcd thei r p:Jssage
money, rhcy wishcd ro lcarn from rhe English Proresrants whether
or nor rhc African coasr was rcay free of slavers. T he O uakers
cculd hard ly bclieve rhat tb cse pcoplc reallv had money. bu t rhcy
werc shown " a cory of the charrer under whieh sixry of rheir
nutuher had ralrcady l sailcd, and wh ich showed rhat th cy had paid
four t housand dolla rs passage money." 1 The sixry had arrived
safcly on the coast of Benim the year before. Soon after [heir imer-
view with the .\ tinas, the Qua kers Candler and Burgess receivcd rhe
thanks of rhese ";egrocs on "a paper beautifully \\Tinen in Arabic
by one of thcir chicfs, who is a .\ Iohammedan."
\ Vhat is particularly interesting ahotlt the ~ eg roes who rerurned
ro Africa is that, whethe r ;\ Ioslem or animist, they continucd ro live
like Brazilians in Africa, rcm:jning apan from the native Africans
1 Flctchu anJ KiJ J cr : " p. cit., p. ' I .
 Tb e Relgious arder 303
and ro a large extent rctaining the Catholic religious pr acticcs thcy
had lcarncd in Hrazil. Abour t hc only significanr change in th cir
worship was rhat th e dcvcrces of X osso Scnhor do Bonfim, once in
frica, changed rhc sex of rheir patron ro N ossa Scnhora do
Bonfim. This alrered survival of Hrazilian culrure in Afr ica prob-
ably occu rrcd for rcasons rhar call for psychological, as well as so-
ciological, analysis." The chango migh t havc be en cffecred ro efface
t he memor)' of th e parriarchal power of th e whirc man and ro re-
place it wirh rhc glorification of rhc mother, or of Woman in
ge neral, so characrerisnc of Brazilian Carholicism in rhe larc nine-
rcenrh ccntury. Christian purists have accused Brazilian Carholics
of Mariolarry. In its highest form, ir was this son of ,\ lariolatry
which probably morivated Dom V iral Maria de Olivcira himself
whcn he rook rhe sidc of the Morher Church againsr thc paternal
Imperial govcrn mcnt.
Farher Joseph Bumichon, 0 0 arrending a D,IY of K ings festival in
Hahia, was impresscd by the culr of t hc In fam Jesus so prcvalcnt
rhcre, parricul arly among rhc colored pcople. Mosr of rhe devorees
we re women dresscd in white, w ho wc re divided into verious
groups, cach wirh its separate sy mbol: t hc Sun, rhe Eanh, the
Dawn, t hc Larnb, rhc Buzzard, thc Buttcrfly." Each group was pre-
cede d by irs own band and sang irs own Christmas songs in hon or
of thc In fam J esus and the Mothcr. Thc central figures of rhe cult
wc rc, of coursc, Christian, but t he rires were largely African in na-
tu rco Evcn more African was rhe cult of Iemanj, whcre the mater-
nal cent ral figu re was a fusion of Our Lady wirh thc African god-
dess of the watcrs.
The combination of African and Christian clements in thc rcIi-
gious life of Brazilian N egrees inrcrcstcd severa] srudcnrs of Brazil-
ian life during the periodo Onc was rhe Bahian phy sician Nina Rod-
rigues, whosc essay "L'Animismc Frchisre des Negres de Baha"
appeared in French in Baha at the cnd of the centu ry. The infi ltra-
tion of the African voodoo clemcnt not only intriguc d foreigners
bur also absorbed-c-and o frcn scandalizcd-c-Brazilian Carholics,
w hc saw ir as borh a problcm in pnrbology which deficd th e docrors
and a distu rbi ng Iirurgical qucsrion for thc Church amhoritics. Fa-

~ Thi~ is cm pha~l e d in {he seca n" cd irion of rny Prob/t nJJJ 1Jt IfIil tito~ Jt Antto.
poJogi.: (Rio JI' Janeiro, ' 94J ) , "'ritte n wi{h {he coJ1 abo ration of {he frenc h
scholu Pierre Ve rger.
' B urOlc
. hun: op. cn. .. p. 71.
3 4 a rder and Progress

t hcr Burnichon, an crudirc and orrhodox j csuir, naturallv took rhc

larrer view, while Xina Rodrigues saw rhe diabolic posscssion of rhe
rites as a form of hysteria.' Borh rheologians and medica] men had
eq ual ca use for alarm. which was compoumlcd by rhe fac r (shown
by rhc sysrema tic srudics of N ina Rod rigues) thar in Babia. along
wirh thc N egrees, lIlany whires in moments of affiictio n soughr nei-
rhcr physician nor priesr. hut rarher the wirch doctor and rhc orix .
T hc nurnbcr of thcsc whircs was " incalculable," said Nina Rod -
r igues, becausc "ncarlv rhc enrirc popu lation, wirh rhe exccptic n of
a fcw indivi duals of superior cnlighrcnrncnt," allowcd itsclf ro be
drawn ro voodooism. Ir is curio us thar Nina himsclf, w hile srill a
yo ung men, died in Par s at rhc beginning of rhe twcnrierh eeorury
of a mysrcrious disease w hich bafflcd the Europcan physicians.
M ore rhan onc Bahian srared darkly that Nina had died a vicrim of
an evil spcl l bro ug ht upo n him fo r his scienrifi c meddling in ruatrcrs
which his A frican ricnds had ofrcn wamed him ro shun.
Thc Brazilian situa tion did nor scem as alarming to Farhcr Burni,
e hon as it did ro orthcdox Hrazilians, he probably recallcd thar cven
in Freneh provinccs like Brin:!.n)' t here wcre simple fol k who still
mixcd pagan clcmcnts with rheir Catholic faith. In Babia, "for rbe
rnost parr, t hey havc a narvc but sincere respec t fc r sacrcd t hings."
T his respee t was scen in t hc custom of gi....ing thc sign of rhc Cross
when passing a cburch. and also in rbc habit on rhe pan of borh
w hires and Ncgrocs o f don ning ceremonial su rplices and robes dur-
ing proccssions. Ir was shown too in rhc warmrh wirh which mcn
and women ar Christmas or afte r m idnighr rnass kisscd rhe image of
rhc Infant jcsus. and in rhe vcncrar ion accordcd rhc well-d rcssed
images of t he V irgin and thc saints. As fo r t hc cul r of image wor-
ship. Father Bum ichon notcd. as bad Ewbank du ring t he carly
reign of Ped ro II, rhar Brazilians "s pcnd hours in eonrem plaring
them and in gi\ ing them Eheir homage and rheir p rayers." 2
T his image worship was carried ro ext remes in Bahia in the eulr
of ~osso Senhor do Bonfi m, as ir had becn du ring Imperial times in
R io by rhe eult o Sr. G eorge (always depieted riding a w hite
horse ) . T hese wcre the mosr popular eulrs of the pcriod-for saims
had rheir rranstory vogucs in Brazil and rarely ac hievcd rhe pcrma-
nem ....enerat ion of Santo Amonio in L ishon. D thees wece :Kossa
Senho ra Apa recida in Sao Paulo. :"'azareth in Par , and Sao Se-
p. 7 ~ .
1 Ibi<l .,
2 1bid., pp. 78---9.
 The Reigious arder ]0 5

verinc dos Ramos in Pern ambuco. Vows and obligarions ro rhcse

sainrs werc not lirnired ro giving rhanks for pasr ~henefactions ro
oneself or mcrnbcrs of rhc family, but extend ed also ro domcstic
animals, farm cquiprncnr, boats. wagons, and orhcr mcans of rrans-
portat ion. I bclicvc thar such vows on bchalf of rechnical and eco-
nom ic objccts during the late nincrcent h cenrury wcre t hc fi rsr ex-
amplc of rhc inrcrpcnerraticn of rcligiou s and economic elerncnts in
t he devclopmcnt o Br azil in gene ral, and ru ral Brazil in parti cular.
Vcws ro rhe sainrs were also rnadc for polirical cnds, bur such
ends wcrc frcquenrly scrved by rccoursc ro wirc hc ra t, with t hc
evocarion of charms and " despachos" (packagcs con raining
charmed ob jccrs scnt ro or left on thc doorsrcp of rhe inrcnded vic-
rim}. Wcll-known public figures have been known ro participare in
these act ivirics, invoking rhc aid of voodoo pricsts nnd sorcerers in
rheir pohtical bardes, eirher for th eir own success or for rhc defear
(evcn dearh ) uf a po litical advcrsary. Gossip has ir t har rhc attem pt
ro kili G overnor Barbosa Lima of Pernambuco wirh a poisoned dish
ar a polit ical banquer, an acr involving t he go vcm or's politi cal ad-
versary Jos ,\ 1a riano, was madc onl y afrer thc origi nal plan ro have
him done away w ith by wircbcrafr bad bccn abandoncd . T hc
poison had been prcparcd by whire medica! fricnds of Mariano's
en d had been placcd in a dish of fried mear by a N egro cook. per-
haps indicating a lack of faith in the cfficacy of magic on [he part of
[he scicnrific-mind cd physicians. N evcrthcless. it was scicncc w hich
failed, becausc rhe go vernor did nor die; perhaps an evil charm
would heve done a bet ter job after all. According re good author-
iry , thc cook, who narrowly cscapcd being a murderer. 011 his
dcarbbed y cars [ater bcggcd rhc pordon of Barbosa Lima for his
criminal act and d ied a dcvour Carh olic.
In Bahia F arhcr Bumichon, in rhe church of Bonfim, obscr ved an
ex-veto placcd t hcre by t he gov emor himself in grarirude ro Ou r
Lord for having cscaped an assassinarion ancmpt at th c hands of
onc of bis rnost dangerous political adversa rios. "D r. M arcelino de
Sousa was srruck by rhe assassin's buller," reads th e rext of t he
oifering, "bU[ O ur Lord of Bonfi m madc thc ruffian's hand rrcmble
and [he wound was not fatal. " 3
At about the samc point early in rhe century, Paulo Barreto, col
lecring materi al for what is perhaps the hest piece of sociological
reporring ro date. his A s Religi6es 110 Rio (T be R eligiolls o f Rio,
3 1bid. p. 81.
]06 Order and Progress

writtcn undcr rhc pseudonvm j oiio do Rio), rells o having bcard

old N egro conjurers "speak o bcing on mosr int imare rer ms wirh
rhc mosr importa nr pcrsons in rcccnr historv-c-wirh thc formcr Em-
peroro whcsc porrrair tb cy had. wir h Corcgipc, wirh t he Baron de
,\ 1amanguapc, as well as with th c Prcsidcnts o rhc R cpu blic." This
disringuishcd autho r rells us rhar he livcd for mon ths amid N egro
pracritioners o wirchc ra e. "whcse way o life pcopl c pretended
no r ro kno w abo ur" bur " w hcsc ministrations rhey sought wh cn
rorrnentcd by a personal sorrow U f a secrct ambition." Such con-
jurcrs, wh o fl ocked ro Rio ar thc t ime. werc scarrcred t hroughout
rhc ciry. frcm rhc docks ro rhc Santa Cruz Highway, and pcr- -
form cd rhcir crafr wirh a dcgcnerarcd admixrurc of Mohammed an-
ism or Cat bolicism. Thcir "eminent fricnd s" did not hesitare [Q
listen ro them, ami rhc conjure-s became wealrhy at rhe expense of
rhcir wc ll -hcclcd clicnts.' T hey formed "a son of .\!asonic order,"
of which rhe chief offi cer was e ne O j, of th e Ru a dos A ndradas.
Hut within rhis gene ral d efensivo alliancc therc were many dissen-
sions, particularly betwccn mcmbers of rhc rival Afriean and Brazil-
ian tradit ions in wirchc rafr.
\Ve can assume rhar t hcsc dividcd rradirions also had rheir pcliri-
cal sigmficance during thc fi rst rears of the Rcpublic, sorne being
on rhc sidc of Flo riano and ot hcrs on rhat of the rcbclliou s militar)'.
J050 do R io learned of a whire political co nspira cy which em-
ploycd Negro conjurers for " norbing more or less rhan th e murdcr
(lf a former Prcsidcnr of rhc Republic." And hc adds. "At firsr 1
Ihonghr rhis impossiblc. hut my informanrs simply circd rhc narnes
of rhose pub licly imphc arcd in co nspiracics. . . ." According ro his
N egro informams, ir would have becn suffic iem for rhc President
ro have bccn seen at a palace window in order to cnsu rc his death
wir hin rwo mon rhs. " 'hen asked how rhis was ro happcn. th e in-
[ c rm an ts said rhar ir was difficulr ro expl:lin hm t hat it had some-
Ihing ro do wit h "pray ers and Ia rge-seale slallghtering" whieh had
takcn pbee in rhe fie lds, an ox being emp loyed ro represem the
importam person who was int ended to di e . ~
This am hor also t ells us rhar sorne of rhese houses of ,"viteherafr
were eonneeted wirh ho mes of anot her category and t hat in 1906 he
h:Hi seco "ladics nf high pnsition deseend ing furtivcly frorn hired
carriages as in t he eheap romances. [heir faces hidden by heavy
Jo:io do Rio ( P~ u l" ll ~rrelO ) ' A s Reli/{ies no Rio (R ilO de Janeiro, ,q06 ), pp.
9. ! 6--.
~ Ihid.. p. JO.
 T be Religious Order 3 07
veils, running quicklv into t hcse houscs. . . " Fu rthcrrnorc, he
was able ro fcllow a ccrrain sorccrcss to various houses in "Bota-
fogo ami Ti juc . where. during rhe wintcr. t hcre are receprions nnd
conversations at fi vc in rhc afrc rnoon USt as in Paris or in t he pal -
aces of Iraly ." O ncc he was show n rhc port rait o f a young lad y
w bom he had ccnsidcrcd respcctablc. " But why? " he asked his in-
formanr. "Shc wishcs ro marry this man," responded thc sorccrer,
showing t he ponrair of a wcll-known lawycr."
In qucsnoning .\ fart iniano do Honfim in Baha an d a "Farhcr
Adam " in Recifc. J was givcn information on rhe sccrcr relarionship
bctween well-known whitcs and con jurers whieh corroborared rhe
material prcsenrcd by J 030 do Rio as a rcsulr of his earl ier in vestiga -
tions in th c c apital. During rhis period. more t han o ne clcganr whi tc
clic nr w ho rcad Renan and quered Le Bon, Spcnce r, and Com rc had
solicitcd rhe aid o f ,\I ar tiniano or Adam in rcsolvinc somc polirical
or amorous ditficu lry.
Conld ir be rhar thc Carholic sainrs. afrcr rhc separarion of
ChUTCh and Sute, had rcfusc d an y lo nger ro attend ro aff licrions,
dcsires, and promiscs o f this son ' Therc were sorne rr quesrs, o f
coursc. which rhey nevcr had bonored: rhosc requiring thc mysrcri-
ou s dcarh of a chief of stare. for examplc. But vows or req uests
rcl arcd ro marriagcs, polirical succcss, professional triump hs. succcss
in cxamin ations, and c ures for discascs or vices-e-ro judge by the
g ra rcful testimonies of bcncficiarics. sorne o f which appearcd dis-
crcerly in thc classificd advcrnsing pages of rhc newspapers-were
clearly being ancndcd ro cffi cicnrly. Ir appears, titen, tita r the large
clicnrele of wcll-known p eTSO!lS who rcsortcd ro wir ch docroring
represcnrcd a myst ical clcmenr t har sought out thc A fr ican "saints'
fo r marrers t hey considcrcd unworthy o f at tcntion by thc Catholic
conringcnr: polirical or crotic desircs, business dcals o f a du hious
narur e. and rhc likc. In g oing ro rhe conj urcrs. such whitcs werc
involunrarily paying sorne sort o f honmgc in reversc ro thc saints
and priests of the Chureh, how e' "er u nsaintly they continue d ro be
in ce rtain aspecrs o f t heir lives.
The tTllth is that rhere were a mlmbcr of Chl1Tch figures during
t he pe riod who were looked upon almost as saints. nO[ nn l)' for thcir
piery but also for t heir services ro the p OOL Such a pe!'Son w as Si<;-
te r Paula in Rio de J aneiro. and t herc wcrc also rhe mo nks who
made missio nary iou rneys into the interior t o combat P ro testant
ism, to marr), and baptize persons in remot e arcas that lacked rhe
" lbid.. pp. H . 1-.
308 a rder and Progress

regular serviccs o rhc c1 ergy, and ro wa rn rhe folk againsr thc se-
duc rions o self-styled "prophcrs" like Anr nio Ccnsclhciro, Jos
Maria. Padre Ccero, or the notorious Jacobina, (he last-narned op -
erating among thc rust ic Germans o th e sout h and spreading a fa-
nat icisrn cqual ro rhar o the former Anabaptists o Central Europe.
The Cap uchins wcre pcrhaps rhe r nosr notable o thcsc mission-
ary workers for et hical and rcl igious ordcr. bur rhe Franciscana also
did rnuch ro bring
rhc Church ro rhc humblc folk o borh rhc citi es
and [he rural areas, adopring a ty pc o sermon tha t was at once
populisr and missiona ry in narure. It was this typc o acriviry thar
affordcd rhe grcarest resisrance ro the Prcresrants. rhe Spiririsrs, ami
rhc African sccts in rhcir infiltration of every leve! of Brazilian soci-
ety. Such no n-Cetholic infiltrarion, encouraged by rhc lack of
priests, was particularly easy among rhe dcsccndanrs of slavcs w ho,
having lose t he religious serviccs of the patriarchal sy srem, wcrc lefr
withoue pri csrs of rhci r own. Many of thcse fo rmer slaves feU casily
under thc spell of wirch docrors, sorne of whom we re not the most
scru pulous of individuals. Finding rhcmsclves suddcnly free, rhcse
former slavcs also felr rhe anguish of a loss of protecrion and dircc-
rion. far {rom adjusred ro a libcrty sudd enly thrust upon t hcm by
romanric abolirionists who failcd ro realize thar thc gifr of fre edom
coul d amount ro a mere gestu rc and consriturc a real dangcr ro rhe
beneficiarics when nor accompanicd by some modicum of religious
and social assisrancc. Ir was only natu ral, then, th at rhc recipients of
this false liben)' should scek support ami consolat ion in thc African
sccts and Ole the hands of wirch doctors. Ami w hat happcncd ar
rhesc hands was also ro be cxpccted: t hc supplicams were all roo
often cxploired and deceived by che unscrupulous con jurers. Once
having bccn takcn in, howevcr, m:my bcgan ro cxpcrience a nosral,
gia for the religion rhey had kno wn on rhe planrarions, wirh irs
fesrvals. processions. and resanes. as wcll as for rhe protection
againsr rhe abuses of rhcir r nasrcrs rhcy had felt ehrollgh member-
ship in rhe cule of the B1esscd Virgin.
Far th(:se reasons, the Capllchins enjoyed greae sueeess in recon-
\'crring rhesc people. Frei Pan a, an lealian Capuc hin, tol d Joan do
Rio in 1905 rhat every Friday he workcd frolll four in t he morning
unt il fou r in the afteTlloon at "exorc ising" penirents and t har in the
)'ear 1905 he had reconverted mo re than 3 0 0 of t he " posscssed." 1
Sacan w as now rhreaeening Brazil more than ever, he stared, and ir
1 Ibid. p. 177.
 T be Relgous a rder 39
was nccessary tu dcfcnr him by uprooting his influcnce through in-
dividual exorcism, pcrform cd ofrcn in privare so rhat rhe Devil,
speaking throug h thc mouth of rhe possesscd. cou ld not rcl l things
wh ich would injure orhcrs. In these ccremonies the priesr, in purple
vestmcnrs. would rcad the acr of exorcism fmm rhc ritu al, lllak ing
the sign of t hc C ross on rhc hcad, belly, chest. and hcarr of the
penirenr, and, in the namc of Jesus Christ . calling a powcrful curse
upon rhe "spirir-minion of Sat n." Xlosr of rhcsc cases o f posscvsion,
said Frei Pazza, were ro he found "principally in rhc unwashcd
lowe r classes." This 10 sorne extcnt con fi rms th c progrcssive mys-
tique of Osvaldc Cruz, whc sratcd that rhe Dcvil loved squ alor.
H owc ver new this discovcry may havc bccn for rhc scicnrists, it
had long bcen part of the knowlcdge of rhc Church and rhe Capu-
clnns. well acquainrcd wirh persons who, undcr a spell. wou ld bend
doublc, or bccome clairvoyanr. or spcak in tonglles. Frei Pazza rells
of une young girl who spat on rhe Cross aod said evil rhings of
orhcr persons. \Vorse srill was rhe case of a woman of Rio, e ne
Cabocla, wh o claimed 10 conanand 25 0 spirirs and whose presence
causcd srrange rumblings. rhc falling of fu m irurc, and rhe breaking
of glass." Frci Pan a ncvcr did succccd in cxorcising rhis one: shc
claimcd to havc been born wirh rhc spirits and did nor wanr tu lose
rhcm. Per baps undcrsrandable rcsistance on th c part of a primitivo
narivc 10 a foreign mo nk--one o rhc many lralians, Bclgians, and
Germa ns who were the principal agents o victory ovcr the Positiv-
isr , Spiritism, and vague mysticism resurge nt in thc Em pire duri ng
rhe lasr years of the Vol raircan Pedro 1J.9
RTbid.,pp. 181- a.
~ In (he original edition a series uf inJiyidual responses m questinns un ren-
gious marte rs follows - lOO peNOIlS are quere d , almost all o whom clairn Ca-
rholicism to a certan dcg rec, rhou gh sorne are c ruical u f Cat holic pracdces and
ma ny admir respcct for nr even adhercnce m Positiv isr thoug hr 31 one time or
annrher du rin g rhdr lives" (Transh lO r.)
 ~ [ x ]~

Cathdiasm and Progress

T ' U; DECADE O F TH E IS7 0 'S was fo r mao)' rcasons a decisivo one

in Brazilian dcvclopmcnr. From (he cconoruic srandpoior, ir
was rhc decade o rhe l.aw o rhc Free Wornb (1 87 1) , which
ma rked [h e bcginning of a national r evolution in t he fi eld of labo r.
Polir ically, ir was rhe penod of thc Republican ,\ ia nifcsro. which
for com plex ccclogical as well as po lirical r easons markcd [he crner-
gence o [he Silo Paulo-Minas Ccrais-Rio Grande do Sul region as
rhe lcadi ng force in [he narion's po lirical Iife. Considercd as a peine
in cult ural and inrcllcctual hisrory, ir was rhc grcat agc o Posit ivism
in rhc sourh and Teutcnic and Spe ncerian rhoughr in the north. all
o which had an ad verso effccr 0 1\ onhcdox Catholicism, as wel l as
o n jurispr udc ncc and bcllcs-len res and on the general acsrhcric
valucs o thc mo re sophisricatcd .
A nd ie is from che 1870'S rha r we musr da te t he volcanic prcsence
of Dom Vital , Bishop of O linda. in rhc Carholic life o the Ernpire :
a co nservarive revolu rionary whose relarivcly bricf ascendancy
markcd the beginning of a ncw tempo in rhc religinus life of Brazil,
in which a ser ies o changcs in the cstablishcd routine began to havc
hoth quanrirarivc and qualira tive cffecrs on thc bchavior of rhe
clergy and on Brazilians in general. Tbcse chang os can be said ro
han consrirurcd a phasc of Catholic progress. a relari ve progress re
be surc, bur progress roward devcloping a closer approximation be-
twccn rhc con ducr and evcnts o daily !ife and rhc r eligious nnd
crhic al idcals o t hc .\lorher Cb urch in particular and W csrem
Chrisrianuy in ge nera l.
Ir is for this conducr and rhese cvcnts rhar the pasr is of inrcrcsr to
 Catbolicsm and Progress 3 11
tbis srudy . rhc social. sexual, cultural. and, so far as possiblc. inri-
mate past of rhe Brazilian peoplc. Crines cf th e t wo previous ' "01-
limes in rhis series havc accused them of sacrific ing rhc fin cr aspects
of Hrazilian civilizarion to a study of rhc crud esr aspects of the na-
ricn's lifc. In orher words. of having emphasizcd rhc most genuinely
Brazilian clcmcnts insread uf rhc surfacc vencer, rhc fa cadc. rhe pre-
tcnsions. Like certain exaggerarions dating fro m colonial rimes-
t hat on t he pan of rhc j csuits of granting degrees of Bachelor or
.' laster of Arts to boys who had scarcely had more than a sccond-
ary educarion, for cxample-c-r hcsc "finer aspccts" mcrcly serve ro
imprcss oursiders or ro favor rhe prcrensions of Brazilians w ho pre-
fer tu livc outside rhc nacion al rcaliry .
Dom Frci Vital was no man ro conrcnr himscl f wirh appearances.
tvhar he r nose vigorousl j- srrove for was ro esrablish an authcntic
Carholic life in Braxil. ,....herc a clcrgy of more or 1css burcaucraric
priests. sorne linkcd more closcly to .' tasonie orders thnn to rhc
Church and others figurarively cquippcd wirh a bourgeois parasol
insrcad of a shepherd's sta ff, allc wcd rhe grearcr pan of rhe popu-
lation ro exisr wirhour bcncfir uf rcligious insrrucrion, cxposed (O
ann-Carholic infiltrations of e" ery son. A po pularion w hich knew
onlv how ro makc thc sign of rhe Cross. ro repear rhe I'aternoster or
A t'e Maria, ro knecl bcfore rhc 1Iosr, ro go ro mass on Sundays. and
to bavc irs ehildren baptized. A population with a smattering of
religin, of coursc, bur nor enough ro characterizc irself as truly
Car holic.
Knowing rhar thc rcligious virality of a peoplc dcpends largely
on thc corrcsponding viraliry of its clcrgy, rhc Bishop of Olinda
tumcd bis principal arrention to rhe devclopmcnr of such a condi-
rion. Many pricsts rcbcllcd againsr him: pricsrs wirh concu bincs.
pricsrs more politician rhan padre, J' lasonic priesrs, j acnhin priectc,
unclc-pricsrs more at rhe service of rhe landlords and thcir slaves
[han rhe bishops of rheir Chureh. ,,'i[h a {carlessness sc1dom hefore
seen within rhe Church. Dom Vi[al rhrew his forees against these
wayward pricsts as though it \Vere rhey, and nor the Proresranrs or
rhe African ",ireh doclOrs, who ",ere rhe corruptors o rhe purit)'
of the Fairh, as rhough it ""ere rhe)' who fonned the principal ob-
staele ro rhe devclopment of Carholicism as a guiding force in Bra -
zilian rhought and heha,'ior. And rhe paradox o rhis courageous
inrervenrion on rhe pan o Dom Vital \Vas thar foreign priesrs soon
bcgan to replace narionals in a concenrrarcd crusade ro bring Brazil-
]1 2 Order and I'rogress

ian vales more dosel)' inro line wit h thosc of rhc Cat hclic Church.
Tbis rcplaccmcnr, w hile nor nlways agrccablc ro Brazilians o rhe
pcriod, was necessary ro rhe rcviralizarion o f rbc Church . Xla ny of
rhe Hrazilian pricsts wcre gcod meo and d C\'OTCd pastors, bu t rhcre
simply wc rcn't cncugh dcdic arcd narive chu rchmcn ro fill th c coun-
rry's nccds. 1
Alt hough rhe presence o rhe Capuchins in Brazil preceded rhc
fou nding of rhe Republic, ir was on lj- afrcr 1889 rbar, rhanks to rhc
cffons of D om V ital ovc r a dccad c earlicr, rhc way was o poned for
rhe rcpopularion of rhc convcnts and monasrerics wirh forc ign
c hu rchmcn . Benedictincs. Carmclircs, Franciscans. Capuc bins fro m
leal)', Francc. Gcrmany, ami Belgium. T hesc ncwcomcrs. Fat hcr
Burnic hon rccalls, we rc chargcd with t he duty of "rcsroring t hc
ru les to the houses of rhe respective ordcrs." T his was not easily
done. says rbc French j csuit, for whom "this cb aprc r of rnonasric
hisrory was nor lacking in eirbcr thc rragic or the grotcsqu c'', there
wcre just too many narive p ricsrs wirh doublc livcs who "did nor
wanr to havc thcir comforrablc exisrcnce d isturbed. " 2 T hcre wcrc
livcly momems in Rio de Janeiro whcn rhc last Brazilian monks-
old nnd very few in numhers-were rcplaced by foreigners. T hc
occasion was made rhc excuse for narionalistic dcmands agirarcd
among rhe humhl e folk, pcrhaps through rhe activiries of pclirically
influcntial Xlasons who felt rhcir cause rhrcarcncd by t hc conrinuers
of rhc policies of Dom Vital. T hcy wcre in facr corrcct in the ir
assurnptions: ir is from t hc time of rhc Bishop of Olinda that we can
dat e th e decline of .\lasonic infl ucncc in t he lifc o Hrazil.
About t he rime t hat foreign monks wcrc systcmarically being
placcd in rhc hit heno alrnosr aband oncd rnonastcrics, therc was a
co rrcsponding insrallation-cor rcinseallarion-c-of various active and
militant Catholic ordcrs. Sorne, suc b as rhc French ,\ Iarists, [he
T rappisrs, thc Redempto rists. rhc j esuirs, thc Lazan srs. ano t hc Do-
1 Su",e uf rhe le~~ dcdicatcd, adminedlv , wcrc nor really ud men . hUI t hcy
were t {}() oftcn remi", in their I'rie,rly fun cti"ns, particularl), their inat tenrion to
rhc "O'l-"S uf eh aslit)". T rile, in csrablishmg an irregu lar family, these Bralilian
pric~l ~ WCTC at lea~1 nol eff eminal e, w hc re a~ Ihe fo reign pri"loIS, w ho were ~1
most neHr guilt y of st~n ing a h m ily, were jmlged by some !O hc hr mo rc
incl ined t han Ihe Bru ilians to ot her irregllb r irie~ of behadur equ~l1r compro.
mi~ing ro rhe priesdy " ffiee an<l dig nil y of lhe Chu rch . S" umerous uneomplimen-
la ry stories to Ihis effeel were in cireularia n dllring Imperial t imes, panicularly
~h<)ut the Italians, bm pe rh~ps ~ ue h ~ e count s can be tra ced ro Ihe Jaeobinism uf
SOrne Calholi{'S uf Ihe period .
~ l "scph Bllrn ieho n: I.e Hrh il J'A,,ofl rd'bl (Pari" 19 10 ), p. ' 01.
 Catboiicism and Progress 3 13
r ninicans. w ere mcrcly rcrurning to Brazilian tcrriro r-y ; o rhers c arne
in fo r rhc fi rsr rime and csrab hshe d rhcr nsclves in o ld parriarchal
rcsidcnccs and suhurhan farms of rhe inte rior. Ma nv of rhcse wcrc
mon ks and nuns who bad bccn cxpcllcd from Fran~e and Portugal.
Afrer having visircd lIlan y of rhcse csrablishmenrs, parricularly
t he schools ma inta incd by t hc Frcn ch sisters of rh c ordcrs of Zion,
of the Sacrcd H carr, of U rsula. of thc Hlesscd Sacrament, of Sr.
Vinccnr de Paulo. or of St . Josep h de Chambry. alo ng wirh t hose
of t hc Belgian Ordcr of rhe Christi an D smcs. Farher Burnichon
concl uded thar " rhe r cligious life of Brazil has ma de undcnia blc
"
progress ovcr thc rasr t\Venrr ycars." 3 T hc rcgrenablc pan of rhis
progress, as he saw ir, was rhar Brazil apparenrly conrinucd ro be a
"pay s de min ian," w hereas it should have recruircd mosr of irs rcli-
gious workcrs from the r anks of irs own po pulation. Ir was rhis
scarcry of Hrazilians in t he r cligious orders which [acilitared ;\ l a-
sonic ar naticnalise campaigns in rhe nc \",spapers and magazincs
againsr fo reign churcbmen, campaigns which pro vokcd rhe g reatest
Catholic journalist of his rime, Carlos de Lact. ro writc his faUlOUS
apology enrirlcd O Frade Rstrange ro (The Fore gn .llonl').
It is cvidcnr thar Catholic schools gaincd a new vigor wirh rhe
p resencc of academically rrained fo reign priesrs and nuns in rh e
cauntr), afrer rhe founding of the Republic. Tite gcographer Ellic n
in 19 16 found many of the oldcr schools conductcd by t hc Bcncdic-
tincs, rhc j esuirs, and the sisters of rhc Sacrcd H cart tu be "splcn-
d id'' in qualiry.' Nor can ir be said thar thcsc fore ign tcachcrs in
any way tended ro lowcr rhc prestigc of the language : most of them
spoke and wrctc impcccablc Portuguese, and t he " larisls in particu-
lar contriburcd greatly ro rhe preparation of tcxtbooks in the na-
tional idiom. Thc G errnan jcsuits in R o G ra nde do Sul disrin-
guis hed thcmselvcs by scicnt ific sm dics of t hc local flora wr itt en in
cxccllcrn Ponugucsc. and t he lccrurcs an d sermons of thc G erma n
Francisea ns \Vere also frequendy norable for the correctness of
t heir g rammar and style.
N arurally, not aU we re so suee essfu l in ga ining cOlllma nd of rh e
language, so t har pulpir lapscs in pronunciar ion an d g rammar somc-
times heeame the m ater ial for rid icll le. Ir \vas probably rhis linguis-
rie problem thar Armando Silvcyra had in Illind when he spoke of
rhe laek o adjus rment bet w een the fo reign clergrmen and his con-
3 Ihid . p. 201 .
t L. E. EUimr, Brl/::il, T odl/Y .:mJ T omorrow (Se'" York, ' 9' 7l. p. 1,6.
3'4 Order and Progress
gregarion in Rio Grande do Sul, although sorne o rhc diffi culty
could casily havc bccn psychological and cul tural as well. " Bcing
generally culturcd men," says Silveyra, these foreigners who "ex.
presscd rhemsclves so badly rhar thc co ngrcgation at times cou ld
not hclp smiling musr have encounrcrcd psychological difficulries
which we re cvcn grcarcr rhan (hose cncountered wit h rhc lan-
guagc." T hosc constant smilcs 00 t hc faces o rhc congregation did
nor esrablish rhe armospherc o rcspccr which ought ro exisr be-
(WeCIl pastor and fi ock. parricularly in rhe lighr o the "differenccs
in tcmperamcnt ami cducenon' cxisdng betwcen t hem.
N evenhclcss, ir was imperative rhar rhcse forcign cburc hmen be
impon ed ro fi ll t hc gap causcd by rhe reluctance of Brazilians to
cnrer rhc Church afrer t hc rigorous rcform measurcs of Dom Viral
and hi.s succcssors on th e conduce of thc clergy. Ir was nor long.
however, beforc thc foreign-born pricsrs were also bcing supple-
mcnred by second-gcncrarion Germans, Italians, and Poles, many
of rhcm recruited by rhc ,\I arim for durics in paroc hial schools
tilrougilout l ile l"ou nt ry . In rhc norr h, with monas ric disci pline
mu ch more austerc rilan formcrly, childrcn of sor ne of rbc bcsr fam-
ilies bcgan ro be attracrcd re rhe Churc h. T he Republic and rhc
separarion of Chureh and Srare had givcn a new impulse ro Carholi-
cism and rhe fi eld of religious education began to prod uce a new
Brazilian lite, memhcrship in w hich preved artractive cvcn (O sons
of sueh one-time anri-clcricals as Ruy Barbcsa. Particularly
associared wirh rhis ncw lire wcrc che j csuits o rhe Colgio An-
chiera in Nova Friburgo. those of Sao Lus in Itu and Sao Leo-
poido in Rio Grande do Sul, and, somewhar later, rhosc of Anr nic
Vieira in Salvado r and NfJlJrega in Rccife.
"When my morbcr died," wrires H eiror Modesto d'Almeida (h.
"I inas Gerais. 18th) , " 1 was enrollcd in rhe Colgio Ancbiet a in
Nova Friburgo. Ir was t hen operaring in rhe old building known as
rhc Chreau. Discipline was severo; ncam css and order imperarive.
The reachcrs were :111 padres whc knew how to reach: 1 carne out
wir h a solid preparation in the humanirics. 1 rcmcmber w bcn rhe
news arrived of Rocntgen's discovery of rhe Xcray. T he day be-
fore, Farher Prospcri had given a lcsson on carhodic ra)'s; he secmed
ro have had a pre monition of rhe discovcry ."
Ar A nc hiera [here were no c1asses on Sundays, and on ly rhose in
Italian atHl Gcrma n on Thursda y. Gcnnan eoul d be cleeted instead
of English in rhe uppcr division. T hc school had a good library, and
 Cmboicism md I'rogress 3 1)
rhe wo rks of Charcaubriand and j utes Veme were much rcad. H ci-
tor .' Iodcsto also statcs rhar Leo T axil's A ssassinatos M a ~ nicos
(Maso nic Asssssnationsv was much in dcm and , a dcm and undoubr-
edly snm ularcd by rhe suggcstio n of r hc good padres.
Another ncw aspecr of cducational life at rhe beginning of rhe
ccntury was rhc emphasis givcn ro physical education. an emphasis
which began with rhc Prorcsranr schools in Illany ciries of rhc Re-
public. Ar Anchicra rhc srudcnts playcd Ioorball, nor rhe customary
socccr. bur "a Icss violcnr fonn of rugby." Tbey also playcd bar-
ball, "qusdrsdo" and "guerra." s
"' Ve werc allowed out once a month, providcd we were accom-
panicd by parcllts or rheir aurhonzcd represcntarivc," conrinues
I ieiror ,' Iodcsro. "\ Ve lefr afrer r nass and had ro rcrurn before
nighrfall. I used to spcnd suc h hclidays ar rhe old H otel Engc rt.
. . . O ld Engen was still alivc rhcn and ser an excellcnt rabie, wi eh
turkey and frcsh burrer in abundance. I valued thc bun cr ver)'
highly, becausc ar school wc had burrer for our bread only on the
firsr Thursday of e\'ery monrh, on which days we wcnr on a picnic
and our lunch was brough t ro us in a dump can.'
As te the rcligions lifc of [he srudcnrs. "T here was a congrega.
tion of the Sons of "taria ami of rhe H can o jesus. with a blue or
red ribbon worn at mass. Confession was obligatory 001)' once a
)'ear, duriog Holy Weck." These were times, as we bave seco,
when few Brazilians werc callcd ro t he pricsrhood . "During rhe
four years I was rhcre, only on e srudcm, Militao de Castro e Sousa,
decla red [or a rcligious life. But cvcn he. afrer scrving his noviate.
fa iled te confirm his voc at ion.'
T here was a studcnr band and orchestra under ltalian rcachcrs-e-
fi rsr Macsmni and. later, Corali U ngo. Using only whar he had
lear ncd at A nchiera. Alberto Tcixeira da Costa "was ahle ro eompose
an opera prod uccd at the .'\1 unicipal" in Rio de j anciro, as well as to
~ QU<lJ 'IIJO (sqUHC) is a game in which four I'layers are statione d on f" ur
ua)l'S furming a M: uare, with a /ift h player in Ihe ee mer. As the players un the
ba-.es e\change p",ilions, the /ifth roan tries 10 reaeh one left lemporarily empry.
lf he: succee:ds he loecom es a ha\oCmm. and the playe:r caught off base u k", h i~
place in the: center.
Q ue" .. (wn ) is a game in whieh rla~'erli tlj\'iJ e t hemsc:I \"l~s inro N 'o leams,
each wilh a flag . The: oujen is to plant th e flag al a cenain poin! in Ihe ul'ponen
"fctritor),." Playe,"" are "k il1ed" if hcld rnOl ionle<.s for a spcci/ied lime. T hc rcsult.
ing mayhem can he imagined if yo u e n \"~ge a fuotball garne in which Ihere are
IWO hall, anJ hot h te l ms are simultaneousl), on the olfen,h'e and rl efensive:.
(T u nslator.)
]16 G rdcr and Progress

eo mpose su ch songs as "Canto da Saudade" and "Serenata," plrces

o frcn performed by his niecc Bidu Sayo."
The annual prizc for thc bcsr smdent in cach class was a meda!
srampcd wirh rhc featurcs of Pope Leo XIII. D uring his cnrire four
years. \ Iodcsto informs us. rh erc was no scandal o :ln}' kind ar rhe
sc hool. Supervisi n was ccnsta nt ; rhc srudenrs wcrc always under
rhc eye o onc or another o rhc padres. Thcre werc "no cases o
pederasry as suc h, hu r rhcrc wc re sorne o rhose arnorous friend-
ships cb aracrcristic o all boarding scbools." 7
Ir was thcse rcligious educators-c-Jcsuirs, Bencdicrines, Salcsians,
and ,\ Iarisrs- who acccprcd rhc Proresrant challcnge o curriculurn
rcform and improvernenr, and did much ro improve mcthods of pri-
mary and sccondary instruc rion in Brazil, includiog such ircms as
supervsed sporrs ami recrearion. These acriviries had been inr ro -
duccd in thc A ng lo-A merican schools of rhe rime, possibly wirh the
tacir inrenrion of compcring wirh Catholic educators in influencing
rhe yout h of Hrazil. Compctition furn ished by thc American
schools in rum srimulared rhe Carholics ro grcater ctforrs to dcvclo p
a predominan rly Larin c ulture in tropical Americe. Thc consta nts
of such a narional and regional cultu re, subjcctcd ro technical and
crhical innovarions from rhc oursidc. could nct avoid becoming
bcrh socially and psychclcgically djsrurbed, but generally rhcse
novelries were alrercd or modified b v local condirio ns and were
more easily assimilarcd inro rhe narional cultu re. Such an alrerarion
could be found in rhe Hrazilian style o soccer foorball, whi ch,
from rhc rathcr Apollonian importarion. becamc D ionysac. wirh
somerhing of rhe nu x xe, the samba, and rhe capoeira in its t rans-
Iormed narure. And thc fnlk songs and cvangelical hymns intro-
duced by Anglo-Saxon reachcrs and r nission arics wcre subj ecred ro
thc same son of t ransform ation. Sun g in Portugucse by o rdinary
Brazilans, rhcse hymns lose th cir fou r-square rempo and changed
inro lively dobrados or lango rous modinbas of an exoricism in evi-
6 T eixeira da Costa's songs are well known ro R raz i l ian~ and h equenl ly fi gure o n
pmgrams by nat ive ~ingcrs, hu! un fonu nately hnc h~d very lirrle promotion out-
sitie Braz.iJ. !litlu Sayao, on rhe othc r hantl. is a Brazilian opera and concrrr
singer who><e distinguj.;hed carecr flouri~hed largely in t he L'nitcd St al~s, whcre f OT
nca rl)" !wo d... cades ~he was a valucd m... ml>1." r uf rh... .\ lctropoliun Opt'fa . ( Tr:1n~
lato r.)
1 1c i ~ rnle rh~c u ne J.S..\ !., ", ho ~~ presid..nl of rh.. SO"' o f :\taria o f An chieta
had tlistinguished himsd f fo r h is extrcme piety. had after gra o.luation beCOJllC in_
\'olved in a scxud scandal, bue this in no way reAccud u n lhe moral and religious
insrruct io" students recei\'etl frorn ehcjr Jesuit precepwr.I in :s"u va Fr ibu rgo.
 Catbolicism and Progress ] '7
dent conrradicrion ro t he spirir of rhc originals. This son of intcr-
pcnetration descrves careful and deraicd sru dy. T he fi rse steps in
suc h a study wcrc made by Profcssor Emile G . Leonard in h is L'IJ-
IU111 ;llis11J e dans Ull Protcstantisme de Constituuon R cente ( 1953 ).
A h hough this book docs not asscss rhe mosr int imare consequences
of rhis interpenerration, ir dces point out for t he first time suc h
maners as the infl uencc of P rorcstannsm on rhc Cl/curus-t he po pu -
lar song conrcsts bcrwccn rwo singers accom panicd by guita r-
where t he Bib le bcgan re compete with Hrazilian history as a sourcc
of t extual material. T bc rou ng Hrazilian sociologisr Renaro Campos
has also begun ro inves tigare this ma rrcr in st udying rhc sang con -
tests in rhc sugar-cane arcas of the norrh, where the decl ine of rhc
patriarchal system favorcd t he dcvcloprnenr o f Proresranrism
among thc rural pcoplcs.
T his dcvclopmcnt was preceded by a similar Protcstanr impacr
on rhc Brazilian lire through the influence of rhc A nglo-Saxon
sc hools on the childrcn o f t hc rich, cvcn d uring Imp erial ti mes. Ed-
uardo J acob ina (!J. in the cou rt. 1H79 ) was one of thosc so influ-
enced. Fo r sevcral years he srudicd in a Rio d e J anei ro acadcmy
significant ly enritlcd " Progres-o" and dirccrcd by .' Ii."s E lean or
Leslie, an American bom in Philadclphia, bur of Sconish dcscenr .
Miss Leslie was "an exrrao rdinary woman: beautiful, tall, well-
groomed, cultivared, and very learncd .. ," She bccame a great
fricnd o f Eduardo's pa rents, ami whc n Eduardo was st ill a small
child she had said, half jokingly, " 1 would likc to dircct this boy's
cducarion from rhc ver)' firsr lcsson s."
In a sratcmcnt wrirtcn in 1938, Eduardo sratcd . "This is just
whar bappened . In j anua ry. 1886, alre ady h aving learn ed from my
father to read, w rirc, and do simple arithructic, I entcrcd rhc
Colgio Progresso. from which I graduatcd in 189Z.' H is d iplo ma
was a sratcment from thc Pfuladelpbia ped agoguc . "Colgio P ro-
grcsso. T his cerrifies that Sr. Eduardo J aco bin a complcrcd his lirer-
ary coursc at my sc hool. whcrc he artcndcd rhe primar}" sccond-
ary, and upper courses, and d emonstrarcd considerable abiluy in all
his subjccrs, particularly in rhc N atural Scicnccs, Physics, an d
Chcmisrry as was more t han adcqu atcly preved in his final exami-
. "
nanons.
Ir was a sc hool w here there werc no p unishmcnrs-s-an innovarion
on the Hrazilian scene. " Bad m arks and good mark s w ere sem to the
p arems in the form of monthly report cards. In serious cases, p up ils
)1 8 Order smd Progress

wcrc made ro sta)' after school fo r a sbort periodoand bo arding stu-

dcnts somcrimes losr rheir weekend privilcgcs. (1 was a da)' stu-
dcnt. ) Thc mo ra l atmosphcre was ver)' pureo ;\liss LcslicIarcr Mrs.
L. l Icntz, did evcryr hing 'fo r righrcousncss' sake' and creared in us
a horror of everything low and vile. A nd in momcms of grcar nerv-
OllS stress, ir was mcrely neccssary for this haughty j unocsque di-
rector ro make her appcarance and ask in Olympian tones: 'Girls~
'''har is the matrer, girls?' (the school was principally for giris) ro
bring abou r rhc rc -csrablishmenr o ordcr." ~
Ed uc ation in an Anglo-Saxon envi ronmcnr had perhaps c rcared
in Ed uardo j acobina-c-and or bcrs of thc bcautiful Mis..s Le slic's pu -
pils as wcll-a certain sensc uf bcing a member of a minority, even
pan of a Prorcstant rebellion. This was useful ro a pcint, but ir also
made ir diiculr in fururc years for rhcse pupils ro co norm t rhc
tradirional valucs and srandards uf a pre dominantly Cat hclic soci-
ety. From his Anglo-Saxon reachcrs, Edu ardo sccms ro have ac-
quircd a prcdspositicn te crhnocenrricism more Arya n than Latin,
and ar an advanccd ag:c, with t he image of rhc beautiful ,\l iss Lcslie
stil l clea rly befare him, had come te bclic ve in a Jewish plot , "w jrh
ar nple means uf propagan da," to confuso and con found "the sense
of R acc." Ile was no t about ro he infl uencc d by suc h propaganda,
cerrain as he was rhar "thc great, the immense moral qualirics of rhc
Pon uguesc would degenerare in the Brazilian as a resuh of [he mix-
ing of raccs.. . ." Borh rhc Ncgrocs and rhc Guaranis lackcd "ini-
t iat ive, self-respccr, leve of rrogress, and com fort" ; Anglo-Saxon
qualitics par cxccllcnce.
Of t hc young Brazilians cd ucared in A nglo-Saxon schcols. m:my
must bavc cnrcred ma nhoo d hearing a sec ret imagc of one of rheir
bcautiful. serene, O lym pian reachers and c hcr ishing a dcsire to sce

~ BU! J" ~pil e th e "O lympim serenily" of .\ liss L,,~l ie , ~ rrue Apollo nian, Edu ardo
grew up ro he ~ man of Dionysiac L atlnity who in his dar perceived ~'al or almOS!;
exclusively in his relativo Ruy Barbosa. Thu.~ he wrote rather irritably in ' 918
nf th e Baron do Rio Brmco : "H e was a greu man On a small seale. \\' ithin re-
srricred liruits, he pcrformed an estimable scrvjce. B UI what pcople he had around
him ! . .." Ed uard" als" co nsidcred Sant us D unt"nt insignifi can! alungside tlle
\ \ ' right Brochel'!> and found Ped ro 11 guilly of "mora l failings very scrious in a
"",'ereign," bcsides bcing "int cllectually mediocre, with an educalion bascd purdy
on memury"- a mo rtal ~i n fro1l1 the " le"'pn int uf Anglo_Saxon educatn rs of the
time. And he "ales thal Bcnamin ConSl ant's celebraled course in Infinilesimal
C.lculus n the .\ l ilita r~ Seh ool "'as 'shameul" and that his Students, man}" of rhem
nO'" teachc rs themseln s, were ridiculous d nwns ""ho arou ",d unl}" laug hter in
re rsons wirh any real knuwlcdge uf mathemat ics.
 Catbolcism and Progress ] 19

otber sucb lovcly creaturcs as tbc morhcrs of innumerable pink-

chceked, fair-skirmcd blond Brazilian babics. And not a few of
rhcm marricd Europcans or Am cricans of just rh is type . Evcn ncar-
N egrees cspoused w hirc Eu ropcans. and after marriagc many of
them tricd ro rcnoun cc their Brazilian t raits, to rhe poinr of arrelllpr-
ing ro acquirc their wivcs' acccnts in spcaking Portugucse.
Carholic schools rried t counrcract this ncw [ascination wirh
Anglo-Saxon Protcsranr valucs by adapri ng sorne aspects of this
cu lture t a Carbolic sensc of educarion, dcport mcrn. and cvca of
artoOnc of rhc rnost imeresting insranccs of this adaptarion was rhc
vigor wirh which rhe Salcsians, who were for rhc most pan lralians.
dcvelopcd foorball rcams w hich frcqucn rly dcfcarcd rcprcscntarivcs
of thc so-callcd " American schools " ar t bcir own game.
O ne of t hc Carholic schools which at thc time conrribut ed
greatly ro thc progres:; of rbe Church in Hrazil was thar of rhe ,\ Ion-
asrer), of Sao Benro in Rio de j aneiro. Cssio Barbosa de Rcscnde
(b, " Iinas C crais. 1879) rccalls rhar he and his brorher Gaspar for
sorne rime an cndcd the free courscs givcn hcrc by thc Benedicrin cs.
Noe all rhe reachcrs wcrc pricsrs: rhe r narhcmatics tcacher, for
example, was an engineer "alrcady very old, almost entirely bald,
wir h a pointed beard. and hcavy drooping musrachcs which ob-
scurcd his complete abscnce o reeth. IIe WOTe a long black coat
burroncd ro the ncck and an equally black high hat, as was rhc fash-
ion uf rhe periodo 1lis name was Alfredo Coclho Barrero and he was
rhc fat hcr of Paulo Barrero IJoao do Rio ]." "Coclho Barrero didn't
spcnd rnuch time reaching," recalls Cssio Barbosa de Rcscndc, pre-
ferring ro "cnrertain thc srudcnrs wirh othcr martcrs," including
Positivism, of which. strangel)' enough for a reacher in a purely
Hrazilia n Bencdicrinc school. he was a suppon er. H e was a picrur-
esque characrcr who ordinaril y callcd his studenrs "rurkcys." t> l Iis
classic expression in rcproving a pupil of extreme ignorance was
" V beber mjjo! (Go take a drink of p i<;s~) " At orher times, " with-
our saying a word, he \Vould ,...ith his hands trace the outlinc of a
shoeblack's box or a donkey can ami the smdent would very well
know whar he mcanr."
Aceording ro Cssio, the tcacher for uniH rsal hisrory. one
,\ Iagalhaes Castro, "kncw not hing of his subject." H e al ways
t:mghr " wirh rhe book open before him, amI in mdcr to make llse of
ir, he pretended ro cough ami d ear his throat throughollt the Icsson.
" B i rd~ :l-N lC iatcd in the Brn ilian ",ind Wilh cxtrcrllC Mupi dity. (T r:a",law r.)
p o a rder and Progress
T hesc interruptions, during which he covcrcd his mout h wit b his
handkcrchief gn'c hin time ro lnwcr his hcad cnough ro rcad wh at
we s w rirrc n in the book. "
T ite Latin reachcr was q uite a di tTerent sort. H is narnc was
Canon LOTero, a rall, dark, sronc-faccd individual who also actcd as
assisranr principal. " H e drcssed neatly and elcgantly and walked
very deliberatcly. B is classes terrifi cd rhe studenrs bccause of his
nasry habit of making sarcasric rcmarks at student errors ." Sorne of
rhcse observarions wcre so irnpious onc could hardly think uf rhc
speaker as a pncst. O ne "peor, skinny, raggcd hoy namcd Abe-
lardo, an impovcrishcd srudcnr [rom ,\ lato Grosso, was one dar
callcd upoo m recite. H e stood befa re rhe priest unablc to repe at a
word o rhe Iesson. Canon Lorcro cxplodcd ar him, 'Shameless runt !
You're so serawo)' yo u look likc an car o co rn g rown out o a
rock.' H nmiliarcd before cveryonc, rhc mor hoy could 001)' burst
into tears. . . ," Suc h reaching procederes naturally did linlc ro
hclp Catholic educational prcsrige in irs compcririon wi rb Anglo-
Saxon merhods, evcn though all Pror esranr reac hcrs wcre not rhc
cqual o .\ Iiss Lcslic or ,\ le. Lanc o Sao Paulo or ,\ te. Muirbcad o
Pern ambuco.
Cano n Lorcro was rhc anrhor o a Larin gramrnar thar "the stu-
dcnrs wcrc rcqu ircd ro buy and memorize in daily exceepts o 15 ro
25 lincs," a proccdure hardly acccptable ro rhc Anglo-Saxon idea o
reac hing rhc sru denr ro undcrsran d. analyze, and inter prct his mate-
rial. At lcsson time. "r he sruden r stood beforc rhe padrc's desk, re-
cired the lcsson from mem orv whilc the rcacher followcd wirh rhc
book. A ftcr complcring this rcxtboo k. rhe aurhor srared thar t he
sr udcnr was rcad y ro t ranslare any Larin rexr, and he was ser ro
wo rk 0 0 rhc writings o T acitus." Canon Lorcro's grammar was
sold at rhc office o th c Carholic-monarchisr paper A pstolo, o
which C ssio bclicved Lorero ro be rhe editor. T his paper was one
whcsc offic es wcre wrecked "d uring rhe political riors comm on ar
rhe time, one o which cndcd w irh rhe assassinarion o G entil de
Casrro in consequence o th e ailure o rhe Canudos expedition
under Col. !\t oreira (,..sar." 1 Ir is possible rhat the scrawny A be-
1 In an anl jmonuehist uprising tuuehed uff hy lhe failure uf rhe :\lo rcira Csar
expedir lnn againsr rhc peasanr rebels ar ("..anudos. G enlil de Ca.~trO, a prominenr
monarehisr and a elose fr iend of fhe Vi'iCuunl de O uro Prew , was murdered by
a mn b in rhe sh ri"n uf the Rin.Petpo]is ra ilroad o n .\lare h 7. ' 1l97. T he Vis-
count de O uro Preto and une uf his suns, who werc w ith G ent il dc Castro al the
lime . narrowl y escaf"'d wlth lhe;r li\ cs. (T ra n, larot .)
 Catbolicsm and Progress 321
lard (Abelardo de Soma) took pan in rhe assaulr on the officcs of
the Apstolo, bur rhat is anothc r stor),.
T o retum ro C ssio Herbosa de Resende, he says rhar "once a
week we had a general revew, and the srudent who performcd the
punishmenrs blisrered thc palms of the ignorant with blows of thc
palmatria." C ssio had alrcady known this "degrading instru-
mene" at [he A renen Leopoldinense in " tinas Gerais, but he was
disagrceably surpriscd ro fi nd ir also in operarion in Rio de [ aneirc
in a Bcncdicrine monasrer)' school.
Du ring C ssio's time, Canon Lorcro dicd of a rupt ured hernia.
Abelardo de S ousa "could not conrain rhe jo), rhis occurrence occa-
sioncd in him. He felr revengcd for al l rhc humiliations he had
suffcrcd in the pa.sr and exprcsscd his dcsirc thar rhc padre be buried
wirh rhe enrire Sugar Loaf on his grave." z A few days afrcr rhc
dcarh of Lcreto. nnother canon took ovcr rhc class. Bis ll ame was
Serejo, and he was "t hc antith csis of Padre Loreto: gcod, patient.
paternal . . ," He also foll owed differcnt ructhods o ecaching
Larin, indicannp rhat cvcn among thc older churchmcn of thc rime
rhere wcrc sorne who did 11m bclicvc in teaching by rote and who.
likc rhc Prcrcsranrs. insisrcd on rhc srudcnr's undcrsranding rarher
than mercly mcmorizing thc material srudicd.
One curious facr nored by Cssio Barbosa de Resende was t hat,
in none of rhc schools in which he srudicd "was there an)' arrennon
raid ro the cvic cducarion of rhc srudcnrs.' In none was the rc any
undcrstanding berween parem and tcachcr in thcir common cause
of insrrucring thc child, and rhc rcsult was tbat rhcre was ofren
fr iction betwecn the two. O n one occasion, thc assistanr principal in
one of Cssio's schools, "having givcn one mpil a light blow wirh a
ruler, broughr about a scene of mayhcm which caused a scandal
becausc of rhe social end political promincncc of one o the con-
rcndcrs." T oe assismnr pnncipal's namc was Xapolco Reis, thc fa -
rhcr of rhe castigatcd srudcnr. who losr no time in appeering at rhe
scbool. was none orbcr rhan rhe Viscoum de O uro Prcto. There
were a few words exchanged bet ween parent and teacher; tilen rhc
enraged Viseount raised his umbrella and delivered "a powerful
blow on Napoleao Reis's forehead. callsing a slight wOll nd." Imme
diarely, rhe two adversaries were locked in deadly struggle, ro the
scandal of the studenrs. Perhaps it would have been even more
2 Sug~r Loaf Ira!) de Afucllr i~ uf co ur;,c the pietu rc:;\lue and much _p hoto.
gta phcd rock al the emrancc of R io de Janeiro harunr. (T rand ato r.)
3" arder and Progress

scandalous if Res had becn a padre; a fight bcrwecn a frocked cler-

gyman and a railcoared srat csman would really have been some-
t bing.
Cssio Barbcsa de Rcscndc coulJ have rcma rkcd 0 0 anothcr dcfi-
cicncy in rhc schools o rhc time: nowhcre in the secondary school
currculum was therc :lo)' place for rhc manual arts. rhesc t hings
being lefr enrirely ro vocerional sc hools and t shop apprentice-
ships. I l ere ir was t hc Car holics who fille d rhis gap; rhc Salcsian
sc hools fo undcd rhroughou t t he c Oll nte)' in rhc late nine teenth ccn -
t ue)' eventually bogan ro introduce rcchnical courscs into the sec-
ondary currculum, giving inst rucrion along modcr n Iincs in roan)'
of the manu al art s. One such sch ool was Santa Rosa o Niteri,
which Father Joseph Burnichon found to be admirably progressive,
wir h "rhe most modero machinery." X or were rbcse institutions
limircd ro (he capital, he observes. "T hcre are to my knowledge a
dozcn such esrablishments in Brazil. of which fi vc are in rhe srare of
Sao Paulo alone.. . ." 3 In offering rhis rechnical instruction, the
Catholics showcd rhemsclvcs wel] aware of rhc impo rtance of the
ncw dirccrions and dcvelopments in the Hrazilian sccnc. perticulerly
in such subarcas as Sao Paulo.
Ir should be cr nphasized rhat [he French infl uence on Brazilian
rc! igious educarion w as not confi ned ro eleganr schocls for socicry
girls in Rio de Janciro and the provinces. Xlany instirurions fo r the
poor had Frcnc h churc hmen in their scrvice. T here were scveral
suc h schools for orphans end un derprivileged c hildren of both
scxcs, whcrc rhc boys wcre raughr rrades and the girls givcn in-
st rucrion in em broidcry nnd drcssmaki ng. In bis V sons du Br sit,
Farhcr L. A. Gaffre noted rhat "benevolent instirutions of all sor ts
are found al1 ovcr Brazil and resrify ro rhe Carholic virality of the
nanon. " ,\ loreon r, scvcral rural schoo ls were run by the French.
including rhar of Trcmcr nb . found cd in ' 93 by French Trap-
pisrs, where large arcas of overgrown land were transforrned iota
rice ficld s. W hcn Farher Gaff re visired them in 19 11 . rhe Trappisrs
had 300 Brazilian workcrs in rhcir scrvice at T rcmemb . AH were
r aid weekly wirhout fail. in contrasr ro rhe irregular parmenls cus-
tomary on most planrarions of the region. By paying rcgularly, rhc
T rappists savcd their cr nployccs from the hands of loan sharks who
'were in the hahit of fattening on the prevailing system of irregular
COmlCns;ltion. And by offering good wages they virtually causcd a
' B urm.chun : op . Cit.,
. p. 1 19.
 Catbolcism md Progrcss 323

rcvolurion in cm ployer-ern ployee relarionships in rural S~o Paulo. a

revolution whic h musr fi gure in t hc stor), of Carholic conrriburions
ro progrcss in early rwcnriet h-ccnrury Brazil. Becausc evcn rhe rela-
ti vely good wagcs rhcy paid could no r be as high as they shou ld be
withour turning the planration owners against thc Chu rch, rhe
T rappists made up for this dcfi cicncy by taking a paterna! inrcrcsr
in thci r workers t hrough "a perpetua! disrriburion of goods, clo rh-
ing, drugs, and medica! assisrancc to !arge or indigem familics." ~
T hcy also buih houses for thcsc [aruilics, houses which, wh ile sim-
ple end rusric, wcre ncve rrhcless superior hygicnically ro rhc old-
sry le barracks and offered each family rhc opporruniry of having its
own garden. The approximatcly 3 00 familics benefiting from t he
prograll1 werc of all kinds: caboctos, 11lcstifos , Iralians, former
slavcs. all typical of r hc abandoomcot dcsccnding upoo the rural
po pula rion afrcr abolition. V icrims of all sons of exploiteroo. t bcse
pccplc under t he intelligem eare of th c F rcnc h T rappists bccame a
small islam! of hopc in rhe midsr of rural misery.
O ne of th c wo rsr s),stems of cxploiration. rhc Trappisrs [ound,
was rhar of sales 0 0 credit, a system which w as norbing more rban
rhe rneans of ena bling a few individuals ro bccomc absolure masrcrs
ovcr whole families of crcdircrs. T hus a large pan of thc rural popu-
larion of Brazil lived in semi-slavery, bound to rhc ryrann)' of the
srorekceper, w ho was often an associate of thc largc landowner.
This was rhe syseem rhc T rappisrs of T rcmcmb sought quicrly
(rhe mies of rhcir ordcr forbad c verbal exuheranee) ro combato
Disercetly and silcntly, rhcy gan prorecrion and social assisrancc ro
hundrcds of rural workers and rhcir families, mueh to rhc honor of
rheir order and ro rhc crcdir of Carbolic progress in Brazil. Ir is a
pity t har th is system was nu r ado pred and expended by rhc Repub-
lic instcad of bcing limited rncrcly ro onc subarea of Sao Paulo.
In a country wherc pcoplc likcd ro say rhar there was nor as yet
an)' "social question." Farhcr G affre ncrcd thc contradicrion be-
twccn thc wages of rural workcrs and the pricc of foodstuJTs, a
condition he eonsidcrcd to be rhe cause of " a stare of physical mis-
ery [among wo rkersJ unworthy of a great counrr)' striving for
progress as is Bral. . .." The )'oung Repuhlie was rhus drifting
roward soeialism, wh ieh was less far oJT than one mighr think. T o
this European, awakened to the "social question" by the wamings
of Leo XI II, rhe Bra7.ilian peasants seemed "more !ike dust rhan
1.. A. Gallre: V isiQn JfI {/ r,}i / (Paris, [91: ), pp. 7, 115. 19J
 arder and Progress

human beings; withour cthnic cohesin, wit bour rradinons. wirhour

communiry o inrerests, rhere is norhing ro bring them rogeeher." ~
If any common ground could be found in rhis mixture of elcmenrs,
rhc fi rsr demagogue ro come along would mold chis amorphous pro-
lerariar into a violently rebellious force. With rhc coumry careless
as ro rhc fa re of irs rural population. such insurrecrion did nor seem
far distant; ro Fat hcr Gaffre in 19 1 1, Brazil appca rcd ro he on th c
brink o a dcvasraring social crisis.
The French padre cc uld nor undersrand why t he Brazilian gov-
ernment did nor inrervene in thc rclarions berwcen landowners ami
rural workers ro prorect rhe latrer againsr cxploirarion and slavcry
throu g h debr. " In cer rain coun t ries," he wrore, "rhe gO\'ernmem
esrablishes a legallimit on rhc price o nccessities: bread, salr, sugar,
cte. In Brazlian rural arcas rhe field o pricc con t rol should be
gready ext ended. If rhis were done, the rapacity of thc storekcep-
ers. whc sell whar rhey will ar rhc pricc rhey want to rcceive.
would be somcwb ar restrained ." &
' \'har repcrcussions did rhcse words of Farher Gaffre's have in
rhc Brazil of ' 9 II ? W bat repcrcussions were caused by rhc work o
rbe T rappisrs of Trcmemb ? Virrually none. There was no clear or
serious co mmcnra ry by any infl uemial jou m alisr, old or young.
T herc was no Ruy Barbosa. :\0 Graca Aranha. ::"0 Sylvio Romero.
:\'0 Gilbcrto Amado. In a Brazil which was falling under t hc spell
of eleganrly skeprical prose writcrs like Anatole France, pedanri-
cally scnrenrious sociologisrs likc Gusta ve Le Bon. (Ir rncrcly mc1-
Iifluons poers like Edmond Rostand, there was linle room for
Carholic commcntarors whosc words were rudc and whose ideas un-
comfc rrably honestoT hesc Frenchmcn, ahead of their time in rhcir
observations on rhc Brazilan workcr from rhc Carholic-c-and pro ~
foundly Chrisrian-c-pcinr o vicw, rricd in vain ro communicarc
tbeir ideas ro Brazilian Catbolics (and Brazil ians in general). Simi-
lady, in a less Anarolian and more authentic France, the Braganca
Prince Dom Lus, bcir ro rbc thronc o Pedro 11, bad amicipared
rhe Brazilian republicans in voicing his ideas for the rehabiliration
o the worker dcgraded by slavcry and CUt loose th rough abolirion.
Hur neither rhc visiring Frenchmen nor rhe C allicized Brazilian
could makc any impression on a Brazil ian public contaminared by
skepricism and bourgeois smugness.
~ Ibid., p. 298.
& bid. p. ) 00.
 Catbolicism and Progress

Ir is rru c rhar whcn [he ahb Dom Chautard had come ro Brazil
in the t urn of the cenmr)' ro found th e T rappist monastery of
.\ h ristcla, he had bccn well rcceived by th e Republican aurhoriries.
T he Prcsidem himsclf had said: " 1 should like t o see not ene. bu r
twent)' Trappist esralilishmenrs in Hraxil." 1 Bur this does not mean
rhar words bccarne deeds capable of clcvaring rhe French Cntbclic
iniriarive in this work which, economically or rechnically, re say
nothing of thc social objcctivcs. so dcservc d encouragemcnt. V isi-
t ing rhc T rappisrs in '908, Farher j oscph Burnichon srared rhar rhe
T rememb group was "giving a magnificcn r lesson . . . wirhout
subsidy or favor s of an)' kind." This irn pression was confirmed by
rhe American agronomisr Hradford, who bad bccn conrracted by
rhe state of Sao Paulo to hclp dcvelop t hc culnvation of rice." Brad-
ford sratcd t har [he T rappisrs wcre doing well-organized pioneer
work in raising that erap. so vital ro t he Brazilian diet . T he impar.
tanr factor, howcver, was thar, in achieving t his succcss in tropical
agriculrurc, rhc Eu ropcan churchrncn werc also succccding in rhe
Christian rask of bertering the lot of narive and immigrant ru ral
workcrs of all ct hnic groups. Considering ir impossible to separate
t he fortunes of on e group from t hose of anorher, the Trappisrs
gnve cqual at rent ion ro all, t hereby avoidi ng rhe er ror of believing
t har rhc mere presence of a Iew G ermans or lt alians amid rhe mixed
Brazilian population wou ld by sorne son of sociological magic el-
cvatc th e caboclo, Thc trut h is thar withour rhe extcnsion of reli-
gious assistance ro (he immigrams and material, as well as religiou s,
aid ro [he narices, th e immigrams, instead o regene raring othcrs,
wou ld havc fallen iota dcgradaric n. And indccd. t his is what hap-
pened in sorne instanccs, accord ing to rhe restimony of such rcliablc
observe rs as Flctcher."

7 lbid., p. z]6.
H Bum ic hoo , o p. d !., p. I H l .
9 In thcir da5sic hno k 0 0 Brazil, Jo' lelc her an d K iddcr made an intehigent com-

mentary on thc d cg radation which ..ccu rred amo ng rhc Ge rmen irnmigrams eH n
d uring rhe d ays o f sla\'C ry. In Pcrrpolis. they repon . the G ermans "broug ht .....ith
rhcm fe w an s and bur littlc educatio n. lt sccms ditficulr in a tropical cllmate ro
pre\'cn t the mc eals and ind ustrv of emig rants fro m deeerio ratin g and rh is is par-
lic ularl}' to be bscr\'Cd in sine cou mri es. T he degraded colonist, ..... hile scrting
h imsclf abmc lhe .'\ f rican. eng rafls rhe " inos uf lhe b rter upon rhe Eu ropean S!ocll.
and lhus sinks lo a lo"e r g rade Ihan lhe l'\egr. The G crman in Brazil h as lhe
want nf a sound moral peo p!e surro unding h im. !O sus!ain and elevate h im : !here-
fo re ir is no mU1'C1 if he sinks lowcr and lower in rhe ~ ale of dvUizarion. .\Iueh,
how C\'e r, is bei ng done {or the G errnans of Petrpol is. T hc clergyman, as rhe
 arder and Progress
Along wirh thc Trappist expcrimcnt in Trememb, rhe cffo rrs o
rhc indusrrialist Carlos A lberto de .\t eneses in rhc ncwly dcvcloped
ind ustrial arcas of Pern ambuco an d Babia should be mcntioncd. In
1904. t hrough t hc iniriarivc of rhc Christian Fcderarion of Workcrs
of Pern ambuco, a pcrition was presenre d to the Chambcr of D epu -
ne s cxpoundinp rhc ncccssiry and advanrages o orgamzcd labo r
and requcstinp a law enabling suc h organizarion. "T hc petiric n was
sig ned by rhc Fedcrarion of W o rkcrs, rep resenting sevcn affilarcd
organizarions. and by fi frccn othcr labor organizarions rcprcserniog
sorne 6.000 w orkers in rhe starcs of Pern ambuco, Al agoas, Scrgipe.
Bahia, Paraba, and Rio Grande do Norte: ' says the cco nomist
T adeu Rocha. " In the following rear, t he Babian deputy J oaq uim
ln cio T ost a. w ho had bc en connccted wirh t he Social-Labor
movemcnr sincc 1900. wir h rhc collaborat ion of the cn gin eer Carlos
A lbe rto de ,\ t enescs. rcintrodoced rhc ideas of thc perine a in rhe
federallcgislaturc in a bill which evenrually became Law No. 1635
of J anuary 5. 1907 ." 1
Profcssor T adcu Roc ha sratcs rhat rhis law "was bascd upon
Carholic social doctr ine and un rhc cxpcricnce of an indusrrialis r of
good w ill-c-Carlos Alberto de J\ lencses-and would have bcen des-
tined to be rbc insrrumenr fo r c ollahor ario n bcrween m anagement
and work crs had nor rhe individualisrn o Brazilian soci cry an d t he
polirical ami economic libcral ism of rhe c ou ntry rclcgared it ro a
most unj usr disdain . . . . At rhc t ime polirical considerarions held
rhe ascendancv ovcr economic and social realities. . . ." 2
Het wcen 1891 and 1904 Carlos Alberto de .\fencses bad devel-
ope d conside rable soc ial acr ion hased upon Carholic principlcs and
C hristian fcclings. A s gen eral manager o an ind usrry in Pernam -
buco. he had made bis co mpany include "various principies o
social C hrisrianity " in its st atutcs. Nor was he quixorically alonc in
rhis ac rion . he work cd in collabo rarion with A nt nio :'\t uniz Ma
c hado, Pierrc Collier. and wirh rhc furure fede ra l dcput y Lu s
Corr is de Briro. H e instir ut ed a program of social serviccs fo r his
wo rkers at rb c Goiana Mills ami rhc Camaragibc Factory . AIore.

pA,tor oC the cburch m d supe rin rendent o he o;chooli, rakes A deep interese in
the wclfarc o hi~ counrrymen b oth spiritually and Intellcccuaily' (p. JO!) .
1 Tadeu Roc ha: "Paniu de Pe rnAmbuco () .\ Imimen!o Sin,JicAlls{A" (T he Sr n-
die Alisf xfo vemem TfA, Lcff Pernambu co}, Di.iriQ dI' l'I'T"..m buco. January 6,
' 957
~ lhid,
 Catbolicism and Progress 327
ovcr. ir is ro his pious inrcrcsr in t he "social qucsdon" rhar wc owc
rhc fi rsr Carbolic coopcrarivcs in Hraxil. Again in rhc words o Pro-
fcssor Tadcu Rocha: " \ Virh rhc spirit o coopcrarion as a basic
pnnciple. Carlos Alberto brought aboue the firsr cooperarives in
Brazilian rerrirory . There bcing no laws ro go\'ern rhis sort o or-
ga nizarion. t hcse cooperarivcs had ro be organizcd as corporarions
olfcring a dividend of 8 per cent plus a bc nus of 1 0 per cent on
rhe rotal perchases o cach rnembcr. On j anuary 1 , 1895, rhe Cam a.
ragibe co-op oponed wir h a stock of food stuffs, fabri cs, baked
goods. and mear. In .\lay, 1896, a similar operation was begun for
rhe crnployccs of rhc G oiana .\ ti lls, wirh a grocery and dry goods
fin e.. . . Crowning rhis work of ninc yea rs o social educarion,
Carlos Al berto de ,\1 cneses rcorganized rhe social program of rhc
Camaragibc Fact or), into a largo \\ 'orker's Corporarion, wluch was
inaugurared on j uly 1, ' 900. T he organizarion rook che rhcn possi-
ble and mosr advisable form of a mixcd syndica re o f manage mem ,
offi ce staff, and factor), workcrs from rhe highesr executivc ro rhe
rnost humb lc laborer. AH werc required ro belon g ro the corpora-
rion. so rhat rhe ru ost ignorant and mosr backward were srill bene-
fircd and rhcir (mure and rhat of rheir familics gu aranrccd. . . .
The cxampl c of t hc Camarapibc Factor), was soon imirared by rhe
Paulisra Company. wh ich ser II p a similar workcrs' co-op on Alay 1,
19 2, rhroug h rhc initiarive of t he insrirut ion's director, Cusrdio
Jos da Silva Pessoa, wh o pridcd himself on having riscn from the
ranks of rhc rcxrile wo rkcrs and being tbcrefore well acquainred
wirh rhe nce ds and aspiranons of his former working companions.
The Goiana '\I ills, afrer overcoming a rnult irude o obstacles, also
srartc d its co-op on Seprcmber 3, 1903. Ir was nor eas)' for Carlos
Al berto de Meneses. evcn wir h rhc hclp o Lus Corr is de Hrito, ro
bring abour this int eg ration of em ployees, working as he w as wieh a
very ignoram rural prolerariat harely emerged fro m slavery and
sril l imbucd wir h aHrhe vices of that institution ." B
Bur rhis was nor rhe end of rhe Carholic engineer's acrivity. Ir
w as rhrough his iniriarivc rhar rhc Fcderan on of Christian \\'orkers
was csrablishcd. "Ar rhe Firsr Carbolic Congress in rhis stare, held in
Rccife in J un e, 19 2, under his presidency, he declared rhe immedi
are necessiry for rhe foundi ng o an organizatio n to acr as a center
for direcrion, docrrine, sr ud)', inspirarion, and srrengr h" and
petirio ned rhar "rhe Carholic C'...<mgress support rhis idea and con
3 Ibi,!.
]18 arder and I'rogress
stirurc a comrmssron immcdiatcly ro found suc h a centcr. . . . In
1903 rhis pionccri ng action was rakcn through the firsr Groups for
Social Studics in Brazil." "
Pern ambuco scems ro havc hccn rbc pan o Brazil rnost predis-
poscd ro iniriarive of t his kind, fo r ir was in thc fo nner Im perial
prcvincc rhar Louis Vaurhic r propagared [he Fourierisrn which ap-
parcm ly in large pan inspired (he " Christian Socialism'' o Anrmo
Pedro de Figucircdo." Fcllowing Figucircdo, anorher disciple o
Vauehicr. the Frcnch cnginccr " 1let. bccamc inrercsred in rhe social
problcms of rhe agrarian norrh. .\I ilet, who had mar ricd a Brazilian
woman and bccomc ccmplcrcly assimilatcd, was able ro srudy rbcsc
problcms from a pract ica] and Brazilian, rather rhan a vision ary and
Europcan peine of view, and ro pass on his ideas and inrcrests ro rhe
y ou ng j oaquim X abu co. If rhe coming of the R epublic in I R89 had
nor inrerrupted his career. always mo re social than pclirical, Na-
buco rnighr havc dcvclopcd imo a socia l Cat holic-c-or cvcn a sv ndi-
calisr Carbolic; for, as we have scen. he evenrually bccame evcn more
decply reco nciled ro rhe Church than Ruy Harbo sa, and in rhe last
years of rhc Empirc had givcn somewhar Brieish-oricnted lccrurcs
on rhe "s ocial qu cst ion" which made him a precurso r of rhc coun-
ery's labor movemenr.
Brazilian Carholicism in rh is pcr iod had a number of apologists
whc produccd anides of gen uine [iterar-y valu. Sorne werc writ ren
hy joaquim Nabuco near rhc cnd of his lifc , thcrc wcrc also rhosc
which Eduardo Pr ado dedicared sigmfi canrly ro Farhcr Anchicta,
and tbosc of Carlos de Laer in dcfcnsc of rhe for cign monk. In rhc
pulpit Farher j lio Alaria disringuished himself for his persuasivo
and un rherorical eloq uen cc. 1l is sobcr ami poljshcd sermons, sorne
of which wcre courageously polemical in c riricizing ccrtain pricsts
of his day, reduced rhc cusromary style of pompous orator)' ( in
imirarion or caricature of ,\ lo nt' A lw rne bur oft en indulged in by
Ruy Barbosa) ro a matte r for ridicule.
BIIt most sermons of t hc dav rook litrle accounr of rhe social

proble ms of rhc coumry. Sorne priests, ro he sure, wcrc active in
polines and one of rbem. Alonsignor Olmpio de Campos. had been
assassinared in Scrgipc ovcr sorne polirical trivality . Anorhcr pri csr
had bccn an effcctive go"crnor of Para lJa, still another a federa l
deput), from Sao Paulo. But rnosr were si]en r on soci al issues.
~ bid.
~ Sce
m)" U m Englmheiro f nds /10 Br..~jl (Rio de J ~n e ir(). 1</>0 ) tOT furthcr
eommenfar)' on Ihis manero
 Cmboicism l111d Progre$! 129
Of the four pricsts boro hcrween 1880 and 1882 who havc
kindly furnish ed rcstimon y in thc prep ararion of rhis book, not on e
indicares having had an)' conccm wirh rhc social problerns o rhc
periodo "1 bave nothing ro say on rhis," wrircs Father Florcnrinc
Barbosa. canon o rhe mcrropoliran cenrcr o Parafba. Thc same
response was clicited frorn another Paraihan, Canon Xletias Freir .
despire the fact th at, grandson of Imperial barons, he had ofren
becn polirically militant during his carcer. Farhcr Leopcldc Fernan-
des Pin hciro, from Cear . states rhar he was "enrhusiasric for social
and polirical reform in Brazil and for t hc ideas of Alberto T rres,"
bur plaronic in rhar ent husiasm. And Farhcr Manuel Higino da Sil.
veira. vicar of Livremcnto, sratcs tliar he had always considered rhe
soc ial problems of his count ry " in t he light of thc Chrisrianity and
religion under w hosc acgis Brazil carne inro being."
T he firsr Brazilian cardinal, Dom Joaquim Arcoverde de Albu -
querque Cavalcanri-c-rhe f irst cardinal in Latin America-seemed
also not ro bave becomc dist urbcd by rhesc problcms. Perhaps he
found Fathcr Gaffre's fcars o insurrcction cxcessivc and evcn a hit
comical. Dcscendant o rural gentry fr om th c backlands, Arco-
verde neverrheless had nor livcd in rhc interior himsclf and had had
no conracr wirh rhe agrerien misery which followeJ abo lit ion. H e
was essenrially a priest occupied wit h rc1igious rarhcr rhan social
prob lems. H e had ncred as chairman o [he Ca rholic comminee
which in R io de j aneiro had sponscred thc lectores of Farhcr
Gaffre in rcsponse to rhose of rhc socialisr Fcrri and rhc ami-clerical
Clcrnenceau, bur he seems ro have considered [hose lectures on ly in
t hcir apologctic aspcc ts. T o t he Frcnch speaker's occasional discrcer
references to rhc Brazilian labo r situation he was virtually indiffer-
cnr.
Ca rholic socialisrn like rhar of F arhcr Gaffre. which brought
m:my Brazilian Carholics togetbcr in a spirit of solidarity, acrually
preceded the pu rely hurnanirarian oc "sciennfi c" sccialism of t he
non-Carholics and t he anri-clericals. "Scicntific" socialism liad
begu n ro aprear in rhc early t wenticrh cenru ry. alt hough wit h lcss
impacr than had bccn cxcrciscd by anri-clericals o rhc ro manric.
eloqucnr type of Coel ho Lisboa of Paraba. Ir was t his type of anti-
clerical who had chiefl y suppo rt ed the rad icall}' anti. Jesuit polic)'
of Nilo Pe~an ha when memhers o that orde r, expelled from Portu-
ga l after the coming of t he Republic of 1910, soug ht refuge in Bra-
zil as rhc most natural sheitcr from the perscc urions of Portugu cse
anri-Ca rholics like Afooso ('..osta. Pc~ a nh a evenrually releoted in his
33 Order and Progress
anri-j csuirisr n and Brazil consequen rly bcncfircd from rhc presence
of such leamcd and virtuous Portugu cse j esuirs as Lus G onzaga
Cabra!. Mcn of rhis calibcr, spceking rhe common langu age of Bra-
zil and Portugal,
, were ablc ro offer a ,grcar scrvicc ro the ,vourb, and
tu the cause of Carholic progress in general. in rheir adoprcd eoun-
teyo This was rruc dcspire rhe facr rhar orher ncwcomers, cmbit-
tercd by the viclcncc of thcir expulsion from Portugal. com poned
rhcmselvcs in Brazil wirh an alrnosr morbid intcle rance roward ao)'
vicws diffcring from rhcir OW I1.
In 189 1 the American Matu rin ;\ 1. Ballou, visiting Brazil. was in-
rercsted by t he faet rhae, in separaring Chureh and Starc, rhc Re-
public had cffccrcd a paci fic t ransformation wirhour disrnr bing
churches ami convente, withour turning an)' Church pro pert), into
public offices. and wirhcut in <ln)' wa)' degrading rheir architecrure
and rhcir art. .\Ir. Ballou visired sorne of rhc 77 churc hcs of Ro de
j anciro, and like a good Yank ce Proresranr hast cncd ro criricize rhe
ack of venrilation which tum cd all Carholic c burches in Brazil and
sout hem Europc into ao olfacrory tormento Coming from a coun-
n )' wh cre congrcgations wcre segrcgated cvcn within the samc
Proresranr sect , Hall en must han beco markcdly uncomforrable in
churches hcavy wit h rhc accum ulared odors of ccnt urics of worship
by persons of all colors and from a1l walks of life. Pcrh aps he would
havc Iikcd sorne goo d Yank ce archirecr ro visir Hrazil and cut bread
windows in t he old churches in order t givc rhem th c propcr vcnri-
lat ion.
(1

,\ Ir. Hallou fou nd rhe carhedral in Rio de j aneiro under repnir.

full o f scaffolding and dusr. N cvcrrhclcss, be rhought rhc building
" ver)' stri king in its arcbitccrural cffect." 7 The scaffolding and re-
pairs perhaps indicarcd rhc beginning of a new and debarable phesc
of Carholic "progrcss'' in Brazil: rhe cxccssivc modcm izarion and
embellishmenr of tradit ional cburcb and convenr arc birectu rc. Fol .
lowing rhis coursc of " progress," such nrc hitecrure ofren losr all
trace of irs hisrorical aod arristic qualitics. Baroq uc bccame G orhic;
anrique images wcrc re placed hy comme rcial statucs made in Ital)'.
This was t he son of " progress" which replaced anriquc ceramc
riles wirh painre d imiration marble, which sold rhc old carvcd jaca-
randa of sacrisry and cOO\'enr for ,,"oods ephclllcra ll)' in vogue al
rhe rime.
"'''bturin M. Ballou: F.q 'l<Ito ri~1 Amer iCIl (S e\\, York. I Il<}l l . p. 1M.
1 Ibid., p. ,6,_
 Cotbolicism and Progress 33/

\\'irh rhc scparation of Church and Srarc thc govemmcnr subsi-

dies for t he prcscrvation of works of rcligious arr in rhc churches
ami co nvcnrs carne re an end." At rhc samc time rhc clc rgy, now
largcly of foreign origin, werc more in command in their cstablish-
mcnrs rban during Imperial times, whcn religious emblems and the
Imperial crown wcrc displaycd jointly on rhc pcdimcnts of rnost
cbu rch buildings. And since m:lllY of rhcsc forcign priests und
monks lackcd any sensc of rhc national significance of rhis archirec-
ture and rclig ious arr, thc rcsulr was what mighr han bccn ex-
pecred : they showcd not rhc slightcsr hesirarion in decharacrerizing,
desrroying, ami "modcrnizing" ir. Thus bogan an era of decline in
the Hrazilian Church tradirio n of ccclcsiasrical art and archirccturc.
Or pcrhaps 1 should say rhar rhis decline, rarhcr than beginning,
was acccnruatcd. for rhc rcndcncy was airead)' beginning to appear
al thc cnd of rhc Empirc wirh the crecnon of such cdifices
as rhc c bu rch of Nossa Sen hora da Pcnha in Recite. Thc work of
ltalian Capucbins. rhis building is grandiosc, admhredly, but in it
thcrc is no trace wha rcver of rhc rcligious past or rbe artisric rradi-
rions of Brazl.
In I tl9 1 ,\ Ir. Ba ll ou noted rhar severa! of thc churchcs of Babia
wcre "in a ver)' dilapidaecd condition'' and probahly would nor be
rcsrored or repaircd." The [act is rbat chis dcrcriorat ion of churches
of arrisri c inrercsr was general t hroughout Brazil during the period,
rhanks to t he arrirudc of lIlany ch urchmcn rhar thc Church was no t
an antiq uarian socicry to spend irs money and wasre irs time in try~
ing ro preserve or prorect old buildi ngs from the ravagcs of rhc
tropical climare. Brazilian bishcps should be young and dynamic,
rhey fclt. Thcy should bu ild new churches, new chapcls, new
scbools. lt was thus rhar llustrious and progrcssivc bisho ps likc
Dom Lus de Brito nnd D OIll Adau to de Miranda H enriqucs must
have thoughr as, Iike fearlcss businessmcn. they ordered rhc demol-
tion or aiteration of venerable huilJ ings in the imerest of finan -
cial henefirs 10 the episcopal economy. Precarious benefits. perhaps.
Through thcm Bra;il al rhe rurn of the eenmry losr forc"cr some
of lhe best monlllllcnts of its pastoworks which since colonial timcs
had ennohled irs landseape and atforded a sense of dignity and his-

~Sec ,\ la nucl Bnhma A l/{Tf j" 1/0 /lraJiI ( Rio de Janci ro, 19H ) and the bio-
guphieal e~~ay uf Francisco Lima, D. AJ"I/fO -S"briJior Biogrficas (Para iba,
' 956 ), 1.
9 lbllou: "p. cit. . p. ' 45.
 Order and Progress
rorical continuity ro irs dcvclopmcnr as a Carbolic culture and a
narion. Luckily. a numbcr of old churches and characrerisrically
Brazilian religious works of art escaped this degradation.
In poctry, belles-lcn rcs, and musie during rhis period. rhc mark
of Catholic inspiration is cleerly visible. \ Vith thc possible cxccption
of mcmbers of rhc sehool dcsignated by Sylvio Romero "dccadcnr
and symbolisric't-c-wrirers such as Alphonsus de Guimaracns, Au-
gusto de Lima, and Aura de Sousa-c-mosr of this literature achieved
an inregrarion of rhc Cat holic spirir with rhar of the American
tropics. In prose, t hc work of Afonso Arinos in ,\t inas G erais and
Simes Lopcs N eto in Ric G ran de do Sul formed a Cath olic-
orienred apology for Hrazlian rural vales. In Ncto's O N egr nbo
do 'astoreio (The Uttle N egro of tbe 'asturekmds we have a
work of pcrmanent literary merir, marked wir h a suggestion of the
rcligious senrimenr thar, in rhe Brazilian rropics, distinguishcd rhe
relationships of whires with N egrees. \Vith somc gcncrosiry per-
haps, Sylvio Romero in his E'l:o/u~o da L temtum Brasileira (Evo-
lution of Braziian Literature v also lists severa! rcljgious orators of
rhis period as being of lirerary importance: Farher Parrfcio Moniz
and Dom Anrnio de Macedo Costa, whorn he associares with the
Bahian school of rhe nineteenth ccntury, Dom Lus Raimundo da
Silva Briro, Farher Jlio \ taria; Canon Francisco de Paula Rodri-
gues; and '\ Ionsignor '\Ianue1 Vicente.' AH ehese men possessed an
eloqucnce which musr have conrribured ro Carholic progress, bur it
was one rhar in facr did not make fo r Iirerarurc (exccpt possibly in
thc case of j lio Maria ) and did nor serve to bring abour a perma-
nent union of rhe ncw pitase of Catholic rboughr wirh rhar of che
dcvcloping Brazilian culture. In this pre-repuhlican period Carholi-
cism had divestcd irself of many of the defecrs of the patriarchal
age, but ie had not )'ce acqcircd the sensc of rcsponsibility of a reli-
gion which in 1889 ceascd ro be official wirhour losing any of irs
ability to mbue Brazilian culru rc in general, among aH taces and
nationaljries from norrh ro south, with thc ideals and values of Larin
Carholicisrn.
Paul Adam. in a visir ro Brazil, found confi rmation for the idea
already currcnr in Europe that "despire princes and polines [rhc
Catholic Church J is still mother of the people." In Europe there
was much talk of socialislll and sorne were even seeing eommunism
as a modcro solution to social maladjustmcnt. Paul Adam verified
I Sylvio Romero: Ev olufao da Uteratllr" Brasileira (Campanha, 1905) , p. 78.
 Cmboticsm and Progress 333
rhar in Brazil the dceds which mosr rcsisrcd rhc rropics and the
passage of time we rc thosc performed by Carholic churchmcn
rhro ugh a scnsc of ccl lccrivc acron rhar was no more nor lcss rhan
socialism or communism in irs bese sense. Ir was, afrer 311, "rhe onl y
durable anempt at communism and socialism wbich bad rcally been
rried and has really succccded." Among rhcse religious mcn rhcrc
was " norhing of ind ividualluxury . .. . But for rhe order, for rhc
union o rhese agricultural workers, thesc masons, tbcsc illumina-
tors o manu scriprs, thesc gardeners ir rcprescnt cd a magnificcnt
luxury indeed." e Thus spokc a Frenchman in the faee of a Brazil-
ian Carholic progrcss which was clcar ro every visiring European.
evidcncc of a solid Catholic consraney merge d wirh al! rhat was
most aurhentic and solid in Brazilian civilizarion. This phcnomcnon
had becn notcd by Clcmcnccau, by Fcrrcro, by Lamb crg, by E lli-
OH, by Brycc. Ir may he rhat ir had its rbrowbacks ro Ecropean
patterns bur ir reprcscnred a complex o progress in rhe face of a
tropical situation violently non-Europcan in Olan)' o irs aspecrs, a
progress difficult to deny or undcresrimare when secn by any visi-
ror nor rigidly prcdisposcd ro find in Brazil a mere copy or passive
imitarion of French or Brirish social parterns.
T hus had Farher G atfrc givcn his Christian indulgencc ro rhc ir-
regularirics o ccrrain way werd pricsrs of the interior, co nsidcring
sueh irrcgul ariries lcss irnporranr rhan thc vicrories already eamcd
by rhc Church in the tace of rhe harsh realirics of rhc cnvironmenr
ami of thc equ ally barbarous srate of indecisin cxisring bcrwecn
the jungle and rhc ciry. The man of rhc interior was still aman
domnared by rhc jungle: " In rhc Brazilian spirir, I havc ofrcn per-
ceivcd feclings and tendcneics whieh bcrray the cxrraordinary force
of dissimilar growrhs, growr hs which havc t hcir origin in many
sources and which cn rich rhc physical subst ratum as the vines and
various growrhs embellish (he trunks and limbs of th c grcat vegeta-
tion of the ju ngles.?" In bestowing order 00 rhis confusin of in-
flu enees, Brazilian Carholicism seerncd to Father G atfre ro bavc
madc "remarkable progress." N ot rhar cveryrhing ' vas excmplary,
bur rhe European Cat hclic eould not full y undcrs rand t hc siruarion
o rhe pri esr of rhc interior, condcmned ro livc in t ropical hcar
"among rudimcnrary crcarures whose mcnrality is scarcely superior
ro rhar of rhc aborigines." Given thesc condirions. ir W 2S nor sur-
2 Paul Ad am: L es VUl ,i:t'S dfl Brsil (Par is. 191 4 ) , pp. 1118-<).
~ G aff re: op. cit ~ p. HJ .
314 Order and Progresr

prising thar rhcrc wc re occasional transgressions. Priesrs \....ere "fall-

ble hcroes" in the srrugglc againsr rhc violcnr aggrcssions of tbc
,\ lasons ano anti-clcricals of rhe pcriod.'
Dcspire rhesc aggressicns, rhc balance sheet for rhc pcnod must
show more Sll CCCSS rhan fa ilurcs, rnusr add up ro Carholic progrcss
ano a ccrrcsponding decline-notable since th c imprisonment of
rhc bishops-in t he polirical powcr o rhc .\fasons and anri-clcricals.
4 lbid.jp. li S.
 The Republic Twenty
Yean After

N rhc relativity o t i m e rhan

OT llIl'G MOR E CUcAR I. y EXP RF.SSF.S
t hc case wir h which rhc furure dissolves irno the pasr, lcav-
ing a presem with no significance. Thc R cpublic o 1889 was tu a
cerrain point a T oynbeean response ro rhc c hallenge o rhc future:
the dcrnocraric, American futurc w hic h sorne Brazilians of t he larc
ninetecnrh cent uey sinccrcly believed was bcing impeded by rhe ex-
isrcnce o an Impe rial and slavocranc sociery.
This response had bcgun ro take fonn in rhe 1870'S wir h rhe Re-
publican Manifest and rhe L:1W of t hc Free Womb. Ir became a
wcll-def ined realiry in 1889. 13m by 191 0 rhis messianic furu rc had
already begun ro mergo inrc the past-evcn inro aspcct~ o thc te-
mote past-to bccomc pan o a co nrinuity wirbour which analy-
sises and crirics a gcnererion larer wo uld havc fou nd the utopian
suggesrions of t hc fi fteemh of Novcmbcr for rhe solution of th c
counrry's problcms complerely irrelcvanr. A nd wir hout w hic h such
polirical scciologists as Alber to T rres and his school, Euclydes da
Cunha. Sylvio Romero, j os Verlssirno, Oliveira Lima. and Profcs-
sor Gilberro Amado, fol1owed larer by Vicente Licnio Cardoso,
Oliveira Viaria. Al ceu Amoroso Lima, Professor Delgado de Ca r-
valho, and Professor Puntes de j\ l iranda. would have becn wro ng in
thcir opinion rhar thc fi rsr t wo dccades of th c rwent icrh century
werc part of rhe samc Revolorion cnvisaged by Bcn jamin Const anr,
Silva j ardim, .\ t arrins j nior. Q uintino Bocayuva. or Prudente dc
,\ Iorais. In addirion , Brazilians like Afonso CC!so j nior ami \ta nue\
de O liveira Lima, who had been rcpublicans in rheir you rh, after
rbc end of rhe niner eenrh century became so symparhcric ro rhc

'"
 a rder and Progress

monarchy and nosralgic for its vir rues thar sorne in tur n llegan t o be
considered dangcrous to rhc republican regir ne by orhers more
mysrically faithfu l 10 rhe Rcpublic of their adolesccne dreams, meo
like J os Comes Pinheiro Mac hado.
Pinhciro " tachado, according ro his frie nd Estcio Co lmbra.
uscd ro pronounce rbc word R e-p-bli-ca enunciaring each syllable
as though he werc repcaring a sacrcd or magic formule.' For him ir
was loaded wirh suggcsrions of the past-a p<lsr he had himself ex-
pericnced-c-ro w hich werc joincd all sorrs of suggcsrons fo r t hc
furu rc. Bur principally for t hc future, for Pinbeiro rcfused 10 come
ro rerms with rhe monarc hica l past of Br azil. 0 0 his lips, Repblica
prcserved its you rhful sounJ , even whcn t hc speake r himself had
bccom e an eldcrly rornantic dream iog of the furure o f Brazil as
rhcugh of an ado red daug hrer."
"The Hrazilians like ro say rhat rheirs is a youog country," w rotc
Pierre D enis whcn he visircd Brazil in the early rw cnrierh ceo tury.
" In facr, tbey have rhe gre arest ho pcs fo r rheir country an d believe
thar rhe presenr is loaded wirh promisc." RU( rhis same Brazil. said
D cnis, was nor young in rhe sense o having bad no pasr. Ir was t he
Brazilian pase ( he mighr cve n have said the pasr of rhc Br azilian
R epublic ) which so vivid ly impressed him, evcn afr er having visired
orher American co unrr ies, such as A rgentina and [he Unircd States.
" O ne fecls less exparr iated in Brazil," he w rote. "Th ere one does
nor have rh c feeli ngs of fear or su rprisc w hic h st rikc one in Argen-
rina or thc Unired Srates, w irh rheir nebulous socicty withour
roors and w irhour hicrarchy , orienr cd exclusive ly roward thc la ve
o individu al indcpcndcnce an d direcrcd by rhe desirc o m aking a
fonune." Iirazilian parriorism encompasscd more me morics than
rhar of A rgentina o r rhc U nit ed Srares." In 1918, ar the end of t he
so-called " Era of Vcnccslau'' with irs markcd upsurgc in industrial.
sm, Iirazilian re publica nisr u contained mcmories along with hopes

1 \\'hen he visired Brazil, P~ul Adsm recorded t his impressicn of Pinhd ro ;\la.
c hado: "Pinhc iro .\b chad o is the present pohncsl Ieader in Bul . , ' his reign
over rh.. enrire countrr is abroluu ." l. er V isa; er JII Rrsil (Paris, 1914). pp.
J UrJo.
~ Afo nso Ctlso Jnior ",as the son of Ih e Ia'<l: Imperial Prime ,\lini'itn. Ihe Vis.
co unt of G uro PrclO. Manuel de O liveira Lima ",as a dislinguished histo rian of
intem ational reno", n. En cio Coi mbra ",as a Pernambucan polili cian who was
majority leadcr of he Chambcr of Deputies in 1918. M inisler of Ag ricolture,
\ice Pre~idem of the Rel'ublie unde r Presidem Arrhu r Bernadcs. and from 11)16
10 ' 9Jo go\"ernor of lhe sUte of Pern ambuco. (T url,lato r.)
3 Pierre D enis: 1.1' Brsil nu XX - Sit c/r (Pars, 1'10') ). pp. ;, 6.
 Tbe R epublic Twenty Y ears A ter 337
for a fururc capable of cor rccring thc crrors of [he past rhirty years
of republican expericncc. Since ' 910 rhc Rcpublic had ceased ro he
merely rhe prcsem and had devclo pcd a past, a past susceptible ro
retrospectivo analysis. ro evaluarion, ro inrerprerarion.
Ir is certain rhar [he republican cxpcriencc from t he ourscr had
bccn modcratcd by rhe st rong in ucncc of rhc monarchy. dcspitc
rhe dcsires of rcpu blican purisrs like Pinheiro .\ fachado or Q uintin o
Bocavuva . The fi rst suc h infl ucnce (as alread v ourlined ) W 3 S th at
of the Baron de Lucena, who bccame the polirical adviscr of G en-
eratissnro Deodcro da Fonscca. fou ndcr of thc Rcpublic of 18H9.
Another was t har of Jos .\ taria da Silva Paranhcs, rhc Baron do
Rio Braceo, whose authority , according ro Georges Clcmcn ceau.
was "sovereign'' in thc fo reign policy of early rwe nricth-cent ury
Brazil.' The Barcn's influencc was not limired ro foreign policy: he
was also a force in dcmcsric affairs, striving consranrly for rhe
mainrcnance and cvcn [he srrcngt hcning of rhose monarchical rradi-
tions which so distinguished Brazil from rhe rest o Latin Amrica.
Clemenccau was wcll awa rc rhar rhc Baron, though sympat hctic to
France, wished to impon G erm n military insrrucrors inro rhc Bra-
zilian Republic in rhe hope thar thc Republic wo uld surpass [he
Empirc in rhc effi ciency of irs Armed Forccs. "A person very closc
ro him has confi ded ro me that he fecls that Oerman insrruction
would be besr for t he inculcation of ideas of rnilitary duty," wrore
Clemenccau. and cou ld nor fail to agree: "T oo many acts of insub-
ordinarion-c-some of rhem \'ery scrious-c-havc cmphasizcd rhc ur-
gc ncy of t his son of tcaching." Hur [he "a bsolutist ideas o Wil -
hclm II on rhc subject of milirary dury'' sccmed ro Cler nenccau
incompatible wirh rhc spirit and habits of Brazilian dcmocracy.
hardly a socicry w hosc troo ps could be indocrrinarcd wirh disci-
pline and whar a ,\ Iineiro polirician of rhe time. j oo Pinheiro,
called "an alanning scnsc of order." ~ Perhaps one could sa)' rhat
Clcmcnceau agrecd with [he sccond Rio Branco ro (he cxtent tha t
rhe Brazilian Anny could profir by Prussian organization wirhour
artcmpring ro force [he attendanr militar)' ideolog)' on an unrec ep~
ti\'e Brazilian democra cy.
'Vhen he was Foreign ~ti niste r. Rio Brancn (although t he son oi

t Georges ClemenCUll : N/Jltf d~ VO)' .Jg~ JJm I'A mJ, iq ll e J u Sr'" (Pari:;. ' 9" l .
p, : 11. See al<o E rncM H amhlnc h : R,itish Conml (Lo ndon, 19j8). Former British
Co nsul in R io de Janciro, H ambloc h is alM.> the aut hor of H i5 .\f;JiU f)' rhe l',uiJ ~nt
(London, ' 935 ) ,
~ a cmenccau: 01" cit., pp. : ' l , : ' J.
 arder and Progress
a former \1asonic G rand " Iasrer of rhe Brazilian Onent ) did not
hesitare ro rcccivc Carholic pricsrs like Father Gaffre with the
grcatcst cordialiry. cven when such visitors on leaving Brazl ofren
cxprcsscd opinions srrongly eontrarr ro t he radical rcpublicanism
o f Cler ncnccau or t hc skcprical or at heisnc socialism of En rice Fcrri
and Anarole France. Certainly, R io Hranco remained loyal ro rhe
Brazilian Rcpublic rhrough rhrec presidcncies. w it hour ceasing ro
ded icare himsclf ro t hc prcscr vetio n of rhc m ximum number of
posit ivo valucs-c-organization, order, diseipline- from the pasr,
those of Carholicism included.
Invired ro lunch wirh the ~1as () Jl i c statcsman at his borne, Farher
Gaffre gaincd t he imp rcssion o haviog visired a man sympat hctic ro
rhe Church. In R io Branco's study, famous for its disorder, rhe dcsk
pilcd so high wirh papers ami books rhar irs c wn er would con-
stand)' lose his pince-nez emid thc rubblc, Gaffre was plcased ro
find a bcauriful and carcfully t reared image of Ch risr, w hom the
supposcdly hcrctical staresman introduccd as "the real master of the
bouse.' A nd in the hed coom he [ound rtot only nno rh cr image o
Chrisr. but also nne of rhe V irgin and anot hc r of Santo A nrnio de
P dua. al l of which led him ro observe: " 1 wish rhar Olany of our
grea t men of conserva tiv o rcputation, sevc ral of w ho m 1 have met,
could givc their visirors the impression of mora l and relig ious en -
lighr enmcnt t har 1 carricd away from rhis heme.' 6
Farhcr Ga ffre, in noring rhat Frenc h Lazarisrs werc replacing the
few Hrazilians uf rhis a rder. srarcd rhat rhe ncwcomers "bad re-
srorcd the most cxact discipline on rhc ruins left by the nat ive mcm-
bers.' 1 [t was this sorr of "exacr discipline" rhar the Baron w as
sceking fo r rhc Armed Forccs. and as Foreign Minisrer he was no r
conrcnr mcrcly ro reorgan izo and t ighrcn up the diplomanc scrv-
ices, bur was USillg almose j esuirical merhods ro rec rui r brigbr
young meo. Nor did he neglecr rhc problcrn of cd uca ring rhe wives
of rhcse diplomars. so rhar t hey would be as an raeri\'e and w ell in-
fo rmed as possihle. ll e encouraged w irh the grearesr sym parhy the
dev clo pment of schools run by F rene h nuns for rhe educ at ion of
y oung ladics. According ro rradi tional (ramarat y gossip. w hic h w as
suppoft cd by the [estimon)' of persons \Vho kne,v him w ell, the
Baron was overcome w ith ter ror w hen forced to invite illusrriolls
Brazilians \Vith badly trained wives to diplom aric gatherings. He
,; L A . G~lfre, V isionJ dll BrsjJ ( P~ r is , ' 91! ), p. I J l.
1 l bi d~ p. 10 .
 T he R epnbtc T wenty Yt'ars A ster 339
I1lUSt havc fclr rhis sume cmbarrassmcnr at che spcceac lc of rhc
fraycd Brazilian militar)" ami we havc alrcady scen rhar he expcri-
cnced rhc sume Fcclinps roward mcially mixcd or Negroid rcprc-
scnratives o f his coum ry in Europe or rhe Unitcd Starcs.
The rrurh is rhar. like his twn great contempora rics j oaquim Ne-
buco and Ruy Barbosa, rhc Haron do Rio Branco belonged ro a
g rou p of Brazilians who. paradoxically cnough. werc ar one and rhc
same time conscrvarivc and rcvolutionary . And all rhrce starcsmen
could rcconcile thcse extremes so t hat ne ne was divided against
himself; each could use th c fuI! range of his qualities in rendering
notable servicc tu his countrv.
Visiting Ruy Herbosa, wirh w hom he alsc cnj oyed a cordial
lunchcon. Farhcr G affre \V a S well awarc rhat he was in the com-
pan), of an old advcrsary of t he C hurch who, in many celebrared
pages, had spokcn "against t bc Church-cor to be more cxact,
againsr ccrtain repr cscnrarives of the Church, t he j csui ts in particu-
lar." But mo re reccnr cvent s had dissovcd rhese carlier "skir mishes''
in smoke, Ruv had since rcvcaled a "grcar brcadrh of scntiments''
which made ir impcssiblc ro considcr him anti-clerical, much less
anti-Carholic. Besides which, Fat bcr G affre notcd, Brazilians were
nevcr as rigid as Frenchmen roward pcrsons of diffcrcnt ideas or
crecds, in rhis ncw Republic it was inipossiblc to imagine rifes be-
t wecn adversarios like thosc in France at t he rime."
Ir is t rue t har duri ng rhe time of Floriano, wir h (he so- callcd
"conscli darion'' of rhe Repuhlic. rhcrc was SO ITlC int ransigenee,
wir h politi cal hatreds of an almosr Spanish-Amcrican crudiry . But
t his rension lasted only for a short time, too shorr to consritu rc an
era. Harreds werc soon dissiparcd in the amiablc Brazilian tradition
of overlooking rhe occasional peceaJillo-an clcct ion or two
marked by bloodshcd. or rhc odd sedition-in t he spirit of eesygo-
ing int ranarion al co rdiality. O nce rcco vcrcd from th e initial shock,
rhe Republic from 1889 ro rhc cnd of rhe Venccslau Br s presi-
dency suffercd no J isturbance oCIhar spirit of co rdiality. excep t fo r
rhe occasional out bursr sparkcd off not so much hy political hat red
as by Iack of adjust mem berw een regions or cu ltu ral tens ions aris4
ing out of th e diff ering rates of de\'clop mem in widcly separated
parts of t he eountry.
One could say t hat t he Repuhlic represemeJ t he eagern ess of a
considcrable grou p of Brazil ians ro o\'crcome soci al and cultural
~ !l id., pp. l l:, : IJ.
 Order and Progress

proble ms more rapi dly than the rarher leisurcly met hods of Impe-
rial polirical adminisrrarion would pcrmir. An exarnplc was re-
flecrcd in rhc so-calle d "joo C ndido' naval revolr, an event
which for a fcw days in 1910 shock Rio de Janeiro and alarmed rhc
poliricians. Compcrenr observers such as Brycc and Farher G affrc
saw this uprising as th e resulr o social malad justmcnr. Gaffre cited
(he currcnr mcrhods of naval rccruirmenr as the cause of this " bru-
tal uprising." u The rebcls wcre mere bov s. almosr all Negrees or
mulattos, who looked ro naval service mcrely as a means of exis-
tence. The descendants of slavcs. no lcngcr under the patriarchal
carc o rhe landhclders, they had gro wn up in a repu blican Brazil
wh erc social distances bct wcen ctbnic groups werc grcwing ever
greatcr, and had bcen abandoned by a govemmenr whosc paternal-
istic atfecrions afte r 1889 rurned rarher toward th e wavc of immi-
gra nes arriving from Europc .
O nce rhesc boys werc taken inro th e naval scrviccs, however, the
R cpublic gave t hem norhing in thc wa)' of civic instruction or reli-
gious rraining. Preoccupicd wirh modemizing cveryrhing from in-
dustries te railroads, it had no rime for descendants o slaves. For
t hem rhcre was only rhe lash. Even in rhc days of slavcry, rhc lash
haJ bcen only a parr (lf t he sto ry, along wirh insrrucrion, religious
assistance, medica! aid, and rhc like. Nobody wirh good sense
wo uld argue rhar rbc Navy shou ld have abolished tlogging ove r-
nighe in 1889 just ro pro ve rhar the republican regime was berrer
rhan thar of th e Empi re. But since t he Republic had come to place
suc h irnporrancc on the dcveloprncnr of its Xavy and th c necessity
of recruiring more men for rhe service, rhc sensible thing wo uld
havc becn ro remernber the origins of the mysrical cr)' "To rhc
Sea!" I and o along with irs xeal for acq uiring rhc laresr t echnical
marcrials and rnachine ry from England and Scorland, ro havc paid
at lcase minimal an cnrion ro th c human aspecrs. Ir was th is human
rehabiliration rhat was lacking. not onl)' in rhe Na\T' but also
among somc of t hc mosr progressivc poliricians of the earJy t"wenti -
erh cemu ry , in rheir eagern ess to make up for the time lost ro prog-
ress through t hc slow administrari\e merhods oC [he Empire. Be-
cause rhis subject is vital ro an und ersrand ing of rhe periodo 1 shall
dcvelop it more full), ar this poim.
9 Ibid., p. H.
1" R u11I0 .JO (he Sc.-a! )" is the tuditional cry of t he
.H .!"r ! (T o P(mu gu e~ sailors
d:ting fron! the 3ge of ex pI" ntion. (T r3nslafO r.)
 T be Republic T nsenty Y ears A ftCT 34 1

No observario n is more cxac t rh an rh ar of Fathcr Gaffre in evalu-

at ing rhe progrcssive zeal o rhe young Republic. This zeal. rhe
pad re fch , cba racrcrizcd the abolir ionisr, rh e re publican, and thc in -
d usrr ialisr alik c an d inspircd a myst iq uc comtnon ro all; rh c mys-
tiq ue of progres,~. and as rapid a progress as possible . " In my hurnblc
o pini n," wrotc Gaffre in his exccllent Visi01/J du Br sit, "in this
coumry which so readily expresses irs ardcnr y en for prog rcss nnd
irs inrensc wish to bring irsclf ro rhc leve! of thc great civilizcd na-
rions. rhc great misrakc has lx cn its dcsire ro bum irs bridgcs.""
Like Bry cc, Farhcr Ga ffrc found rhis type of prccipitou s progress
dangcrously uncont rclled, it was useless Ior Brazil to invite co mpar-
iso n wirb rhc older narions uf Europe mcrely rhro ugh rhc acquisi-
tion of superdrcadnoughrs. whcn thc social condinon o rhc greatcr
pan of irs popularion hard ly coincided wir h t his lcvel of mat erial or
rechnic al improvcmcnr. And a false improvemenr ar thar ; an ac -
quircd bencfit. labellcd ",\ htde in Eo gland" or ' '\ lade in thc
U .S.A ." or evcn "A lade in Gcrmany." The pcrfecnon of tbings: of
cines, docks, indust ries, railroads, passcnge r and cargo ships , as wcll
as of warships, but ncvcr the pcrfection o hu man bc ings.
Bur ir cannor he de nicd rhut, in rbis d isorganized material prog-
ress, peoplc werc also o bliq ucl y bencfired on mo re t han o ne oc ca-
sion. Ir was during this pcriod rhat the Lloyd Brasilciro, wir h its
cargo scrvice, and rhe railrouds, wirh rheir lines of comrnu nication
ro rhe interior. brou g ht about a devclopmcnr that madc prcvious
efforts in rhc ficld of rranspcrrarion scem regrcssive and cven deca -
dento At this time. too , rhe auromobile, im pon ed from Eerope an d
later from rh e Unitcd Srares, bcgan ro pass from a novclcy ro a reg-
ular means o rransportarion. A II thcsc syst ems acred as a consranr
challen gc ro business. ind ustry. and govcrnrllent ro rncct rhe prob-
lems of dista nce ando in so dcing. ro bring abour ofren beneficia!
c hangcs in t be social and cultu ral o rder.
ElIiott noted in 19 16 rhat automobiles, lim ited fo r SOIllC time ro
use by t he r ich in the principal ciries, were now hccoming more
nu merous in rhe agricultural arcas. F ro m t!lis he sUfmised t hat t here
woul d be improvemenrs in rhe highw ays of rh e interior, alw ays
more of a prohlem in Brazil rhan in temperare countr ies. " 1'he di
ma te o half t he eountry opposes itsclf ro road permanenec wirh aH
[he force of rhe tropics," wrote ElIiort. 3 Adm ittedly, in certain rc-
:1 Ga!fre, (jI" ce , p. H .
J LE. Fllim r. R r~-;:;jf, Tod~y ~nd T o mo r rlJ'W (S ew York, 11,1 [7), p. ll ~.
 Order and 'rogress

gional arcas. roads had alrcady becn Cut: by t he cans of t he R ussian

or Polish immigranrs in Paran . for example, or by rhc oxcarts of
the agrarian norrh, or evcn by rhc Army undcr a co mmisscn
headed by rhat cncrgcric spirit C ndido Mariano da Silva R ondon
in his geological and gcograpb icel seudics in thc interior and in his
grear work among rhc lndians.
As for railroad construction. Brazil in 19 16 already had srnall fac-
rorics capable o rnaking t he necessary marerials, including slccping
and dining cars from cxccll cnr nat ive woods. T his was parricularly
rrue of t hc railroads mosr nccessary tu wcsrward expansiono rhc
Nort h-Wcsrcrn of Brazil. This company, w it h a Brirish name and
Belgian m:m agernent. was opcrared on a guaranrccd profit agrce-
r ncnr with rhe rcpublican go vcmrnent. through rhe aid o f a loan
fl oared in Paris in ' 909. T he consrrucrion of the railway was ca r-
r ied out under the di rection of a disringuishcd
Brazilan cnainecr,

Firmo D utra, friend of Euc ly dcs da Cunba ami, like hirn, imbued
w ith the mysriquc of Brazil and of rhe cngincer. Callcd "an able
Brazilian enginecr" by Elliort, Durra prefcrred tu do his work in
rhe more primirivc r egions where he had spent rhc g reate r pan of
his yout h. Under his dir ection rhc campany nor onl y laid tracks,
bu t also lincd the righ t o way wirh t he fruits o social cngin ccring :
coffee grovcs. pasru rcls nds. and nc w row ns.'
Morcov er. Firmo D utra was not rhe sa le engineer o t hc t ime ro
reveal abilirics comparable or super ior to rhosc o Hrirish and Amer-
icans like H ammond, Fax. and Derby in organizing and direcring
rhe technical aspects of railweys or of po rt, sanirary, or geological
scrvices. There wcrc also Ccciliano M amedc Fe rreira, Lauro
.\I iller, Paulo de Fron rin, Percira Passos, Pandi Calgeras, and
Saturnino de Briro. T he Iasr-named. whose career as engineer and
public adminisrrator dcser ves a special srudy, ser rhe example,
which was scrupulously follo wcd by rhc sanira ry cnginccrs undcr
his dirccrion, of remaininj- complctcly apclitical and impcccabl y
honesr in rhc discharge of bis officia l d urics. Like Ronden, he was a
Posirivisr. ll e was also a ma jor inst igaror in the succcssful cam-
paigns wageJ hy t he Republ ic against infecrious diseases in Recife.
Samos. ami or her principal ciries, where he insral1cd modern sys-
tems of water supply and sewage disposal.
T he Re public, all thinb...... consiJered, madc a considerably berrer
showing rhan haJ rhe Empire in matters o sanitarion and modern i ~
zation of pon facilities. " \\'hen 1 camc tu Rio in 1B87," ",rote IIe i ~
bid., p. ; 6.
 T be Repubic T nxenty Years After 343
ror Modesto in 1940, "the city was periodically devasrared by
smallpox and ycllow fcver. In rhc cer ner of rhe downtown arca,
whcrc t he coffce busincsscs were locatcd, rhc rol! was grcat. norably
in rhe Saude and C ambos sccrions. Thcre was no isclation of rhc
vicrims, thc paricnr was treatcd at homc. lr was said rhat vcllow
fever hit rhc foreigners in particular and sr nallpox st ruck the N c-
groes. O ur physician was Dr. ,\ Iiguel Couto who had jusr srart cd
his clinic in a two-story house in Prainha. H e had a numh er of cases
of smallpox and y cllow fever. but he ncvcr lost a pat ient."
The fear of cpidcmics was constanr. Pcoplc spokc darkly of
"black vornit'' and "sand paper skin ." Upon learning rhar his rnother
was srricken wirh smallpox, H eiror Modesto recalls having prayed
ro the imagc of rhc Vi rgin hanging in his room : "Dcer L ady, givc
me small pcx too so thar I can be near my mothcr!" Luckily, his
mother recovcred "with very fcw pockmarks." Many othcr Brazil-
ians of t he time were not so for tunare and wcnt rhrough lifc wir h
thcir faces ho rrihly pittcd by rhc discase. Oncc-prcn y girls becamc
ugly women : orhcrs lost thcir hair, rhat prccious insignia of bcauty
and nobiliry. The Miguel Coutos alone could nor conquer small-
po x, ry phoid, or yellow feve r; ir was nccessary for sani rary cngi-
necrs, public health orfi ccrs, and hygicnisrs ro rake over thc joh
whic h for so Olany r ears rhc Empirc had lcfr in rhc hands of clin ics
and pha rrnacies helpless in the face of rhc cc nraminercd wa ter, po or
drainage, and impropcr di ct w hich prcvailcd.
" " lanl' years larer, roward rhc end of his life, 1 heard Dr. Migu el
Couro speak of former rcsidcnrs of my childhoo d homc," wriecs
H eiror Modesto. " IIe remembercd cvcn thcir nicknames. W hcn 1
praiscd rhis feat of rncmo ry , he exp laincd: '1 could never forgct.
. . . Ir was a grcat da)' for me when 1 was called ro att cnd a parient
ar rhe Casa Baro de Ipencma. In rhcsc carly days of rhc clinic, such
visits gave me considerable prestige.' "
The Casa Baro de lpanema was a w holcsalc coffce companl', a
large three-story huilding locared in rhe midst of a complex of
other suc h establishmenrs in downrown Rio de Janeiro. At this
rime. as in rhe sugar com missaries of rhe north, the proprietor's falTl-
ily, rogether w ich \'isiring cliems, lived in rhe offi ce huild ing irsclf.
H eitor ,\ l odesro's farhe r was offic e manager of rhe company, and
rhe family lived on tbe rhird fl oor of t he corn pany building ar Rua
M unicipal, X o. 5.
T ransienr visit ors to [he cotIce commissaries were usually rural
landholdcrs w ho ofte n arrived w irh their enrire enrourage, includ-
344 a rder and Progress

ing nurscmaids ami anendants. Whcn rhcre was illncss among rhem
ir raiscd a major problcm wir h urban physic ians, unused as they
were ro treat ing country ailmcnt s. Ir was by trcaring thcsc aristo-
craric farnilics ano their servants thar meo like ,\ligue1 Couto or
Francisco de Castro bccamc familiar wirh rural diseascs. The aver-
agc ciry dwellcr ar the time also began ro develop rhc samc famili-
nnty. and as a rcsulr bccamc fcarful of t hc count ryrnan w ith his
cxctic illnesses. 0 0 one occasion D r. :\Iigue! Couto was sumrnoned
ro rrcar Il citor ,\ Ioucsto's visiting Unclc O sear. \ Vhen the symp-
toms of bis illncss wc re listed. the physician declarcd rhar ir sou nded
likc a case of yello w fcver. 00 overhcaring this dcclaration, the
paticnt carne inro rhc living room from rhc sickroom in which he
had heen Iy ing, "sraggering and weak. drcssed in a nightshirt, his
eyes poppiog, mu rte ring ' Bur l'm all right. I'm al! t ighr.' '' H e
feared rhc city-bred yc llow fcver rnuc h more t han srnallpox or
cholcra. which wcrc discases we ll know n on thc planrations.
The new water and scw age sysrems inst alled by the court in 1880
undoubrcdly did mueh ro improve hygicnic condirions in Rio de
Janeiro. By IfUl 7 rhcrc wcre 33.713 houses in rhe ciry. w irh 29,261
roilers and 37.080 water connecricns. Bur rhe ciry ats. particularly
on rhe ground Hoor, conrinucd ro he "t hc worsr possble dwcllings
in the downtown arca." not only bccause of thc "inconvcniences
caused by had marerials and small rOOl11S, bu e also by the scarcity of
lighr. nir, and sunsbinc'' (such inconvcn icnccs we rc less acure 0 0
rhe upper fl oors, of cou rsc, particularly in rhc bedrooms w irh east -
cm cxposurc ) . Some of rhc coffce com rnissaries werc of this rype
and werc rbus mosr suscept ible ro thc dcveloprnent of ty phoid,
diphrhcria. aod tuberculosis. ~ losr citv horel and rooming house ac-
conunodarions wcre evcn worse ; une hygienist calle d them "rne-
phitic stcws" ~ in which syphilis. alcohol, and gambling atracked
t he moral and physical fiber of visirors from rhc co untry whc, hav-
ing no bctter place. werc forced ro seck shelrer in suc h denso
1'0 t hcsc could be added t he so-called treges, fly-trap lunc h
counters and food stands which. likc or her commercia l esrablish-
mcms, were subjec r ro no sanirary inspcction w harsoever du ring
the Empire." Co mpared t o rhe fervent sani!aty rneasures under-
raken by rhe Republic virtually from irs ina ugurarion. rhose of rhe
Empire meri!ed rhe sevcresr c riticismo Under rhe R epu blic, rhere
~ Anlo nio ,\ !an in, de Au n ,ln Pimente!, SubJJi ot p.>'~ (} F.mldo J~ Higiene Jo
Rio de !:meiro (Ri" de Janeiro. 18<)0).1'1'. ' 7'" , fIo , ,S<).
6 Ib id. p. H 5.
 T be Repubtc Tnsenty Years After 345
was consranr prosccution of irrcsponsibles w ho out of shee r greed
commincd abuses against public healtb. In Pernambu co rhc Barbosa
Lima government was oursra nding in con rrolling these abuses; in
R io de J aneiro it was the hygienisr Rodolfo Galvc during the late
ninerccmh ecmury and, afre r 19 0, Osvaldo Cruz, whosc public
hea lth measures becamc world famous. In this sense, the R epublic
sccms ro havc bccdcd rhc appcal of the g rea t Porrugucsc journalisr
Ram alho Onigao who, having visircd Hraxil at rhc cnd of rhc reign
of Ped ro 11. roundly denounc cd the government for irs lack o f ar-
rention ro problems of urban hy giene an d sco rcd rhis indifference as
one o r he grcatcst defecrs of rhe Imperial rcgime.
In rhc 1909 volumc of rhc A lm<1JMque Bmsiteiro, publishcd in Rio
de J aneiro by Garnier und cr rh c directio n of J 030 Riheiro, an inrel-
Iigcllt analys is of t he last Brazilian Em pcror appcar cd, writtcn from
the va ntage poinr o t\Vent)' years larcr. The co nclusio n rcachcd by
this judicious sllmmary wa s t har rhc old monarch had losr his
throne as a result of not kno w ing how tO br ing his reign inro line
with t hc realirics of t he Brazilian siruarion. Tbis stu dy in man)'
,vays amicipatcd rhc cvaluarion of t he Rcpublic as opposed ro rhe
Sccond Ernpire m ade in 1922 by J oaqu im Viana in a shorr bu t sug
gcstive essa)' " Por que Caiu o Im p r io" (Why the Empire Fell) in
A Margem da Historia ,ia R epblica (N otes 01/ (be H istory o f the
Repabtic) , a ccllccrivc work publishcd in Rio de j aneiro. V iana
dcfends rhe t hesis rhar D om Ped ro 11 w as "ncither an au t hor ita rian
nor a rigorcusly consrirutional monarch." R arher, he wishcd only
ro livc in peace-a bureaucraric peace-at a t ime when Brazil
nccded a ruler who cou ld preside as co nsrirurional leader ablc ro
organizc. ro under ta ke, ro direcr, an d cvc n to summon up rhc cour-
age to r nake encmics." H e ncede d rh c courage the Rem hlic w as
able ro produce in Floriano. in Pru dente. in R od rigues Alvcs; rhe
courage t he Paulistas cvin ccd in rhei r plan for the valo rizarion of
coffcc in rh c facc o the contrary ideas of all rhc British and Ameri-
can economists; t he cou rage manifcsred by en erget ic public admin-
isrrarors sucb as rhe engineer Percira Passos. rhc public hcahh direc-
tor O svaldo C ru z. Governor Bar bosa Lima, statc m inist ers Iike the
Baron do Rio Braneo, Joaquim .\ Iun inho. and Il ermes da Fonsec a,
who reo rganized t he Anny. or Alexandrino de Alencar, w ho to a
ce!tain extent d id t he same for the N'a"y.
The second Emperor never took t he slig hresr mterest in the
1 Joaquim Viana: "Po r que Caiu () ImWrio," A lmolnaql. r Brolsilro G olrrria
( Rio de Janl.' ro . 1<J091. p. 270.
 Order and l'rogress
A rrned Forces. A n anri-militarist. he distrusrcd rhc A rmy to such an
extenr, says V iana, rhat "at a ccrt ain point he had the ,vhim of re-
placing ir wirh a narional gua rd, in rhe manncr of rhe do-nothing
K ing Lou is-Philippc." A freerhink er, " he did nor knovv how [O
cornmunicarc wirh thc Church," thereby failing ro use rhc clergy in
a way that would be advaneageous [O t hc monarc hical gove rnmenr.
" He always nourished a secrcr spire againsr the padres, bccause of
his birrcr rccollcctions of his early educanon nt rhe hands of a
c hu rc hman," says Viaria. Ile did not belic ve in rhe " rheorists' " ca-
paciry for ecrion ami ncglcc red alwa ys " ro spcak di rcctl y ro rhc
pcoplc. ro appeal ro rhcir imaginaeion. 10 t heir parrioric scnrirncnrs
in words which would leavc an eve rlast ing imprcssion on thc popu-
lar spirit . .. w hich would provokc popula r cn rhusiasr n, de fine a
cou rse of serie n, creare an indcsrruc riblc atfection evcn in the face
of major errors." As a result he fou nd himself "one fi ne dar wirh-
out anyone on his sidc." parricularly bcca use of his Anglomania-
his anempt ro turn his rcign im o an imitancn of British Iiheralism
ami parliamenrarianism-,.ro sal' not hing of his attClllpt ro imitare
rhc psy chic aspccrs of rhc Victorian era: t he cult of rnyt hs. rircs,
and ceremonies w irh which rhc Q ueen im part cd nlmosr rcligious
prcsrigc ro her presence on rhc rhronc. Ami nor being a man of
action, he showed himsclf incapablc of resisring " demagogic ideolo-
gics" and "incpt uropias." \\'hen rbere was nccd for polirical dcci-
sie n, he cscaped intc rhe study of asrronomy, natural history. phi.
lology , rhc geology of A gassz, rhe cosmograp hy of Li is, or rhe
arcbcology of Lund (rhough nor thc social scienccs) . Or he would
bc havc like "the most cxcmplary of adminis trarivc division bcads"
by examining his rninisrers, pcncil in hand and burcaucraric spcc ra-
eles on bis nose, as rhough they we re his sec rcrarics, w hich was, in
trut h, w har he had madc o f rhem. His polit ical d crnisc, t hcrcfore,
was, in V iana's opinion, rhat of " a rcrircd government cmploycc.' ~
A ny one of rhe subscquenr Brazilian Prcsidenrs during t he pcriod
of this srudy , ""irh rhe possible excepri on of Afooso Pena and H er
mes da Fooseca, was more authorirarian and even mo re lIlonarchical
rhan Pedro 11 in rhe excrcise of his otl1cia! funcrions. And rhe resuh s
are seen in such devclopmenrs as the rapio rehabilir:nion of R io de
J aneiro. rhe conque ring of yellow fever, rhe pencrration of rhe ime
rior by the R ondon commission, rhe peaccful solm ion of old
boundary qu estions with neighhoring repuhlics, rhe reorganizarion
" Ibid., pp. ' 7' , ~7 '.
 Tb e R epubtic T wc nty Y ears A ter 347
of t he Army, thc rc-cquipping of the Navy, rhe enl argement o t hc
railway ncrwork, rhc modcrnizarion o f principal po n s, t hc installa-
t ion o sanitary services in the largc cities, and t hc developmcnr o
ncw ind ust ries, such as mear packing. neccssary tu (he stimu lat ion
of rhc Brazilian economv.
\ Vit h rhe Repuhlic, Brazil bcgan ro he recognizcd by edu cated
Eur opea ns as a new c ivilizarion in rhc rro pics , vhcrc people of
nort hcrn climarcs could no r only live comfon ably bu r also cn joy
cc onornic ad van ragcs. In 1909 Le Fgaro ran an an ide hy P. Bcr-
nier in which R io de j ancirc was c haracrerizcd as a city comparable
"ro thc 11l0~t salubrious placcs of Europc." and which would be
eve n healt hicr whcn rhe autho rities rhcrc succccdcd in conqu cring
tu berculosis in rhc same encrgcric manncr in w hch rhey hall van-
q uishcd yellow fcvcr.n F oreigncrs could now becomc ve ry active in
rhe Hrazilian c apita l, said L e F garo, "in cxploit ing rhc country 's
inexhaustiblc so urc es of wcalrh wir hou r the slightest da ngcr tu life
or physical bealth." This con dirion was partly duc ro Frcnch sci-
ence, t hc magazine poi ntcd out ; [he Instituto ,\ la ngu inhos was a
sorr of hranch of rhc Pasrcur. But ie w as alsc due to t he ac rion of
rhe Rodrig ues Al ves go\"crn mem, which was ab lc ro place aman of
(he stature of Osvaldo C ruz in rhc dirccrion of this establ ishment,
:-':0 burcaucraric hack, no me re rimc-server, Osvaldo Cruz w as a
man in whire, in rhc midsr of barde, in rhe ser vicc of his counrry.'
T he arricle also poinred out rhc g reat energy wir h which (he srate
of M inas Gem s was replac ing its fo rmer capital wirh an cntirely
new city: Bclo H orizonte.
G ugli clmo Ferrero, rhc lralian classicisr an d social historian wbo
visircd Brazil d uring rh is pcriod of c han go, had thc im pression rhar
ir was [he ne wly arrived E uropeans w ho werc rhe real rcvolunonar-
ies o Br azilian socicry. Or pcrh aps t he Brazilians werc rhc c onscr -
var ives an d classicists in ehc order, w ith thc immig rams supplying
the crcative and innovaro ry rom amic disordcr. Fcr rero wro tc rh cse
im prcssions in connection w irh his comrucnrs on Ca ll a,1 ( Call.1tlll ) ,
the sociologica l no vel in w hich G ra\a Aranha attempted ro define
t he confl ct berween rh e old and rh e new l)" cm erging Brazil. 2
The facr was t har afrer abolirion amI the proclamation of the

n Almofllof<1 'u! 8 tofSi lejro G ;ftnjer, 1" ' 70.

I lhid. p. 170.
2 111 [he prebcc 10 ,hc English. hn guagc cdiTio n o f CW;f. which ap pened In
~tew York in 1916.
 Order and Progress

Rcpu blic, Brazil was revolurionized from t hc inside out. Thc basic
classic forms remained : bur the mot ives and sryle o f living bccame
romanric. This romanncism atfec tcd not only t hc lireraturc, but
alsc rhe polines and [urisprudence of the time. Ir was a romanticisrn,
howcver, rhar did not go ro Spanish-Amcrican extremes. In lirer -
aturc, in polines, in rhc artistic and social lifc rhere was alw ays a
rouch of classic rcstrainr ro moderare t hc rom ant ic excesscs, ro prc-
vent l Iispanic extravaganccs, or ro tone dcwn rh e furors of G ari -
baldi-rype revoluricnaries. Evcn in rhc sourh, the remper of rhe
Brazilian J{Jlcho , wi th his rastc fo r violcncc, was somewhat bal-
anced by rhc sobcr, responsiblc, fcct-on-rhc-g round ordcrliness of
rhc Azorean immigra nr. Bur anyone looking backw ard from 1918
ro rhc pcnod of thc Republican ,\ Ianifesto and rhc Law of rhc F ree
\Vomb would realizo rhat, while t he basic narional norms had not
c hanged. rhc whole tone of lifc proclaimcd a di fferent age.
Though long since dcad. Jos Bonif cio cont inued ro be rhe
principal guido ro Brazilian devclopmcnr. The Positivisrs. c hampi-
ons of movcmcnts t hcy mysrically, nlmosr rcligiously, co nsidercd
progressive, recognized in Bonif cio the grearcst master of political
and sociological thcugbt prod uccd by Portuguese Am rica. In the
t we nricrh ccntury he was sn ll rhe fi gu re rnosr capablc of inspiring
Braxilian dcsire fo r progress, including democratic progress. which
somch ow hccarnc conciliarcd wit h rhc Luso-American rradirion of
pclirical aurhoriry and social protcction. The principies remai ned ;
only the fo nns showcd signs of chan ge. Charuy, w hic h in colonial
times followed a syst em w hercby rhe rich rook care of rhe mor,
was rep laccd by a complcx of Aliscricrd ias. Third Orders, and mo -
nastic Bror hcr hoods which carried out rhe same funcrion. Political
aurhority, wirh irs t radinon of " personal power" or "moderaring
pcwer," managed ro em brace the Am erican concepr of republicen-
ism wirhout dcstroving t hc rradit ional fo rce of rhe personal lcader.
Ar rimes rhis pcrson ality cnlrism was exaggerated. alrhcugh, unlike
similar polit ical phenomcna in Spanish A mrica. always kept w ithin
at leasr rhe apIlCarancc of legality , LeaJers werc often rcferred ro
by dcscriptive nicknames; Floriano Peixoto became "the Iron
.\ ta rshal" ; Rod rigucs Ah'es " Big Dadd y " (l'apai G rande); Borges
de .\ ledeiros, :lUtho ritarian Positivist govemor of Ri o G rande do
Sul. "t he G rasslands Po pe" ; the eqnall)' amhoritarian Barbosa Lima
of Pernamb uco "Barbosa rhe Fury " (Barbosa Fera) ; t he Baron do
Rio Braneo was kllown simply as "'thc Baron" ; Pinhciro ,\ lac hado
 T be Republic Tnsenty Yet1Ts After 349
as "thc Chicf" , Rosa e Silva as "thc Counselor." To somc cxtent.
t his giving of nicknarnes harks back tu thc custom of Im pe rial rirlcs,
as rhc scnrimcnrs be hind rhcm can similarly be rraccd tu a m ore
frankly parriarchal pcriod in rhc nation's history . Thc principal
dirfcrcncc berween t his survival of parriarchism in Brazil and the
candilbinno of Spanish-Amcrican count rics is that the former cus-
tom srcms fro m thc cxisrencc of a rirlcd arisrocracy which was en-
tircly lacking in rhe 1Iispanic rcpublics .
This diffcrc ncc did nor escape thc sharp eye of Clemcnccau in his
comparison o rhc Republic of I HH9 w irh irs older Larin-A merican
sisrcrs. " In Sao Pau lo or Rio de j anciro," he ' ....rore, " pclit ical fi g-
ures tu w hom ( havc ralked ca n meas urc "P ro any stand ards in their
cultu re and thcir pcochane for mcthodical ac rion . Thcre w as an ar-
isrocrecy arou nd rhc Emperor w hosc vcsrigcs are bcing em ployed
by rhc ncw dcmocranc ordcr. . .. Ir will sutficc ro ment ion t he
case, rare among Lat n co unrrics , o a lead er who is univcrsally
obcycd . I do no r doubr that ,\ 1r. Pinheiro Xl ac bado possesses all the
quahries of a lcadcr o men, but I arn less astonished to find thcsc
q ualit ies rhan t um ro norc the forbearance wirh which he able to s
discipline so many poli ricians o Larin menraliry ." 3
Ir ' vas diffic ult for Clemcnccau, in his ....iclenrly ami-clerical,
dcmocraric-republican radicalism, tu undersrand how a country
which had becomc rcpublicamzcd wi thout Iosing irs Im pe rial arisro-
cr atic rradirions could pcrmir an erhnic dcmocracy in rhc Arrned
Forccs-,-a siruation which had also srruck more orrhodox Europc-
ans. such as Bryce, Bumichon, or O affrc, as bcing alrnosr scandal-
ous. On inspccring t roops come ro Ri o de j anciro for a paradc,
Clcmenccau could nor repress his Europcan prcjudices: "T he young
officers gave an excellent impression and che barracks installario ns
lcft ncrhing ro be dcsi red. Bur rhere are really r nany colorcd men
in the ranks." 4
In Sao Paulo. Clemenccau visircd a dcrac hmcnr of military police
bcing rraincd by a group o Fre nc h offi cers and discovered how ir
was possiblc ro turn humble {olk, lIIany of rhem of non-Europcan
blood, inro a well-disciplined militar)' boJ y . Ile reported ehat one
of the French officers s[ated: ""Ir men are docile, but at the same
time [hc )' are aJen and always gooJ-hutnorcd." And ir w as not
diffi c ult for Cletnenceau ro see how sllc h m en, genera lly regardcd as
3 Ocmenccall: "p. c it., p. : 18.
4 bid., p. n o.
1;0 a rder and Progress

impulsive. could atrain rhesc qualitics : along with rhe "pecuniary

advanta pcs" o f rhcir situaeion, they cnjoycd installarions that wc rc
borh comfortable and hygicnic, superior in [act ro thosc afforded
rhc soldicrs of France. T he social [acrors of go od payo good food ,
and good Iodgings in chis case, as in so many crhcrs, managcd ro
our wcigh rhe supposcd crbnic disadvantagcs.
Presumably the same rhing wonld have occurred wi th colored
Brazilian wo rkers, hall thcy heen given similar "pccuniary advan-
tagcs," along wit h hygienic ccmfons ami good wo rking con dirions,
by the Repu blic of 1889. Clemcnccau srarcd t hat in Brazil in 19 ' o
"laws Ior rhc social protcction of ind ustrial and agricultural work-
crs wcre non exisrcnr." n N ot that polirical lcaders were uncon-
cerned wir b rhc matrc r, he adds somewhar apologct ically, but
rarher bccausc "rbe nmor phous nat ure of deccnrralized administ ra-
rions'' did not seerro permit rhe applicarion of such laws.
Clemcnccau's apology seems a somcwhar vague exp lanaran of a
grave dcficicncy on [he part of rhese political leaders. who we re so
cfficienr and even aut bo ritarian n sucb marrers as rhe valorization
o f natio nal resourccs and y er so hcsit ant. cvcn blind ro rhc crying
nccd for prorccrion on the part o the wor king class. In 19 19 any -
one looking back over rhc pasr fi fey yean; wou ld ha vc concl uJed
t har in rhc matrer of co ncern fo r the workingm an--or the slave-
rhc supcrioriry would resr ind isputably wirh rhc Imperial govern-
menr.
D uring rhc Republic th c srrangc silence of Ruy Barbosa on t his
marrer cannot he ovcrlookcd. T his cloqucnr sraresman, as vigorous
as j oequim N abuco in promoring rhc cause of the slaves. suddenly
bccamc silcnr once rhosc slaves we re madc {rccdm cn in rhcory. H e
overlook cd rhc facr rbar, du ring rhc carly R cpublic, rhey and rheir
desccndanrs often conrinucd to exisr in a sratc of virtual bondage
which could only be called cruel.
Clcmcnceau was ablc to give crcdir, however, to the privare in-
ecrcses w hich did not wait for rhc government ro rakc acrion in t he
matrcr of ben efits tu labor, In the ou rlyi ng districrs of R io de j a-
nciro. Bangu. for cxamplc, Clemcnceau found industrialisrs mak ing
an attempr ro eseablish bctt er working conditions. " T he workers of
Ih ngll," he wrote, "sprcad t hroughour t he arca and living in cor-
t agcs in which none of th e hygicnic facilit ies are lacking. gh'e a
pleasing appearance of physical and moral health." Thcre was even
~ hiJ ., p. ' H .
 T be R epubic Tnsenty Y ears Aiter 35 '
a subsrirutc for rhe pat riarchal Hig H O ll SC rransfcrrcd to an indus-
t rial and suburban sen ing in the form of "a large commu nity house
for garherings of all sorts. complete wit h a thearrc whcre the work-
en; can cnj oy thc pleasures of m usic ami drama." 6
Unforrun arely, t here were all too fcw indust rialisrs during rhis
pcriod who ga\'e co rrcsponding rrcarrncnt [O rheir wo rkcrs, a c1ass
which .\tanucl Bern rdcz felt was capablc of " any industrial under-
raking." 7 For th c rnost pan pcoplc wcrc aband on cd borh by rheir
employ crs and rhc Church, as we have scen, and ripe for rhc prose-
ly tizing of evangelical Prorcsranrs, w irh rheir sentimental compen -
sations tn f ill empty Iives and ro givc rhcm hopc in rheir new, if
insipid, existe nce as fr ee meno Sume were scduccd by other doc-
t rines; rhc anarchist or Marxist mystiques brougbr from En rope by
Spaniards, ltalians, or an occasional G erman. Such doctrines,
however, werc less effective wit h rhc formcr slavcs ano rhcir
desccndanrs than with whires whn found rhemsclves in a similar
psychalogical-if not cul rural-c-situarion. Fc r thc mosr pan th esc
were middle -class adolesccnts in Catholic schoo ls who suddcnly
found rhcmselves vicrirns. nor of a lack of Cntholic chariry as in the
case of rhe ex-slaves, bur rather of a los.s of Cat holic fairh irsclf. T he
fairh of rhcir childhood. rhc fairh of rheir parenrs ano grandparents.
Such wes rhe expericncc of Astrojildo Pereira (h. sta re of Rio de
Janciro, 1890), who was, ir mar he rcmcmbercd, a pupil at t hc
Colgio Anch icra and later at rhc Col gic Ahlio in Nireri. Al
firsr inrcnding ro bccomc a pricsr or monk, he bccamc disillusioned
wir h thc Church and fell un der rhc infl uence of rhe most anri-
Catholic wrircrs: Kro porkin, Grave, Faurc. .\ lalatesra, H amon. I1is
dissarisfacrion wirh the prevailing ordcr was further increased by
rhe defear of R uy Bar bosa in 1909, t hc execution of Fc rrcr in Spain,
and rhc rcvolt of j oo Cindido . T o th c young ex-Catholic, R uy
bad be com e "a god", bur in t ime hls faith in this go d was also dis-
persed and orher diviniries were nccdcd . He found on c such in
Bakunin, w bom he read in his enrircry. At firsr he was against
,\tarx, " wirhour having read him " ; but afrer th e Ru ssian Revolution
in '9 19, through th e nfl uence o f Le nin. he " became directly ac-
qu ainted "vith the work of ,\ 1arx" and was conv ened. Ea rlier, in
191 1, he perhaps prepared t he way for this conversion by a trip to
e Ibid., p. ~ H .
7 Man uel 8ermirdez:: El BrdJi/, Su Vida, S.. T rabajo, Su Futur o (Buenos A ires,
1908), p. 114
35" arder and I'rogress
Eurc pc. intcnding ro work and study in Paris. H e had "a third-class
ticket and ver)' litrle money," a fact which possibly increased his
discnchanrmcnr wirh thc ho urgcoisic. Bis fr icnd ;\ iax V asconcelos
was awai ring hirn in Genoa ami rogcrher rhey wcnt ro Paris via
Bemc. Always wirbou r mOlley. he fina lly had ro be scnr back horne
ar rhe ex pense o gcncrou s coumrym cn. "Wc wcre reparriated by
rbe Associaco da Colonia Hrasileir a. which bough t our passagcs
and ga,c each of tlS 50 francs pockct mOll e)'. we spent rhc mOlle)'
on book s. General ir np ressio n: discnchanrmcnr . . . but a dcli-
cious son of disenchantment." Suc h is rhe conession o a middle-
class Carholic lXl)' who bccamc anri -bourpcois and anri-Carholic
largely because of rhc lack of profcssional training for rcstless and
ralcnrcd youngsrers of his periodo
In Pars Asrro jildo Pcreira could bavc cncounrcred a nch Brazil-
ian of abour his own age who had lived rnosr of bis lifc in Franco:
rhc caricatu rist Emilio e n doso Ayrcs. Emlio was also disillu-
sioned wirh Brazil (as alrcady mcr nioncd ), nor bccause he had losr
his {airh in religion or in th c superficial civil refo nn of Ruy Bar-
be sa. bur rarhcr bc causc he was a so-callcd "a rrisr'' in rcbellion
againsr rhc philistinism of rhe middlc class, a rebellion which led
him ro an anri-milirarism and a pacifism almosr ana rc bisric or socia l-
istic in its inrcnsiry. H is anguish was incrcas ed by his effeminacy
and his almost infanri le physiquc. rhough wi rhout becoming com-
plicatcd by rhc overr. if elcgam, pederasry whic h marked thc lives
of tw o other Brazilian arrises: j oo do Ri o and Vi rglio " laurcio,
rhe lan er also for su me rime a studcnr in Paris. Ir is difficulr ro say
whieh of his many suffcr ings lcd Emilio ro commir su icide in a hotel
in sourhcrn Franco on his rerurn from a trip ro Norrh Africa
which. wirbour being too far from Paris. had for him become a
subsrirute for his own Brazi1.
\Ve havc scen rhat Emlio Cardoso A yrcs workcd Out sorne of
his piq ue agai nst Braz il rhrough his caricatures of (he elcganr soc-
ery of Rio de Janeiro. HU[ he was nor rhe cnly caricatur isr of his
da)', nor wcre Ro socic ry fi gures rhc only vicrims. Pol irical fi gures
{rom rhe Em pcror on do\\'n we re portra)'cd, sometimcs w irh con
siderable ma lice. by A ngc1o Agosrini. Bordalo Pinheiro. Crispim de
Amara I, Vera Cruz, and orher ralenr ed journalisric arrisrs. O ne fre-
q ucmly porr raycJ poliTical lcader scldom prcscnred unf:tvo rably
utas rhc Baron do Rio Branco. This can hc att ribu red partly ro rhe
abiliry of rhe popular min isrer ro m aintain a non parrisan polirica l
posirioll; but ir could also he dllC ro hi< unsurpasscd fricndliness ro-
 T bc R epnb c Tnsenty Y ears A ter 353
ward newspaper mcn and his generous protectio n of rncu of letters
ourside the journalisric field.
O ne of his pror g s was A lusio de Azcvcdo. who wit hout t he
mer ired and inrclligem favor of rhe Barca might bavc remained a
caricaturisr-c-and a bitte r one ar t hat- for thc rest of his life. T al-
cn red from childhood bur cqually uneasy in borh imperial an d re-
publ ican Hraxil. Azcvcdo was rccruired by Rio Branco fo r the con-
su lar service. wherc he scrvcd cffccrivc ly fo r Olan}' ycars. Unab!e ro
Iive bappily or com fortably in re publican Brazil, he was wi lling t o
serve his country abroad. th ough he was nevcr cornplerely ar case in
any of his postS end seems constantly ro have yeamed for the days
of his yourh in Maran hao. l le hared England, bccar nc sick of A r-
gentina. and even fou nd his days in j apan and N apl cs rat her insipid.
F rom Naples on D ccc mber Z2 , 1909, he w rotc his friend Guirnarcs
rhar th c Chri stmas season was always a drcary one for him; he had
passcd so many of thcsc holidays "in str angc lands among inditfer-
cnt faces." O nc e, in Cardi , he had spent Christmas by giving a
pany for rhc poor children of t he neighho rhood. His guests "en-
joy ed rhemsclvcs so in dancing, frclicking, an d playing linle d ramas
around thc tree filled wirh prcsenrs'' rhar rhc Consul. "smoking
quierly by himself" in his srud y, was c arricd by their sho urs and
laughrer bac k ro his "child hood in Maranhao, wirh irs lnnnha-meu -
boj, its Nariviry sccncs. its fol k plays and songs of che T hrcc Magi,
irs m idnight m ass follow ed by che ce remonial ca pon soup" and feU
into such a state of sad ncss rhat evc r since thc mere mc ntion of
Chrisrmas causcd him as great sutfer ing as did rhe recollections of
his narive land.
Such rccollecrions, howcver. did nor pre\"ent Azevedo from he-
coming cc ncerncd abou r his ncxt consular assgnrncnr. and he
prayed God that ir would no r be in V enezuela o r Paraguay . Ile had
airead), ..vritrcn to Pcs scguciro. secreta!)' to rhe liaron. and would
write him again, luir he was too well acqua intcd with "rhc Baron's
prc-emptory ruarmer ami his sccrcrary's scru ples" ro expect direct
resulrs. In a previous letter tu G uimares, wr incn o n Julr 11, 1902 .
he had statcd that " rhe condit ion of the intelligence is to su ffer an d
dislikc. The pl casure of any imelligent man is fiet it ious and incom-
plete, and ahvays takcs its toll in nCfYOUS energr. Bccause of this rhe
vices \Vere invented-alcohol. gam bling, women." A bittcr philoso-
pher, \Vhose life \Vas turn ed useful only thro ugh the intercst of the
Baron.
O n D ecember l2 , 1906, Azcvedo w rote from Cardiff lO his best
3)4 arder and Progress
friend , referring (O "the blessed Rio Branco, in whose hands the
consular eorps has be cn rransformed from a cons ranr stream nf
borherat ions ro a srcady carccr wir h excellcnr pros pecrs." 1l is rrans-
fer fr or n Cardiff to N aplcs had givcn him new lifc, he "was posi-
rively dying" in 'Vales. " Ir is nor so much rhe ccld which botbers
me as the dampness. that dampness which you can fcel and hear
draining rhe hear From OU T bodics. dcst roving our moral fi bcr. suck-
jng the life out o us ano dragging us inro a rot of rcdium , this
dampncss which would ncver leave us, I belie ve. even if wc jumped
into th c fi rc, and which is with us cvcry wherc-in rhe desk, in (he
-
bread wc eat, rhe cigarerre we smokc. rhc sheet we draw ovcr US,
[he slippcrs we wear, and rhe rho ughrs we pass rh rough our
minds. . . ." In Naplcs rhis man of rhe rro pics hcped ro rcsuscit are
himself ro rescue hirnself from rhc "exbausnon of cxhaust ion, the
inrempcrancc and brut aliries of England," from the "land of male
and fem ale thicves'' wherc one was irrevocably conraminatcd by
"rhar obscene drunkards' gibbcrish which is rhe English language."
In N aples he would havc "ar least a lir rle su n ro rcmind me of my
counrry." A nd , bit rerly. "hurnaniry is worthlcss,' and Ca rdiff "a
small cross sccr ion of all [he faul rs of rhis world."
Nevenhclcss, on learning in 190 3 rhar he had bcen rransfcrred
from Salto ro Euro pe, Azevcdo had w r inen G uim ares: "How
grate fu l I am! O nce I am in Europe everything will ehange for me.
I confess to rou thar I did not ccm plain more abo ur Salto and did
not kick out wirh more vchemence againsr rhis den of carde rustle rs
and Rio G rande poliricians onl y bccause I did not wish ro appear
c rankv
. , , ." liad ir nor bcen for bis consular career, wit h ies fre-
q uenr changes of posr and consranr ma king of new contacrs.
Azcvedo, 1 repear. would p roba bly have hcen a dissolure Rio jour-
nalist, an inveterare member of the oppositicn, against G od and rhc
world, probably cven against rhe "blessed R io Branco." Journalist,
caricaturisr. polcmicisr, he would have made anor her Edmundo Bit-
rencc urt. with somerhing also of Lima Barrero. All rhis al ongsid e
t he romantic vision of life, though a \'ision dampened for him by a
series of frust rarions pcrhaps more adolcscent rhan mat ure. An
eady rebcl ag3inst tra ditions and environmem, he late r felr only
nosta lgia for his yomh and foc the sunshinc of his mOlher coumry.
Bm ir was too late. B is dcsire ro sce the w orld-t he O rientoEu ro pc
- had takcn posscssion of half his being, never allowing him ro rein-
tegrare himself happily in the Bralian scenc. Pcrhaps, o all the
 T be R epubi c T w enty Y enrs After 355
Wesrern wo rld. ir was only Paris which sofrened rhc nostalgia he
felr for thc Mnranh c of his childhood, a nostalgia which he kcpr ro
himsclf and revealed only in rhc faseinaring unpubl ishcd lcrrers
(now in m)' posscssion ) he wrore ro his close friend and fcllow
,\ 1arinhensc Francisco G uimares.
Gu imarcs wais a typical good, f inc-graincd. rose-ccmplcxioncd
'\1arinhense who becamc almosr a pcrfccr Parisian, likc so man)' Eu-
ropeans who, given mone)' and opportunit y, were able ro cxpatri-
are rhemselvcs in rhc Freneh capital ami livc like Frenchmen of rhe
bata monde. In rhc early days of rhc Republic sorne achieved suc h
cxpat riarion by Jipping inm rhe pub lic funds. and there wcrc
orhers, such as rhe pricsr Severi no de Rcsendc. who lcfr rheir cleri-
cal rrappings bchind ro live a Bohcrnian cxistcnce in Paris. Orh crs
again. for lovc of Paris, abandoncd rhcir fam ilies in Brazil or rcpudi-
arcd rhc monarchy in rhe drcam of obraining a rcpublican sinccure
in the Ciey of Light.
Tbose who rerurncd afrcr several monrhs- or cvcn ye ars-cof
rcsidence broughr with rhem girls as blond as rhc Frcnch dolls of
childhood. whom rhcy insrallcd in discrccr chlers in picturcsque
locarions, and rhey also borc a supply of hooks (sorne of whieh
were prcd icrablv eroric ) , prophylacncs. Douccr cngravings, wines
and mineral warers, hats, silk shirts. and pharmaceurical remedies.
Sorne had srudied medicine in Paris, and conrinued ro do so in Hrazil
by means of Frcnch books written by French rcachers. O rhcrs,
mercly rich. had lived like boutevmi ers, visiting rhc rhearrcs, mu-
seums, and lccture halls. and dcveloping rhcir reste buds in faney
restaurants. Sorne had spenr a gooJ part of thcir rime being rrcared
for one or anorhcr ailmcnt, having rhcir rcerh fi llcd by Freneh den-
risrs, or mcrely eolleering a supply of roe Frcnc h medicines so pa p
ular at rhc rime.
French wac nor only rcad bur spokcn by culrivarcd Hrazilians of
rhc period, among whom an er ror in pronuneiarion ur gramrnar
could mean insram social or inrellecrual disgrace. Ir was alsc wid ely
writte n and writrcn wcll, ro thc point rhar Emile Faguet rhough[
" joaquirn N abuco'' (author of Pens es D tacbes w rinen in im'ol-
unrary bur signifi canr opposirion ro Os Sertocs) \Vas rhe pseudo-
nym of sorne residenr European diplomar. so exeellenr was his
Freneh and so European his \'iewpoinr and his manner of rhinking.
Ami Faguer's diagnosric eoulJ haye hecn extended. in a sense, ro
man), orher books of rhe perioJ wh ieh. wh ile \\'Tinen in Portu-
 arder md Progrest

gucsc, wcre neverthelcss psycbclogically French. This generaliza.

rion could apply ro scvcral o che work s of Machado de Assis,
despire thc Brazilian material on which rbey are bascd and rhc
sensiriviry ro rhe tropical cnvironmcnt rhar is their inspirarion.
Against this some whar cxccssive tasrc for European irnports-c-Iit-
erary, sociological, philosophical, as wcll as pharrnaceutical-c-was
rhc movemenr on thc pan of nativisrs ro develop indigenous mare-
rials. a mo vcmcnr which anncipared rhc daring of rhc rechnical rev-
olu tion nr rhc agriculrural reviva! which carne wit h t hc valcrizarion
of coffee. Thcsc nativist movcmenrs ranged from rhc lircrary ,
which began wirh the novcls of Jos de Alcncar in rhe first half of
thc ninetccnrh eemur}', ro rhe vogue for gIlTa71 and mat which
develo pcd at rhc heginning of [he r wentierh. Alrhough suc h nariv-
ism was more acccnruared in pharmacology than literarure, rhere
was considerable interesr in nanvisr wriring. particularly ccnrering
around Recife. Hcre a school of wr ircrs cxisred who, evcn in lmpe-
rial times, cpposed che exccssi vc Gallicism in Brazilian lett ers, arrs,
and scicnccs. Ar fi rsr adhering ro G cnnanic nonns in in dcsire ro
purge thc French irifl ucnccs, rhis schcol cven rually developed inrc
an ex prcssion of Brazilian nationalism . I[ was a narionalism colored
wirh a feding for rhe tropics which ro the Francophilcs seemed ro
connote bad tasrc. incominent or inclegam language, primiri vism in
feeling ami rhinking, and general incapaciry for momee in rhc fi ner
sense of rhc word-c-rhe very qualiries which rhey found in abun-
dance in such work s as Euclvd , es da Cunha's Os Sertes.
'\lhen, in 19 17, the gcographer Ellion stared tha t rhe world
owed much ro Brazil in t hc fields of horticulrure and medicine,
rhere were already many phvsicians in rhc Repuhlic who, having
lived in or visired rhe Amazon, werc using thc drugs of rhat regi n
almosr exclusively in their pracricc. Among such drugs wcrc peca-
cuanba (r hc source of ipccec ) . copaba tcopaba balsam) , or [a ho-
rend . the lasr considered by the famous Rabutau the equal of qui-
nine for the trcarmcnr of fc vcrs." As carly as 1865, in his Dicionrio
de Medicine. rhc physician T . J. 1-1. Langaard, one of rhe many
European physicians attraered ro Brazil for rhe study of tropical
diseases, had poimed out the \irtncs of national drugs. G uaran, an-
other product of the Amazon, also had its widest acceprance in
Franee, where it was sold as a pleasanr.tasring tonic; in rhe Brazil of
19 17 ir was regarded mercly as a soft drink. E.lliott states thac a list
~ El1iOlt: op. cit., p. 3[3.
 T be Repub/ic Tnnenty Y ears A iter 157
of Amazonian medicinal rnaterials would fi ll scvcral pages of bis
book and limirs himself [O rhe men t ion of rhe inremarionally amed
qussa (uscd as a fever rcmcdy) . jalap.., (a purgativo), a diureti c
called l grima-de-Nossa-Senbom (Our L ady's tear). Sao Caera no
mclon (ant acid) , cip -caboclo ( an astringent ) , ettmb.rr.f (much
used in rhe making of cough remed ies), batata-de-purga and purga-
do-pastor (both febrifuges). tarmieire-do-mato, pau-Par4ba, and
pau-Pereim (ronics) , oil of Andiroba (uscd for soap as wcll as for
illumination}, sapucanba (a nut used for rheumatisrn in .\-Hnas
Gerais, Rio de j aneiro, and Espirito Santo) , and p.t1l-precioso (a
sedarive ) .
Thus. approximarcly thi rry years afrer rhe proclamarion of a Re-
public thar, in rhc minds of man)' of irs supporters. was tO integrare
rhe narion with thc American polirical system. Brazil hcgan to show
sorne awarcness of imegraring irself alsc wirh its own natural sur-
roundings to Iorm an indigenous tropical culture. Thc nar ional
consciousncss shown in such matters as medicine, phannacology,
hygicn e. and food bcgan ro rnaniesr irsclf more and more in ot hcr
aspects of cveryday life. Brazil hegan to fin d its own answer ro ele-
gant Europeaniz cd testes for soft drinks and mineral waters in such
products as guar'11I and rhc mineral w aters of Caxamb u and Salu-
r ris. 111e period also markcd rhc establishment in Caxambu, Larn-
barioCambuquira. Sao Lourcnco. and Arax of hotels roughly imita-
rivc of rhose of the great Europea spas. Rich and eleganr Brazilians
ficcked ro rhese watering places, diplomars. poliricians, well-ro-do
pricsrs sought rhc cure for obesiry, for intestinal disorders, and for
thcir liver ailmenrs, rhc last bcing thc particular villain in rhe diag-
nosrics of mos r Brazilian physicians of rhc periodo\ Vith rhc corning
of rhc First \Vorld War, when Carlsbad and Vichy werc no longcr
available, Brazilians turncd ro narional resourccs in cures and reme-
dies. rhcreby raising both rhc TeSOr{ hotcls and rhc drug manufac-
rurers ro rhe level of mejor industries. In particular, the ad venising
of drug products developcd. and blurbs of all kinds appcarcd
everywherc-c-in rhe ncwspapers. on rhc walls of buildings. on
srreetcars. Somctimcs thcsc advertiscmcnts were in verse fo rm,
often by well-known poees. Distinguished physicians wrote n ews ~
paper and magazine artieles in support of national phannacology,
an aetivity which scandalized foreigners. Accompanying thesc ar-
rieles were phorographs of the aurhors, gencrally rohed and ofte n
ycry imposing in their professional garbo Other advcrtisernents
 Order and Progress

went still fun hcr, using illusrrious public fi gures as apologists for
producrs their manufacrurers "wishcd ro recornrnend ro rhc re-
spccrablc public." Fo r examplc. Rcutcr's Soap ran copy in th e Re-
'1:isttl da Sem,J1Ia for Seprcmber 3, 19o(j, in w hich three rcspcctcd
polirical fi gures of rhc time, Afonso Pena, Fra ncisco Sales, and R uy
Barbosa, were shown bcsidc a bathmb ami a bar of soap. wi rh rhc
legend : "The one w ho uses rhc rnosr Reurer's Soap is th e onc who
will get che most vetes." Hur rhcsc carly copyw rirers can pcr haps be
pardo ncd for their excesscs in rhe light of rhc guod rhey broughr ro
rhc public, cven whcn rheir serviccs wcrc cmploycd by commcrcial
inreresrs. Anorher typical advcrriscmcnt appeared in the sanie mag-
azine for N ovember 26, 1905. Ir shows t wo Brazihans. une wcaring
a hcavy suir and rol' har and labclled "Thc Pasr" , thc ot hcr in a
st raw har and Iigh r clcrhing, labellcd "The Futurc." Thc top har
says ro his companion: " N o, rny dear fellow ; I arn a respcctablc
mano I cannot go without m)' rol' har .. ." To which the straw
har responds: "You are no more respecrable rhan 1 amo You are
Prcjudicc ond I am Prog rcss. You walk down t hc st rcct as t he last
echo of Ro urine; 1 do so in rhe spirit of th e ouring ano in accord-
ancc wi th rhc scason. which calls for lighr and happy
clorbing .. ." And on e can cite orhcr examples: rhc spread for
Caxambu Water in the Reviste of Scpecmber ro, 1905, showing
Afonso Pena grasping a bonlc of rhe product, wirh rhc legend :
"T hc Favorirc of Favorires!" Or rhar of November 5, 1905, eon-
tainin g a tTUI)' frightful blurb prescnring a caricature of a fi cri-
rious " j udgc Cerdoso de Castro" th anking Presidcnr R od rigues
Alves for his eppo int r ncnt to t hc federal magistracy. "1 rhank Your
Excellcn cy for my ap pointment to rhc Supremo Court," he says, to
which rhc Prcsidenr of rhc Rcpublic-c-t hc much-caricatu rcd " Big
Daddy"- replics: "Don'r thank me : he assurcd thar 1 norninar ed
you on ly bccause you we ar rhosc magni ticanr Condor shocs bought
ar Siiva's ar 86 Rua da Uru guaiana . rhc brand which not only lasts
longer bu r also brings luck ro t hc wcarer." T o the Fren chman Al
fred .\ larc, Ri o de Janeiro matched ~ew York in the furor of its
commcrcial ad,"ertising. In the first "olume of his Le Rrsil, pub-
lished in Paris in 1890, he states: "T he walls on rhc lmildings
here
are co vered with bil1s, samples, and enormou s fi gures in ca rdhoard
or meta l." 9 .\ Ioney was wasted on gas lamps ro light [hese displays
at nighr. And t he bilis also filled all t he available space in t hat most
Brazilian of institutions, the strecrcar.
11 A lfred Mare: l.e Brh il IParis. 1&)0) .
 T he R epubt c Tssenty Y ears Aft a 3 59

The drug indusrry enric bcd rhc D audrs and t he O liveiras. wirh
rheir Sa de de Mulher (Female H ealt h) and Hromil, as well as t hc
ma nu facrurcrs of Elixir de Xogucira. Elixi r Sanativo, and R egula-
dor G esteira. In 1916 Elliotr considcrcd it po ssible fo r Brazil to re-
place impo n ed drugs wirh produces of its own manufacture and
even ro expon sorne of t hem, along wit h their mineral warers:
". .. were her resourccs bertcr invcstigatcd and quanrities dcvcl-
o pc d, she co uld grearly increasc her posirion as a supplier of medi-
cines ro inte rnarional markers." 1 And in one ircrn, thar of ry phoid
serurn, Brazil did aclncvc inrernariona l renown. T his scrum was the
spccialry of D r. Vit al Brasil. of thc Burantan lnstirurc of Sao Paulc,
an insn rution Roy Nash has called "rhc wcrld's hcadqua rters for
in forma tion and scrums againsr sna ke bite." ~
Alrnosr com parable fame was won by rhc Inst ituto O svaldo Cruz
of Rio de janciro. a rcsearch cenrer which cnlisred the scrvices of
suc h illusrrious figures as Carlos C bagas, Adolfo Lurz, S ousa
Ara ic , Olmpio da Fonseca. O smino Pena, J. P. Fontanclle, Car-
doso Fome, t hc Osrio de Al r neida b rothers, Artur N civa. Belisrio
Pena. Anorbcr notable rnedical man of rhc period, Miguel Percira,
soundcd th e ala rm as to the deplorable sanirary condirions of rhc
citics, condirions which Belisrio Pena spent [he major part of his
Jife rrying ro rcmcd y and w hich occupied much of rhe lirerary out-
put of rhe wr ircr ;\ Ionteiro Lobato. T he Bahi ans Piraj da Silva.
j uliano " 1oreira, end Osear Freir . all of whorn achicvcd European
rcnown for r heir me dica! research, tnust also he noted here.
In insti rures like rhe .\t angu inh ns or Osvaldo Cruz, in th e medica!
schools of Bahia and Rio de Janeiro, and in rhe public health serv-
ice, doc tors joined with sorne of the more audacious planrers and
indusrrialists ro hel p rhc R cpu blic recovcr from the inc rtia of Ped ro
II . Thcy werc der crmin cd ro dcmo nstr arc rhar it was possible to
esrablish a modern ag rar ian and industrial system in t he rropics w it h
rcchnical proccsses eq ual to rhose em plcycd in rhc m ore tem pe rat e
counm es.
In his book T be Conquest of Rrazil publisbed in '9 26, R oy N ash
remarked thar since rhe American t riumpb in opcning thc P anam
Canal. it had bccn undcrstood t hat it was possible for rhc w hite m an
to live and w ork in rhe t ro pies. :\'ash cited several im elligent obser-
vat ions made by Herbcrt j. Spindcn in his artid e "Civilization in
t he \Ver T ropies" (w hic h appeared in rhe Februar)', 1923, i.~su e of
1 El lion: op . cit., p. J15 .
2 Roy S"ash : T br Conql1u t of Br.rUI C... cw York, ' 9' 6) . p. >47.
, 60 Order mu Progress

lVorld's JVork ), une bcing a dcnial of rhc long-hcld SupposlUon

tbar only excessivcly cold, foggy climarcs wcre ca pable o produc-
ing civilized human bc ings. A similar co nclusion was d rawn in 1 9 2 r
in Vclumc 3 of the Tropicai Diseases Butlen in an article enrirlcd
" Repon o Subcomrnince of rbc Pcrmancnr Occupation of T ropi-
cal Australia by a H calrhy Indigcnous Whirc Race," rhe subcom-
rnirrcc in qucsrion heing a group o Brirish rescarchcrs who spent
considerable time in Aust ralia srudying rhis troublcsome ecological
and ant hropological problc m." 1[1 Braxil there was unt il 191 fl no
sociologisr oc anthrcpologist qualificd ro pro nouncc on rhis subjecr,
but since rhe beginning of thc century rherc had beco many medi-
cal studies of anth rcpologicul o r sociologicel importance by such
men as Roquene-Pinro and Afr mo Peixoro, along wirh essays of
considerable inruirion-often supplemcnrcd by direct cont acr wirh
thc Brazilian int erior or rhe Amazon-by such men as Eduardo
Prado, Ingles de S ousa. Sylvio Romero, Jos Ve rissimo, Alberto
T rres, Euclydes da Cunha, GUSt3\o Barroso, Alberto Rangel, and
Professor Gilhcrto Amado. Thcsc writers scrved ro alleviare two o
[he deepesr resentmcnts of culrivarcd Brazilians: t har of being in-
habitants of an almosr enrirely tropical country and rhat of cit her
bcing n test co or having a prcdominar nly l11f.:stifo pcpulation as
comparricrs. Suc h rcsentmcnts madc Brazilians fecl inferior ro rhc
Argentincs. who wc rc for thc most pan white, nnd provoked
amon g rhc most extreme a harred for rhe Porrugucse, rhe European
scn lers who had mude rhc capital error of mixing wirh rhc narive
tropical pcop lcs insread of mainraining a Caucasian puriry.
Roy Nash claimcd, wit h sorne humo r and conside rable rruth,
t har rhc principal tropical disease is in fact ignorance!' He cou ld
havc addcd tha t the ignorancc of Brazilians abou r rhcmselves and
abour orhcr tropical m est co socicties had devclopcd into almosr a
prevailing psychcsis in rh e cultural lifc of rhe narion, c nly slightly
allcviared dming rhis period by the work o th c wrircrs already
mcnnc ned , by ot her aut horirics such as Couro de Xlagal hes, Cclso
de .\ 1agalhes. Nina Rodrigues, T eodoro Sampaio, Oliveira Lima,
or rhc Visco unr de T aunay , by research ers in th e medical schools
of Baha and Rio de j aneiro or thc ,\ 1anguinhos and Butanran lnsri-
rutes; by naruralisrs and ethnologists of {he G ocldi M useum o
3 "Reporr of Subcommince of rhe Permanenr Occupation of Tropical Austra1i::t
by a Hcalrhy lndigenous \\' bite R~ce : ' Tropical Diu~sef HuJlerin, No. J. H)1T
....as
" h : op. en.,
. p. H l .
 T be R epublic T nsenty Y earr Aiter
Bclm (which for a time became an international cer ner in the fi cld
of tropical studies}, by orher naruralists and et hnologists connected
with tbc Narional or Paulisra Xluseums, as well as by foreign re-
searc hcrs such as Dcrnbre. Harrt, Dcrby, Branner, and V on den
Steinen. Finally, the agricultura! rcsearcb which rhe Republic iniri-
ated in its early existence afrer man)' years of shilly-shallying on rhc
pan of rhe Empire must not be c verlookc d.
Continuing Roy Nash's tbcsis, ignorance of rhe mineral rcsourccs
of Brazil was parricula rly striking. Research in mincrology, iniri-
ared during rhc Fm pirc. was conrinued only casually by rhc Repub-
lic, so casually, in facr, rhar neither geologisrs nor rhe Brazilian gov-
ernmcn t was aware rhar the cOllmry contained dcposirs of thorium,
a mosr prccious material fou nd at th c time only in Norway. Brazil-
ian thorium was discovercd accidcntally by a British subjecr named
John Gordon, who was wandering arnlcssly on rhc sands of Bahia
awaiting t he departurc of the steamcr carrying him back ro Eng-
land. Noring th c peculiar densiry of the sand and rhe rcnacit y with
which ir clung ro his shoes, he gathcrcd up a handful and put ir in
his pockcr. On having ir analyzed in England, he learned rhar ir
conraincd rhorium. ,\ Ir. Gordon was sudden ly rich, ro mant ically
rich. The incidcnr Iurnishes one more example of Brazilian ca rclcss-
ncss, rhc same stor), which had previously becn rold for the re-
sourccs of sugar, cotfcc, corre n. rubbcr. and cocoa. lt was lefr ro a
realisric Englishman ro discovcr thc rhoriurn. [use as ir was lefr m
an American gcclogist named Whitc ro poinr out carly in rhc
centllry rhar Brazil conraincd oil deposits sufficicnr for "al! rhe
requircrncnrs of rhe Republic." If norhing was done about rhis
annou nccmcnt. ir was bccause the governmenr showed nor rhc
slgbrcsr inrercsr in rhe marrer."
In the fie ld of stock raising the expcricncc was somewbar happier.
One of thc big problcms of the industry, that of fi nding suffi cicnt
pastureland. was allcviatcd by rhe dcvcloprncne of Par grass. In
addirion. ir was d iscovercd rhar the zcbu type of carde was th c bcst
adaprcd m tropical conditions. Such succcsses obraincd by pracrical
cartl erncn co uld ncr fail m give a eenain feeling of narionalistic tr i~
lImplt.
Brazilian narionalism was also reRccted in irerature and in cerrain
of rhe am, a mo"emem which had its origins in the Empire but
fastcned upon Ihe prociam:nian of rhe RClllblic as a fonn of apol-
~ Percy F. Mart in: T brough ;t!e RepublicJ (London, ";lOS ). pp. JI U, a l.
 arder illld Progress

ogy [or irs further developmcnr. In a collcct ion of m agazine arricles

publishcd in Rio de Janeiro in 1896 un der rhe t it le Lit eratura Bras-
leiTa, s ocimento de 1893 , o Crepsculo dos 'ooos, rhe critic T ris-
ro de Alencar Araripc cffered an almosr sociological srudy of the
lirerature of rhe revclurionary pcriod. a period w hich scerned ro
him ro represcnr a res urgence of nari vism in the narional lirerature,
togerh cr wjth a grearer sense of communication bc twecn t hc cen-
rers and rhc prov inccs. (l e pointed o ut rhar rhe Reviste Brasieira
had bcen largely instrumental in improving rhesc cornmunica tions,
ir w as rhis magazine which had madc rhe "culrivared spirirs" of Rio
de J aneiro awa re of rhe fac r rhar " in 1880 rhcre had bcen notable
Iiterarv activity in Par , rhanks ro a w rire r now \'ery wel l known in
the press of the st arc of Rio. bur ar rhar t ime un obscure and un-
know n figure. despire his already having shc w n his w orth wirh his
Esrudos Amaznicos ami or hcr crirical works wortby of heing
-
rankcd alongside t hosc of the m osr audacious Brazihan thinkers." 4
A raripe was rcferring ro Jos Verssimo and im ply ing rhar the
magazine dirccred by rhis erudite provincial Brazilian should be tec-
ognized as an csscntial inrcllccrual Iink bcrwcen rhe A mazon and rhe
capital of th c young Republic.
In 1893 rhis same ca pital had experienced bom bardmcnr by r ebel
barrlcships. bur a bombardmenr rhar had really nor hao m uc h effccr
00 rhc average Carioca. The young people, in particular, were con-
vinced thar this muriny in rhe A rm ed Forccs was lirtlc more than
"an accidenr." \ " hieh did not mean, according to Araripe. rhar rhe
repuhlican movemcnr in Brazil had been " unfriendly roward rhe
inc reasc in Iirerarv cxpression.' Q uit e the eomra ry : "There is more
rhan one evidencc of rhc fact rhar a c hango in instirutions, rhe ado p-
rion of new po lirical cusroms. th e breaking down of ideas, and the
agirarions of rhc spirit all bring abo ut an in rcnse [Iirerary 1 anuos-
phere, one of rhe mos r visible symptoms of w hich is rhe rebirrh of
narivism." T his narivism had bcen seen reccnrly in the appearance
of books " purely republican in nature." O ne w as Festas Nscionais
(Natio nal H oliday s ) by R odrigo Orvio, wirh a preface by the
no" clist R aul Pom pia, who was also an cssayisr and something of a
polirical thinker. Pom pia fclr rhar, w ith the R epublic, it w as rime
for Brazil ro reno un ce irs thralldom ro " rhe grea r sensor'}' centers of
4T . A. ArHipe Jl nior: Lir~ratut.!l Br.!l#/rira, .,l,' Q1" i1l1ffl /Q J~ aH, o Cr~ps(Jo
JO I P01l01(R io de JaneilO 8<)6 ) , p. j . Abo see Ihe same aUlh or's Frmrio Nom141
do T "TOT 11011 SociedllJer Cultllr (R io d e JaneilO. 189' ) '
 Tbe R epubtic Twenty Y ears After 6

our organism of inrcrests" wlnch Pompia felt ro havc becn in Lon-

don or Lisbon. This subordination had cxisrcd throughout rhe Sec-
ond Empire as a rcsult of "thc mortal regime of fi nancial dcficirs''
and also rhc campaigns in rhc press, which conrinucd into rhc Re-
public, "against rhc measurcs, thc rcsourccs, and rhc energeric pre-
caurions which havc bcen thc cconomic and fina ncia! salvarion of
othcr nations." lt was against thc inrervennon of cconomic forces
inro Brazilian polirics rhat Pompia cricd out in his prcfacc. against
rhc power which dominarcd the joumalisric ficlJ and pcncrratcd
"decply into thc {onnarion of public policy," and which had shown
irself ro be a "formidable force," backcd by "rhe grearcr part of
privare wcalth." 1

Bcrh Pompia and Araripc werc irrirarcd by rhc "cosmopoliran-

ism'' which at rhc time ran concurrcmly with "narivism" and, to
Pompia ar lcasr, ancmpred ro make rhc latrcr arrear ridiculous.
Such cosr nopoliranisrn, charnctcnstic of thc work of Ec;a de
Qucircz, was to be found cspccially in such Hrazilian wrirers as
Rarnalho Ortigio, principal author of As Farpss (Tbe Barbs) and
one of rhc mosr perspicacious analysrs of rhc Rcvolurion of 1889.
1'0 Araripc , "Thosc cluders of rheir cOllntry respcnsible for thc
egoisric vogue of Cosmopolis'' (that is, Ramalho and even Eca)
wcre wrircrs "whose mental attirudes would be inolfcnsive if they
did not try ro influcnce rhc ycuth, dazzling them wirh seylisric
rricks . .." ami convincing them rhnt ro be "narivisr" was to be
"srupid." ~
Araripc was sincercly convinccd rhar rhe Revclution of 1889
diffcred from other evcnrs which bad shaken Brazil under the guise
of revolunon and which had really becn only rhc repercussions of
European movcments. The events of Novcmbcr 15 brought about
a "movcmcnt rhar was cxclusively national" ; ir had spru ng up as
"the fl owcring of an cnnrc past, a pase which had bccn quietly re-
prcsscd." '1 T hus we could expect rhat thc ncw order would be ac-
companicd by an equally narionalistic Iitcrature. Eithcr rhis, or it
wOllld become basrardized inco a "colorlcss cosmopolitanism, the
only possible rcsult of a sen 'ile copying of decadcnt Latin literary
movements."
In retrospecr, howcvcr, it docs nor appcar thar cither Brazilian
1 Araripl: Jnior: U ,eram ra Brasiieiril . .. pp. 7. !j, q.
~ hid., p. ' 7.
9 'biJ., 1'. 4 0 .
 arder and Progress
lire raturc in panic ula r o r Br azilian culture in general bc came mark -
ed ly rcpu blicanizcd afrcr 1889 ro rhc point of constiruring p attems
different from rh ose o f the monarchy or an)' more dcfinit ive o f rh c
nariona l cha racte r. Thcrc had alread y beco t races of n arionahsm in
rhe works of Alencar, G oncalves Dias. " Ianuel de Almcid a: in the
music o f Carlos C omes . in Bahian or Paraensc cooking or in P er-
nambucan confecrionary, in rh c mo din bas su ng by rhc y oung ladics
and rhc 11lU /.:lf ,S of t he Second Frupirc, in the man ner of Teixcira de
Freicas in rcaching judicial decisions in considc ranon o f X cw
World, rarhe r rhan Europcan, social condirions. in rhe capoeirs
pracriccd by Cerioca ami Bahia n r iffraff an d rep ressed by the R e-
public as a sh ar ncful art : in rhc SJJJ1bJ S an d marscams w hic h rcpub-
lic an propagandisrs also artcmpt cd ro p rohibir in Pern amb uco in rhe
d 170 'S 0 0 rh c pret ext that suc h fol kloric da nces shamed rb e na rion's
srarc o f c ivihzarion.
The strcng ly Hrazilian work o f Syl vio R omero, so im porrant
during the period covcred by this srudy, was beg un bc fo re rhc
proclamation o f rhc Rcpublic and cornaincd n arhing which could
be culled r ep ublican influcncc. N or did rh c fifte enth of N ovember
havc an y mensura ble ctlccr on t he linguist ic srudies of j odo Ri beiro
o r rh c folkloric st udics o f Celso de .\ lagalhaes in Recife. or on the
sociologica l studics made ( again in R ecite ) by j o aquim N abuc o, in
w hich Brazil was considercd as a cult u re differem in m any rcspecls
from rbar o f Europc.
Fo r rhis rcason a speech maje by Olavo Bilac, at a dinn er givcn in
his hon or in R io de J aneiro in 190 7. is rclcva nr hcre. " \ Vhat y ou, as
Bravilians. are h onoring and rewa rding o n rhis occasion," said Bilae,
" is the hard, [ruitful, courageous work of the lircrary gen eration tO
w h ich I belong an d th e part this generation has played, through its
labors, in t he civliza rion o f Braz.il." Bilac was referr ing ro rhe e orn-
iog -of-age o rhe literary man, anorher valorizarion co mpa rab le ro
thc valorizarion o f coffec. \\'riting h ad begun tu arrain p rofcssion al
stan d ing : "We are forcing the dou rs o f th c ne wspapers and are
ovcrcoming the fears and ineptitud es of rheir edirors.. ." In rhc
Em pirc , evcn aro und 1870. "there werc 00 meo of lencrs in Brazil,
bnr rnrher stat csmen, lcg islato rs. p rofessors, d iplomats, societ)' fi g-
ures, o r rich men w ho. from time ro ti me. made a b rief excursio o
into literary fields-s omc of them w ith a cerrain re1uctant annoy-
ane e, sOll1e cm ascu Lu ing thernselves, di.sg uising Ihemsel ves. h iding
thelllsehes. hllgg ing t he \valls, afraid o f the rnunnu rs of serio us per-
 T be R epublic T 'U'Cl1ty Y cars After

sons. :L~ tho ugh thcy were en rcring forbidden rcrrito ries. c cnters o
frivoliry o r of d ubious divcrsions." I
N ot that wirh rhe coming of t he R cpublic an)' Brazilian bcgan to
livc cxclusively on t he profirs Frorn his w riring, no! cvcn Xlac badc
de Assis conld achieve rhis rapid and complete valorization of hs
lircrary arto Bur it was t rue rhar the figure of rhc man of lerrers
bcgan [(J exisr wirhour ha\'ing ro disg uise his Jirerary occuparion.
O n the cont rary ; he could bo ast of ir. For rhe Baron do Rio Branco
(as wc have seen ) ro be a rnan of lcttcrs was a rcccmmcndarion, if
not always fo r rhc diplornaric COtpS, al lcasr fo r the co nsular ser v-
ice, in which A lu sic Azevcdc and Xlareus de Albuquerque hcld
positions. At rhe samc time, missions or rasks o rclative importance
wcre being given to J oaquim Nabu co, G raca Aranha, Oliveira
Lima, Eu clydcs da Cunha, Domicio da Gama, and Arajo Jorge,
Il lio L bo. still young bur airead)' showing litcrary tendencies,
was a further figure rccruit cd by thc Baron for scrvice in the lr ama-
rat)',
Ano ther activity which acquircd presrigc in Brazil d uring t hc last
)'ears of rhc monarchy ami rhc carly day s of t he R cpubli c w as rhar
of indusrry. The Prados o Sao Paut o. whilc not rcli nq uish ing rhcir
pc sirion as a landholding family, scnr ma n)' of t hcir mernbcrs inrc
indusrrv.
And in Rio G rande do Sul t he so-called "lard arisrocracv"
ga incd social prcstige t hrough irs connection wirh rhe dried heef
industry, just as rhc sugar refi ncrs o thc north and the state of Rio
de J anciro combincd thc acr ivirics of raising an d proccssing their
producto The rcxrilc industry also showe d gr cat devclopr nent, with
the milis almosr always under Brazilian direcrion. rhough sorne of
tb cse direcrors had lcarned much from England.
Lus T arq nio, an indusr rialisr whom rh c historian Ped ro Calmon
d ubbcd rh c "Bahia n ,\ lall," lcarned fro m his associa non wirh
rhe Bnrish in t hc firrn of Hrudcrer & CA, ro consdcr commer -
cial and ind ustrial acriviry as ho norable as any orhcr fonn o f m ak-
ing a livin g. By rhc age of fO ffY, he had become ric h, but, thanks t o
his British training, withour lcningo hirnsclf become soft in his
w ealth "as usually occurred w ith (he majority of Portug uese husi-
nessmen an d the sons of sugar planters in the arca of the R ec(in.
c avo," 2 Thus he h:td flor in\"csted in securitics and re:tl estate in
I Aflll.ln.lque H r.lri l eiro Gamier (Rio de Janeiro, 19O'J) , p. 100.
2Pr id es ~hJur"ira .le Pinh.. : 1. lIi s T a. qiinio, PiOlleiro J.f rmira Social no
Brasil eBahia. n..I.) . p. ~().
] 66 arder and Progress
order ro livc "t bc carefrce Jife o a pcaceful bourgeois," bur had
insrcad rurned to ind ustrial pionecring. In 1891 he foundcd t bc
Companhia Emprio Indust rial do Norte, giving bis personal nttcn-
rion not 0 0 1)' ro t he fin ancia! and rech nical aspccrs o rhc businesss,
bu t also ro t hc developmcnt o a modem pattcrn of cm ploycr-
employee rclaticnships. Ir was in rhc choice o machincry, w rircs
P riclcs Al adureira de Pinho, rhat " rhc cxpcriencc of Lus Ta r-
qiiinio best asserred irself. .. . 'l is repcarcd t rips ro rhe grcat tex-
rile ccnrcrs o Europe made ir unncccssary for him tu acccpt rhe
offcr o 'com plete facrories' so ofren mad e by F nropcan manufac-
rurers o rhc time te budding Hraxilian indusrrialisrs." Rath er, "he
chose rhc bese frorn rhe enrire ficld .. rom England he brought
machincry from rhc famous ma nufacturing fi rm of Fclber J ucker &
Co.; c rhcr cquipmcnt carne From Germany and Bclgium , and he
took advanrape of rhc burgconing American indusr rv ro complete
the set-lIp and form whar in rhc opinin of experts constituted a
wcll -in tcgratc d whole." In rhe opnion of one Fnropean visiror
d uri ng rhe late nincreenrh cenrury. whoever visired Lus T ar-
qlnio's Fmprio cculd "confide in the futurc of Brazil." "
T he efforts of Brazilian ind ustria lists. sorne of t hcm really gran~
diose. bc camc a source of narional pridc. T hc work of Anr nio
Prado or J orge Srrcer in Sao Paulc, for cxamplc. or Carlos A lbe rt o
de ,\ k nescs in Pern ambuco, or D clmiro Gcuveia in Alagoas, as well
as Lus T arq lnic in Bahia. In R io G rande do Su l, Assis Brasil CO Ol -
bined an elcganr, if somcwha r ordinary. polirical philoso phy w it h
conside rable spccislizcd com petence in ind ustrial agriculrurc, in
additio n ro a financia! and rcchnica l kuowlcdgc unsurpassed by any
fo rcigner in his ficld. L'O rnatter ho w mu c h one may lamenr ccrta in
aspeces of Republican pro tec t ionism roward indusrry. no matter
how false and pcrnicious it may have bcen in irs effecr o n thc
national economy. ir ruusr be recognizcd rhar thc efforts o such
indusrrialisrs had many laudable aspect s bcyond tb ose o a purely
cconomic narure. Thrcugh indusrry, formcr slavcs an d rh eir d csccnd-
an rs we re offercd a means of livelihood. From a vagabond exist ence
rhey wcrc ablc 10 emerge as useful citizcns integ rarcd inro rhc regu-
lar em ploymenr. cultura l, and recrearional pan erns of Brazilian so-
ciery. T tms. the cont ribution of ind usrry ar r he time had ies social
value. pa rticularly in t he cstablishmenrs of t he men mentioncd
abo\'e, or o orhcrs like Il errnann Lundg ren in Pernambuc o, the
3 Ihid., pp. 7rr-"o.
 Th e R epubtic T ns enty Years After

,\ Iascarenhas family in ,\ tinas Gerais. or the Bangu ,\ li lls in Rio de

j aneiro.
The dem ocrarization effccrcd by ind usrry was ro be found
cqually in spo n:s and drcss, bor h of whicb veercd ar t hc time roward
British rathcr rhan French patt erns. Thcre was rhc vopuc for foor-
hall. fon ncrly t he game of Brirish rcsidenrs and uppcr-class whitc
Brazilians, and for SportS in general as a mcans of physical c ulture.
In dress too stylcs appropriat c ro Brirish India bcgan to be acccprcd
in tropical Brazil. pajamas re placed nig hrshirrs. undershorts ousred
t he pre vailing " long johns," garters werc abandoned, suspendc rs
gave way ro bclrs. and top hars and derbies, carlicr obligatory
among persons of imporrance, lose rhcir place (O headgear of fclt oc
straw. Bow ries gavc way ro fou r-in-hands. and rhc starched c uffs
which often ser ved as note pads for such inveterare jotrcrs as Eu-
clydes da Cunha were abandoncd in favo r of the sofr varicty. La -
dies substirurcd drawcrs or k nickcrs for rheir many underskirrs, and
child ren adoprcd drawers or bloomcrs for household wear inst cad
of going nakcd as forrncrly . At this time rubbc r-solcd shocs began
to be worn for Sports and Iow shocs rcok ove r from the high-
burtoned varicry.
j oaquim Amaral Jansen de Faria ( b. Rio de j aneiro. 1883) re-
members rhar w hen he rcacbed adulthood in repubhcan Brazil, cus-
toms of dress werc srill French, anri-sportswear, and suirable only
for cold climares. ",\ Iodes wcre Parisian for mcn as wcl l as for
women, alrhough rhc woolens carne largcly from England and rhc
linen from Portugal. . . . Shirts had srarchcd [ronts, false cuffs,
and collars of frightc ning alritude. Vesrs were scrcarningly color-
fui, ries were of rhe bcw or Ascor van ety, black and tightly
knotted. T he canes werc slcnder and the hats hard and of t he
derby varicty .. . though the sofr end srraw varieries had begun
to appear." In Ro Grande do Sul, Sebasro de Olivcira (b. Cruz
Alta. 1878) found himsclf obligcd, as an early twenricrb -ccnrury
busincssman, to wcar a derby . H e wore long drawcrs in the winter,
but in the warmer season he advenru rously adopted undershons.
H e preferred hunon shocs and carried a caneo which. a.< a )'ou ng
man, he also used 3.<; a wcapon. He teUs us thae he never appm ved of
jewcls in men 's \\'car. Deodoro (,\ lachado) de ,\ l e nd on~a (b. Par.
1889) "''fites: " I always followed the styles of my t ime without
exaggerat ing. T hus 1 \Vore narro\\' tmusc rs. top hats. long drawers
with drawsrrings to hold them up, and diamond rings which toda),
,68 arder and Progress
1 dercst. 1 alsc carri cd a heavy canc of snakcwood oc a light on c of
rush."
Emiliano Ribeiro de A lrncida Braga (h. ,\ b.ranhao. 1873) speaks
o his boyhood sporrs and 10)'5: "T ite toys I ruosc cnjoy cd wcre the
pape r kircs w hich in ,\ 1aranhao wcre maje with grear rasrc and pro-
ficien cy, using a11 ent ircly disrincrive rcchniquc. Everybody rook
pan in this spo rt: physicians, law graduares, pricsrs, attorneys,
judgcs-all the best peoplc of M aranho. I rnadc a name for mysclf
in t his Sport and was known as rhc 'king of rhc k irc yers.' \ Vhcn 1
w as in i\ b ranhao 0 11 a visir a )'ear ego , old fricnds still addrcsscd me
by rhis rit lc. I atso uscd ro co jo)' spinning tops and playing barroca,
a game using cashew nu rs. Larer 1 rode horseback, rowed, swam.
ami hunred w it h dogs. 1 conrin c ed to enjoy these sporrs u nt ilI was
fifty-five."
Roberto Chrisriana N acgeli (b. Rio de j ancirc, 1881) says:
"shorrly afrc r m)' retu rn from sc hoo l in Swirzerland, Brazilians
bogan to play footbal l. .\Ir brorhcr and 1 immediately took pan in
tbs SpOrt, w hich we had playcd in Euro pe. This g arne. w hie h has
capru rcd rhc whole world, has in rn)' opinin bcen a grcat bcnefit to
our COllntry . lr has t aught rhc Braxilian to submit himsclf volunrar-
ily to discipline through rhe leve o f t he g ame and in rhe interest of
his ream. A great pa rt of t hc male po pularion on all sociallevcls likc
ro ta lk foorball, and ir is intcrcsring ro note how mueh rhcy know
abour all phascs of t he game and how wc ll evcryone. rich and poor.
young and old. can criricizc rhc play crs and t he reforces. It is rru c
rhet soruetimcs rhcsc discussions turn intn fighrs, hut rhis docsn'r
rcallv m atrero The ga mc divcrts and int crcsts [he yout h and kceps
rhcm out of rrouhlc . Fonncrly , )'ou ng peoplc o f rhe low er classcs
lISCO to hang around tavems for wanr of any rhing bener 10 do,
t alking big and gctting inro fighrs in which w eapons wcre often
crnployed. In m)' opinin. football has bcen largcly rcsponsible for
ehan gin g all rhis."
Erasto G aermcr ( h. Paran . r coo ) was t he son of G eman and
Brazilian parents and g randso n of a Lu rheran pastor. H e stuoied in
a German sc hool in Curitiba ano his fi rst g ames hau Ocen German.
rho ug h Brazilian diversions soon to ok o ver o " 1 spent fi ve yea rs in
t he German schoo l," hc sutes. " and c arne out with good gr ades. By
thc eno o f t he firsr rear 1 had mastcred Ihe language and could get
alon g w el! wirh m)' schoolmates. m ost of w hom were from homes
w here German w as spoken as a marrcr of course. The hoys. how
 Tb e Repnbiic T nsenty Y CtlTS A iter

cver. prefe rred ro speak Portuguese. possibly bccansc rhey had a

\'ery strong accenr in that lang uagc which r hcy wishcd ro over-
come. Ir was an eas)' way ro improve. ami it surprised me how rbosc
hOY5 who spokc badly wcrc rcascd by uthcrs w hose Po rt ugucse was
a bit berter. Since 1 was wcak in German. 1 was always in troublc
trying ro understand rhe teachcr. bur in rhc recess hours I fclc supc-
rior bccausc I was ofrcn callcd on ro scrt lc linguistic arguments
am ong my fellows . r was also at case in t hc Portugucsc class of Pro-
fessor Arrur Loyo la. w here 1 was ablc ro rcad ccrrecrly. mkc rea-
sonably good dic rarion. and in gene ral follow rhc lcssons com-
pletely... .
" In my time games wcrc playcd in schocl. in t he srrects. (Ir ar
hom e. A t school wc played hide-and-seck. cops -and-robbcrs. horse-
and-r idcr, high jurnp. and marbles. By t he time 1 wcnt on ro the
Co lg io de J lio T codorico and the Ginsio Paranacnsc. foo rball
bad begun l o be popu lar in our rown."
T he street games w erc cvcn more Brazilian tban rhose of rhe
school. " In the autum n kite fly ing was rhc favor irc sport. In the
j unc fesrivals of Santo Antonio, Sao j oo, and Sao Pedro, we sent
up halloons and lit t hc rradirional bonfircs. At Camival. we drcssed
ur , playcd rricks on ene anorher. t hrew fl our and water. bad c hil-
drcn's parries. and gener ally workcd off our en rhusiasms."
Bcyond che ordinary garues. " rhcrc w erc a number of gangs
whcse rivalrics at times be caruc a so n of open warfar c. In our srrcet
we had the R ua 13 de ;\ Iaio gang in nvalry w it h the Rua Saldanh a
Marinho gang in rhc ncxr block. In addition ro a few objcc tivcs
berr cr no r mc nt ioncd, rhesc srnall arm ies w er c organized ro roh or-
cberds, steal food and sofr drinks f rom rhc groccries, as well as ro
ini cr damagc tu windnws, SHeet lamps. and other pm peft y largcly
for the purpose of pickinp a fi ghr. T hcse fi ghrs occasionally rose ro
full-scalc gang warfarc. somcrrncs cr nploying individ ual combar
with blows and kicks and at other rimes dcvcloping into m ass barde
wirh sro ncs and slingshots. T hc rivalry het ween our gang amI that
of che R ua Sald anha ,\ Iarinho was very sharp and resulte d from
ditferenecs in sociallc\'cl. T heir side was composcd largely of boys
fmm modest homes; m any were colored. and most had to staI1 at an
cady age ro help t heir parenrs by selling papers. 'Ve were "ery
na rro w in our o pinion of our rivals. st ating that t he)' were a loe of
gOOlI-fo r-nothing w ise guys, a low-Iife crowd who hated us out of
en"y and spite. They were a lHlnch of troublemakers, w hereas w e
37 Order and Progress
wcre litrle hcrocs thrown al a tender agc into rhe harsh srruggle for
cxiseencc." As "children o gooJ family," we "always fought like
breve warriors. Ar the t ime we didn'r havc the scnse to recognizc
thc worth o OUT cner nies. many of whom wcrc pursuing-and still
pursue- a worrhy coursc o acnviry.
"A mong my childhood companions, sorne o w hom have bceornc
scho lars and collcagucs. thc favontc divcrsions wcre hunting wit h
slingshors aod bows and arrows. fishing. swimming in the public
pool oc in rhe Bcl m and lvo rivers, and making t rips ro t hc ncig h-
boring quartcrs o Bigorrilho and Santa Fclicidade. Thcse rrips,
w hich rook considerable time, wcre usually made by playing
hockey. \ Vc were rhe terror o OUT parcms. not only becausc o f
our skipping school. bur also because of rhe dange rous garues w e
played and rhc sericus accidenrs in which rhcy ofecn resulrcd."
Other Brazilian inA uenccs nlsc wcre exertcd ro hclp Eraste in his
de-Gerrnanizarion. ''.\ Iy rcading oursidc schoo l consisred of T co-
T co [a comic book ] and rbc various almanacs popular ar the tim e.
l also read (he Caroc hinha stones' and larer Nick Ca rre r. Sherlock
Ilolmes, and Buffalo BiB, al1 of w hich were ver)' popular among
)'oungsrers. Pirare seories and R obinson Crusoc werc passcd from
hand ro hand. and rhose who couldn'r ger books co uld find consola-
ric n in hearing t hcse srorics told. ,\ I r first hero was Robinson Cru -
soe. wirh his cnchanring adv cnrures, hu t afr erward l went for rhe
detectives and rhcir batrl e againsr crime."
This was rhc pcriod whcn the spOrt of swimming moved from
rhe rivcrs ro the seaside. lt alsc marked the beginning of eleganr
bathing ccsrumcs: the men in st ripcd shirts and trou sers rcaching
almost ro rhe anklcs. rhe girls and women in severely dark, volu mi-
nous fl anncls which covered rhem from ncck ro ankle. These cos-
rumcs conrrasrcd srrongly wir h rhosc of thc days of river bathing,
w herc girls and women. undrcssiog in srraw barhhouscs ser in (he
water, somerimcs venrurcd bcy ond rhc Iimits of rhese houses and
were glimpsed swirnm ing nude by the sharp eyes of ado lescent
boys. A ntonio Jos da Costa R ibeiro ( b. Pernambuco, t 868) recalls
rhac in his childhood t here was a summer fel>tival period for ehil-
dren, with swimming in t he rvcr, partil'S, folk plays, dances. and
plays gi \'en on the riverbanks in the fashionahle quarters of "-lon-
tciro, Caxang. and Apip ucos. In his words: " In rny childhood,
A colk ct ion of ch ildrcn's ta les alJou! a coc k ruac h who marrk~ a mnU!ie.
(T ran. Jato r.)
 T be R epubc T wenty Vean A fter 37 '
most familics lived in t bc ciry during rhc 'wi nrer' [rhe rain)' scason ]
ami spem rhe sumrncr r nonths fro m Octchcr ro February on holi-
dar in thc cou nt ry..\ Iy parents mct, courtcd, and we re married in a
coum ry place callcd 1'0<;0 da Panela and never forgor this Hu le
town . T he rear before his death my fathcr passcd the summcr holi-
da)' in :m cld house in thc Lar go do ,\ t onreiro. H erc 1 can remem-
bcr Olany patries with swimming in rhc Capabaribe. wherc llcam ed
ro swirn. ofren crcssing rhe rivcr ar ood ride. T here werc thc littlc
barhhouscs, whcrc 1 ofren saw rhe girls bathing nudc, as 1 had ear-
lier in Casang . wh crc my grandparcnrs spent one summcr. .'.Ir
rccollccrions of childbood and adolcsccncc are principally of rhcsc
parrics at 1'0<;0 and '\lonreiro, of whar 1 saw and hcard befare being
ablc ro participare in Iact. T here was much socicry life in 'vl onreiro.
In thc upper rown rhcrc was a club which gavc dances on Saru r-
days, and in thc .' l onreiro s(luare there was a rhcarre in wh ich nor
only amarcurs but also thc travcling companics which visired Recife
ga\'c performanccs. T he festivals at rhc chape! of Sao Pantaleo
were elaborare and crowded. I also rcmember Poco da Pancla very
wcll, irs picturcsquc life and its patr ies. w here r ou could hear rhe
bcauriful voiccs of t he ladics and in thc corridors and patio of rhc
church you could sec so many prctry girls. . . . Ami 1 remember
t hc fun I bad riding atap thc carriages. in the so-callcd 'gallery ' as
on rhe Parisian buses. T hcn rbcrc was ene particular fest ival at Cha-
con, on rhc banks of rhc rivcr. wirh rhc house full of f riends ami
lively funmaking. T here was a lirtlc srage on wh ich rhe daughrers
of one of O1y farhcr's friends pcrfo rrncd ro music by thc Lisbo a
Brot hers. Everything wenr well umil rhe lasr da)'. when garecrash-
ers brokc in and frightcncd rhc pcrfc nners wirh th eir sbouts. In
addition ro Monteirc ami Poco. thcrc was also Apipucos, wh cre the
Bur le and D ubcaux families livcd and rhcrc werc O1any lively
}'oung people, There were goo d rclali ons wirh Ihe Brirish co lon}' in
A pipucos and a grear dea l of social acciviry . . . swimming during
Ihe dar and dancing ar nigh!."
Swimming and dancing were nor t he ,u nir fa\'orire amusements
of young pcople of rhe period ; rhey also look an almasr sport ive
imeresr in rhe rc\'ues at rhe rhearrc. A nrtmio Jos da ('..osra R ibeiro
rclls li S t har rhe boys divided iOlo ch eering secrions for rhe various
lady singcrs and rhae rhe co mpetitions nol infrequentiy plun'ged rhe
gallerics into a general 1Ir3\...I, wirh torn clorhcs and broken heads.
"1 remember one bend ir when rhere was much excitemen r," he reUs
 Order and Progress

uso " Fau sto Cerdoso, a ralcntcd boy who me t a tragic cnd in po li-
rics. bccame so enthusiasric he thrcw his har, his jacket. and fi nally
his scat un to rhc stagc in token of his ap prcciarion of rhc am sr."
Rcturning tu t he subjcct of drcss, Albert o de Paula Rodrigues (b.
Cear . 8Hz) says rhar in his yout h it was obligator)' for men of
sorne staru rc ro wcar a blac k railcoat, rall hato and sta rc hed collar.
As a family physician. " 1 nevcr em ered ahorne wirhout this fu-
ncrcal and un hygienic garbo l Iowever, rhere were so rne who, d ur-
ing rhc horresr part of t bc ycar, changed to whitc duck t rousers,
t hough retaining rhc railccat and high hato . . . T be sack suit was
considcrcd vulgar. to be worn only by clc rks and rcen-agcrs . Whcn
.\ IaIlUel V itorino, an illustrious physician and professo r of medicine
in Hahia, arrivcd in Rio from Enrope wcaring a sack suir and col-
ored shirr, he brought , scvcrc c riricism un himself. \Vhen he rricd t O
csrablish a practico in R io de j anciro he failed and died shortly
afrerward poor nnd forgortcn."
Ir is ro t he crc dit of the physicians. howc vcr. rhat through rhc
inir iarive of the Xl ed ical Club and D r. Gras a Como. rhcy bcgan a
campaign against "thc ridiculo us and ina ppropriare drcss'' of rheir
colleag ues in favor of rhe sim ple jacket wirhour vcsr worn by the
ordinarv mano Pcrhaps t his broughr t hem dow n ro rhe level of rhe
clcrks. but in facr rhe clcrks we re bccom ing indusrrialist and be-
ginn ing ro cxcccd rhc doctors in soc ial prestigc . Al any rare, rbe
professionals-cdoctors. cng inccrs, lawycrs-c-bcg an dressing like in-
d usrrialisrs. ahan doning pricst ly garb and imita ting the t ropical
En glishman. T here w as also a decline in rhe use o perfumes and
jcwclry so characrc risric of male elegancc in rhc ni netccnt h c cn-
turro and a sim ilar decline in th c cqually luxurious display of facial
hair.
Bur if Brazil passcd from Em pirc ro R epublic wit h irs mcn exces-
sivc in t hcir display of rings, jew cls, good tceth, and glirrcring pince-
111?2 , we ar ing perfume in rhcir hair ami beerd and on rhcir hanJs, ir
is not surprising rhar t his scan dalous orienralism in dress was evcn
m ore extreme among thc w ornen. Rarely did t he wifc of a rich Hra-
zilian of rhc periodo even for ordinary shopping. lea\'e her home
unless dr ipping w ith jewcls ami do used w ith perfume from head
to foot.
Dona A nttlllia Li ns Vieira de "l elo (h. Sao Paulo, R79 ) , w ho
grew up on a sllgar planrarion in t he nu rrhcast, reports rhar aH her
clothes fo r social wear w ere acqu ireJ in Paris-"bought ro order
 T he R epnb c T nsenty Y ears After 373

by Rec ife d rcssmakcrs." There wcrc hat s ami shocs from rhc same
ciry, togcrhcr with underclothcs "of rhc fi ncsr dclicacy and gcod
rasrc." As for jcwcls. shc prcferred largo diamond rings, broochcs
sruddcd wir h th c samc stone, and a gold necklacc with mcdallion or
jewcled crucifix. " 1 was particularly fond of diamonds," says Dona
A ntonia, "bur orhcr S((lOeS such as rubes or cmcralds were also used
ar rhc rime. The mountings for rhesc jewels werc varicd, bur one
ncted a prcfcrcncc fo r religious syrnbols, rhc Cross being particu-
larly in vogue. At times we wcre obligcd ro wcar rings o f white
metal w hich werc givcn us by fri ends and servants ('compddres' and
'comadres' ) ar thc festival of Santa Luzia. These gi fts could not be
rcfuscd." There wc rc some who sto ppcd wearing precious jewcls in
favor o f ri ngs of lesser valu "sirnply bc cause rhc larrcr had been
blcsscd by rhc pricst and had muc h mo re valuc ro a good Cat holic."
As fo r SpOrtS, D ona An rnia starcs rhat t he sportS o f t he mid-
rwcnricrh c en tu ry werc not currcnr in her rim e. l Ier o wn favo rito
was riding. " 1 spent r nuch time on horscback r iding fr om ene plan-
ration to anorher in visirs ro fr icnds and rclatives. \ Ve had goo J
horses in our stablcs, my farher always insisted on baving rhc best.
. . . Their harncss was mounred with silvcr, and thc sad dle w as of
rhe firsr qualiry. Such objecrs wcre nor bought in rhc markcr bur
sent o n order , m)' farher spared no expense in thcse mancrs.
Pcoplc at thc time preferrc d ro rravel on ho rseback . \\'hen the
w hole family had ro rravel and t hc rc wcre man)' c hild ren, an oxca rt
was uscd undcr the supervisin of the older membcrs o f the family,
bur even so, rhe head of rhc g rou p ami TIIoSt o f thc adulrs rodc ho rse-
bac k. ;\ Iy love o f ho rscs has alwavs been ver )' great."
In addiricn to ho rscba ck riding. sorne of t hc orhcr activiries cf
rhc period ar t hc w utcring placcs \vere rhe carri'lge rid e anJ the
croquet g amc. as 'w cll as Ri n ing and dancing the waltz o r t he p.Js de
qutltre, t he last fo r sorne reason know n in Bra7.il as footillg. These
\Vere the d iversions o f the rich, of c ourse. For )"oung: lad jes of mo re
modest means, spo rrs w ece less in favo r, ahhough sorne \'cnru reJ ro
ride a bicycle o r play tennis.
By rhe cn d of t he presidenc y o f V enceslau Brs many changcs
ha d t aken place in the d ai ly life o f the countr)', The R epublic had
pretty w ell re cove red from its ear lier ami-cl ericalism, alt hough
there \Vas still here and ther e a trac e o f J ac obi nism. (T he re was
even the d ramatic case o f a fed eral d epllty w ho entered the reli-
giOllS life afte r a m)'stic al experienc c in rhe legislarive c h:un bcr it
374 a rder nd Progres!

sclf.) O rhcr tbings had p ass ed also : rhc frock coat had disappcare d
cxccpr 0 0 rhe occasional individ ual ; rhc same could be said fo r rhe
rol' hat and thc horsc nnd carr iage, T he {mu re had faded into t he
past ; rhc R epu blic hall blendcd wirh rhe monarchy, fo rming a
single hisrorv. a Brazilian history . More than ene republican who
rer nembercd the romanric davs of t hc .\ Ianifcsto o Sao Pau lo
reachcd rhc end o rhar prcsidcncy sccing rhe rosy (m ure rhey had
envisaged now becornc one wirh rhe colonial, rbc Porruguesc. and
t he Im perial pericds o rhc nation al cxperience. while ocw furures
werc bcing quickly rransformcd inro t he present o
Nor rhar thc Rcpublic did nor nave t hc significance o a new
cxpcricnce for Brazil. Ir -ixas a new expcriencc. bur a som ewhat less
fcrvcnr onc (han its mosr ardcnt sll pport ers had look ed for, less
rhan the cxpcctations of a Silva j ardim or a Saldanha ,\ l arinho or
el-en a Prudente de ,\ Ioraes, a .\Iart ins jnior, or a Co clho Lisboa.
Contrary ro rheir expectations. thc Church had increased in pres~
rigc. T he int ensc rcpublican vogue for caricaruring Pedro 11 as
"Pedro Banan a" had fadcd, and the butr o f rhis sari re h ao virtuully
urraincd rhc srarure of a national saint, a saine " ..hom every Brazilan
incrcasingly rcgardcd as his own palron figure. Ben jamn Consrant
and his Posirivism had bccom e pass . by 1918 the doc tri ne hcld
little appcal for inrellecruals, rhc military, or rhe average man, and
was almosr wirho ur spokesmen in th e polirical arena. T hc ccm-
manding vcices of rhe pcriod were no longer thosc of intellectuals
likc Ben jamin or even Ruy Barbo sa. ratbcr, rhey were those of the
pragmatic down -ro-carrh Xlineiros and Paulisras who knew rhe po-
lirical game and were eno rm ously etfccrivc in t bcir efforts. Pinheiro
Xl achado, perhaps the last of rhe republican rom antics, was silent ;
rhc sociaiist ideas which had hegun ro arrive fr crn Europc held no
appeal: R uy Ba rbosa did nor interese t he )'oung and, dcspire his
erudition and vasr ralcnrs, hao begun ro look almosr like a menta!
defective alongs ide rhe practical energies of rhe pragm arists from
.\t inas G erais ano Sao Paulo .
Since rhe ead y yea rs of rhe cenrury, rhese pragmaric po liricians
had giv en a new and disconcerting examp lc of rhc techniques of
seare so cialism, as secn in the valorizarion of coffee, "rhar operarion
of su te socialism which is succeeding in spirc of rhe opinions of rh e
economisrs," as G eorges Clemenceau put it, ~ This Bralian innova 4
rion in socialism was perhaps rhe most importanr narional accom-
' O emenc eau: o p. CIt.,
. p. J 50.
 T be R epnbic Tsxenty Y ears A iter 375
plishment during rhc pcriod, [ollowcd by th e publica-ion o( O s
Sert es. rhe integraeion of Acre into rhc rcrrirorv of rhe Rcp ub!ic.
the victory of O svaldo Cruz against ycllow fcvcr, and rhc pioncer
fli ght o Santos Dumont. Such th jngs revealed a Brazil hitherto un-
suspcctcd by Europeans, a Brazil capablc of effccting a concrete
realization of thc mono of 1890; "O rder ano Progrcss." Progress
moderarcd, when ncccssa ry, by rhe exigc ncics of O rdc r, the Brazil-
jan cconomic and social ordcr. with cmphasis 0 0 rhc adjccrivcs eco-
nornic and social wirhin rhc general con cept of th e narional morro,
bur wirh evcn rnorc spccific cmp hasis on that all-importanr adjcc-
tive: Brazilian.
 ~[XII J~

The Chalknge of tlie TTOPics

T as a narional sy srcm o go\'crnmcnt responsi-

Il E .\ IOX ARC II Y,
ble for thc health o irs population, ncvc r directly and frankly
acccpt cd rhe chalJengc ro Brazilian civilization poscd hy rhc co un-
rry's d am p, tro pic al c1im atc. Ir rcmaincd fo r the R cp ub lie to t ak c
up t hc task rhc Empirc ha" always rricd ro avoid, rhat of acccpting
thc spc cia l problcm s of life in rhe rropics for whar rhcy were, rarher
rhan as nn imaginary cxrcnsion o a predominanrly European civili-
zarion.'
E ven aft er 1889. govemmen r hcalth programs were llar clearly
nationalisric. Various aspeets of such programs wc rc hybrid and
even cont rad ictor}': European mcrhods o prevcntion and cure
werc adaptcd ro a lirazilian cont exe. Somctimcs there was a con fu-
sion of met hods, wir h a c lash bet ween thc European and the Brazil-
ian ; somct imcs t he narive clem en ts wcrc unable re tolerare che im-
poned treatmcnt and had tu faU back on native met hods which
baffleJ and disrurbcd pliysicians of Europcan orienr arion. T be lcss
orrhodox, ho wcvcr, had sincc Im per ial t imes bccn arrcm pt ing [()
free Brazil from Europcan d rugs in favor of varic us nat ivc remedies
shown ro be as effec tive as imponed ones-c-pcrhaps cvcn more so
in thc case of illncsscs peculiar ro rhc Brazilian tropics. For chis rea -
son rhe qucstion of indigenous medicine is by no me ans an u nimpor-
tant scciological aspec cof the periodo
I T h i~ gc rlCfalizari" " do...s nor imply th ar nobody was intercsred in 'lucslons of
medicine and hvgtcnc bcforc thc co rning of the Rc public , such intercst existe d
even hcfore Bra;il bc camc an inde pcndent nation. llut, as Profcsso r X esto r D uarte
points out, it was an im cfe-;t pUT.ucd by privare per." "" an J not by Ihe go\'c rn-
m ento

37 6
 T be Cba/lenge of tbe Tropics 377
Fo r parasitic infcctions, doc tors uf t he pc riod cmploycd marcrials
che)' rcferrcd ro as "antizymotic ." In t he treatmcn t of c on tusio ns
t hey uscd iodoform solutions. bichlu n dc uf rnercury, and borre
acid. Hospitals of the t ime alweys rcckcd tc r ribIy of iodoform. For
sy philis. rhc crthodcx used merCllry and potassium iodide. Malaria
was treared with qui nine. Rabies. anthrax, and smallpcx werc p re.
venteo by vaccinario n. In ject ions were st ill rare ac che time. but at
che bcginning of the cemury this European rcchniquc was begin-
n ing 10 be used ag ainst syphilis. wit h thc eventual use of the G er-
man-dcvelopcd 606 and 9 1.f.
For anem ia. sc rofu la, cache xia, or rbeumatism, doc rors pre
scribcd iron, arsenic, aconire, ph osphorous, various oils. quinine,
linsccd. and wi nes. European wincs likc .\ lalag a or medic in al brcws
Iike qu inoga werc given to rhc ancmic and to convalescents, [he
manufacrurers making a spccia l effort to advernse tbe cffecriveness
of such products against thc diseases o f rhe tropics.
Prescriprions frequcntly had as rhcir hase nncrure of aconire, nux
vomica , calomel. jalap, ros cwater, belladonna. c astor oil, o range-
fl owcr syrup. and jabo rand i pepper. Ilousehold remedies inc1uding
sabugo ca ctus. chickcn hawk. watcrcrcss, and cirron. There wcrc
also unguents o f va rious so nso bumed in brazicrs to disinfccr rhe
sickroom. F or this purrose roselllary was o fte n uscd [ ir was also
used as a co ugh med icin e ) . Garlic was cmploy cd in poulriccs. an d
scldicrs hesiranr to cntcr combar oft en inrroduccd this subsrancc
inro rhe anus to produce fevc r and go on sick call." Anorher
rcmedy uscd as a scpricidc by such physicians as Xlesrrc Sousa Lima
of Bahia was erarobe, t he so-called "Babia powdcr." 3
Among rhc familiar houschold remedies of t he tim e was TUe, uscd
by midwives d uring labor t mercase rhc conrractilc power o f rhe
ut erus, and also du ring mcnsrruation . Fo r roothac hc ir w as commo n
p racricc ro use e le ves. Caraba was frcqucnrly uscd in therapeuric
barhs. Caiap was rhe purpativc mosr uscd by mor hcrs fo r rhcir
cbildren ami onc w hich rcc eived co nside rable medica! ancnncn, in-
cluding a doctoral thcss by J. .\ 1. de Castro and a study by Profes-
so r Gubler in Paris. At this time Brazil was also making ao elfart t

~ Utia~ A. da Sih eira : TI?T"p;1II ;c~ lI r..sil roJ (R io d c J~ n c iru, , Illl<, ), 11, 1411. See
aIro Ihe c haplers fln " Flora" and "C1 ilu, le ,nd D i~ase" in J. C. O akenfull: B... l
( Par s. 1909).
a Sih 'era: op. cil., H, I KI, s.:c al.o Ihe c hapler on "Le .\talat tie del Bra. He" (T ite
D iseases uf Brazi!) in Alfonso L"fl\onaco : A l JI ...ri/" (.\ t ilan, , IlRq ).
 arder and Progress

rcplacc poplar w ith im b41tl't'41 or trumpet trcc as rhe material for

therapcutic charcoal. since poplar had ro be imponed. w hile i1J1~
bau't'a exisred loeally in abundancc and was even available for
expon.' The same could be said of anothcr raw material-c-rubber
- which was used in Europc ro makc probes. nipple s. pessanes, clas-
tic stockings, dental pLHCS, and belrs anJ suppon s of all kinds. Ir
was also used for prophylacrics againsr venera] discascs.
Thc rnost fam iliar medicinal tea of the period was madc from
o range Jcavcs and used for toorhache. headachc. and head colds,
and also scrvcd as a scdative and soporific. J/ aracuj juico was uscd
too for rhis purpose. Beribe ri was rreared wi rh barhs madc from
pitanga leaves, and a lemonade madc from tarnarind was employ cd
as a laxarivc. l pecac. castor oil, and rinct ure of aconite, according ro
physicians of thc time. rnadc up " rhe baste medicines for thc rnajor-
ity of fa nncrs and their wives in Brazil." the firsr having a wide
variery of uses. bcing employed againsr indigestin. gasrric disrurb -
ances. biliousncss. malaria! fevcrs. ryp hcid. yellow fever, diar rhea.
bronc hitis, hcmopr ysis, and poisonings." l pecacnanba, the sourcc
material of ipe cac, was exponed almosr exclusively tO England,
whence Brazil receivcd ir back in medicinal form " ar exorbitanr
price. subiecr ro a high rate of exchange." According t Urias A. da
Silvcira, a railroad line from Rio ro .\ fa to Grosso, rhc source arca of
pecacuonbs, would end this fi nancia! abcrration and permir local
disrribution of ipecac at low priccs. \ \'as ehis a matrer of British
exploiration> Far from ic; mercly Brazilia n ncglccr. A neglcct which
extend ed ro otbcr ameles manufacrured in Europe from Brazilian
raw marcrials, ameles which. wirb a linle effon, could have bccn
sysrcmarically r nanufacrured or produccd on Brazil ian soil.
Since rhe \'Ogue for bleeding as a remedy srill survivcd, various
sorts of clysters were in use: purgarives. sedarives, diuretics, caus-
rics, febrifuges, stirnulanrs. cmollicnrs. Sorne were mcchanical and
employed syringcs made of rubher, learhcr, metal, or glass. Orhers
were dietar)' ( for digcsnvc ailmcnts) and irwclved brorhs. toast, or
mear acccrnpanicd wit h w hire wi ne.
Purgarivcs were uscd ro exccss. as were remcdics for \\'onns,
which in sorne families were admin istercd at regular periods ro all
membcrs of rhe family, black and v.'hite. master and servams. as a
pan of the annual routinc of exisrence. The damp night air was
grcad y fcared. as were rhc so-calle "miasmas" of swampy arcas.
4 Si1veira : op. cit ., 11. 37""9-
~ Ibid. TI. 594.
 T be Cbailenge of tbe Tropics 379

During rhis period rh e country was ovcrrun from nor th ro sout h

by illust ratcd ad verti scmenrs fo r patem medicines which bccamc as
important as rice. beans, dricd bcef, and c hicken son p in th c na-
ricnal dier, and whicb. likc those foo ds. bccamc unifying elemenrs
in rh c national culture. Sorne of rhesc familiar producrs were Scotr's
Emulsi n, Eli xir de ~ogueira , A Sa dc de :\lulhcr ( Fcm alc
H calrh ), Bromil, Reutcr's Scap. T he prescriprion. t har onhod ox
and almosr pricsdy form ula, be gan ro be repla ccd by rhcse manu -
facrured an ides. and rhc presrige of rbc pbarmacisr, o nce cqual al-
most ro rhar of rhc physician, bega n ro decli ne as he bccame more
ami more (he sellcr of indu strializcd drugs. T here was cven a de-
cline in rhe so-called "medical band writing." rhar secret scraw l
which formcd a so n of ,\ !asonic bond bet ween rhe one w ho pre-
scribc d and t hc one who mystcriously prcpared rhc remedies.
Thc pcriod also marked t hc beginning of cont ro l ovcr discascs
which umil t hc t wcnticrh cenrury had rakcn a grear toll of rhc Bra-
zilian population . smallpox, yellow fc vcr. c hol era rno rbus, bubonic
plague, tuberculosis. This c ontrol w as ac hicvcd largcly through
bcrter hygiene. borh public and private. in rhe interio r as well as in
rhc capital citics. Distinguished pbysicians Legan ro warn Brazilians
against (he danger of seeking cures for ser ious diseases only in the
pharmacics, when rhe pruper defense againsr most diseascs. child-
hood and adult, lay principally in rhe obscrvat ion of proper by-
giene. Family doctora, w ho enjoyed almcst clerical presrige d uring
rhe period, made an effort ro advisc sedentary pefSons, parricularly
cldcrly c irizens and ciry d wcllcrs in ge neral. ro ger m ore cxercise in
[he open air: walking, swimming, and gymnas ric exc rciscs." This
ad vice w as cm phasizcd in t hc case of child rcn of consum prive par-
ents. lympatics, o r those affectc d by rickcrs, scrofula. o r o bcsity.
Acc ording ro Urias. evcry Brazilian m ano woman. and child should
exercise "ar leasr three hours a da)' in direcr exposure ro the sun." 7
H e pan icul arly rccor nmcnded " rhyrhmic walkmg" and rh c single
and dou ble trapel'.c.
1Iy d rot berapy w as also givcn imporranr cmphasis. and became

~ FOf in{ormarion on the Iarnily d oc to r du ring the pcriod, scc Chaprer XXIII u{
Ot v io de Freitas: ,\lcdicin4 t Crmumts do Recife Amigo t Reeife, '90H ). Freit:l.S
srates that the fam ily doc tor w as a co mb inad on of "midwife, pediatrician. surgeun.
ocuiist, and even geriatris t" and that in him "the pal ienl foun d an inteU igent coun-
s.c: lor an d friend."
7 Silveira: o p. cit ,. 1.598, See also A n,nio .\la nins de Azevedo P imentel : Sub.
sidios p m l o ES/liJ o d.:l Higiroe do Rio de /aneiro ( Rin dc Janeiro , J8<o l.
] 80 arder and Progress

very much in vogue. Rivcr swimming was rcplaccd by sea bathing,

which was prcscn bed by many physicians for digesrive disorders
ami malaisc in general. Thc bcsr rime of day fcr rhesc barhs was
bctwecn five and scvcn in rhe mo rning. Persone suffcring from
weakncss should follo w thc ir swim wirh a glass o pon or liqueur.
T he d rink ing of minera l warcrs ar rhc spas o Laruba ri. Campanha,
Baepcndi, Caldas, and aboye all Caxambu was also popular, and
Brazil bogan to com pete wit h t hc so-called "hy drological riches'' o
Francc. Germany, Port ugal. and Italy . If in 1889 rhere were srill
on lv an insigni ficam numbe r o visitors to rhcse spas, mosrly in rhe
srate of ,\ Iinas G erais, rhc facr is rbat as early as 1871 an Imperial
commission had srudied thc warcrs of Caxambu and Lambari and
had concluded rhat t hey were in no \vay inferior to rhe waters cur-
remly being imponed frorn abroad." The effccr of rhcse local
waters in rhc rrc armcnr of ailments had also been srudicd before
1889. and rhey had becn pronounccd uscful in srimulating rhe appe-
tire and aiding rhc digesrion. In some cases. pcople using these
w arers had dcvclopcd such appet jtcs t hat ir became necessm)' to
"advisc prudcnc e and moderat ion" in their consumprion."
Thrcc-quartcrs of rhc first visitors ro Caxambu we re suffercrs
from dvspcpsia, but nor a fcw of rhc othcrs according ro medica!
resrimony of rhe pcricd werc rroubled w irh liver discases, includ ing
some in t hc third statc of syphilis. Suffcrcrs frurn other common
tro pical ailmcnrs suc h as colonic catarrh. amenorr hea, leucorrhea,
gall bladder t roublc. enlargement of rhe prosrare, kidncy stone,
scrofula, anemia. malarial malaiscs. hcmorrhoids, female cloro a-
ncmia. and infiammat ion of rhc womb also soughr solace in the
water c ure, along w irh shower baths, exercises in t hc open air, and
the introduct ion of rarc mear, el!p, and fi ne white wine into the
dicto
:":O[ only members of rhc maste r c1ass were sent ro rhc spas of
Alinas, servants wcre also ordered tbcre for rreat mcnr. "A slave
from a plaotarion in Coraco do Rio Verde [ .\ tinas I consulrcd us,"
says one physician of rhe periodo "We prcscribed w ater wirh high
iron content, along wir h Bravais, dn iron prepa ration. Ir w as a liver
obsrr ucrion case, wirh the whole panoply of symproms. The c ure

~ Sil \"ei r~:

o p. cit., 11, 60. For references lO fo..d hy giene see Auve"" Pimentel:
op. cil.. Ch~rter IV. Also M'C Milfiio Bi\'at: FIQr~ BrilJileir~, Plm rM .\ tedje/PUlir
( Recife, ' 93' ) .
ti Sil n~in: op. cit., n, 68.
 T bc Cha/lel1ge of tbe Tr opcs
was rapid." 1 ,\ Ian)' docrors of the turn of rhc eenmry also bclievcd
rhat, in curing lympharic or scrofulous cases through rhe use of
mineral water, rhcy we rc prc vcnring the "almost inevitable
consequcncc of t hcsc diseases.' namely. tuberculosis. T uberculosis
during rhis pcriod conrinucd ro be "the despair of cnti re familics,"
many of which wcrc annually "drivcn to tears and dcsperarion" by
rhe infccrion of one of thcir mcmbcrs. The watcrs of Arax were
considcred parricula rly cffccrive in the rreatmcnr of "incipicnr tu-
herculosis. " Thosc of POfJOS wcrc prcscribed for ehronie bronchitis.
N ccdless to sayo rhe hydrothcrapy above was nor a form of
magic, rhc regimen of a warc ring place also played a highly impor-
rant pan in the cure. Su tferers from plcrhora. gom, kid ncy sronc,
or hcmorrhoids, for cxample. had ro omit or resrricr rhe red rncat in
rheir dicr. T hc lyrn pharic. or ancmic, on the orher hand, were pUl
on a rieh dice: red mcars, eggs. milk. Exercisc-c-riding, walking,
gymnastics-c-was alsc pan of the cure. Ladies were madc ro p Ut
asido their corscrs, men had to wear suspendcrs-e-nevcr belts.
Evcryone had to dress warmly, wirh fla nnel shirts and wool stock-
ings. ,\ lodera[ion in all pleasurcs was [he rule, and principally in
smoking, drinkin g, and gambling.
"T hcre are patienrs." wrcrc Vrias in 1889, "who spcnd their time
playing cards in a ccnfined space recking with cigarerte and cigar
smokc; orhers indulge in vigorous dancing soon after mcals and not
infrequenely bring 00 pulmonar)' or cerebral congcsrions, or neu-
ralgias, in t he case of ladies who are suffering from diseascs of thc
urerus. Even loud co nversation and prolonged rcading are undcsir-
ablc." 2
Castor oil was " rhc prcvailing lnxarivc in Brazil: 2 0 ro 60 grams."
Ir was considcred a safe ami sure remcdy without t he irrirarion or
subscq ucm consriparion that so freq uenrly accompanied doses of
salts. Repulsivo to rhc rasre, ir was ofrcn raken in capsules or in
coffce, chickcn or becf brorh, liquors, oc in preparancns of garlic or
cloves. lt was also given tu women jUS[ before oc during labor and
was prized by rnorhcrs for irs virrues in combaning worms. Ir was
used by persons of all classcs in all pans o the coun[ry and rhus
formed one more elemenr in promoring [he narional unity, a fa cto r
whose importance should not be undercstimared,
llbid., p. 8.1. For [be hum~ n ~n d social cond itions o convalescence ~nd t est
cure in th is period Sl'e O akenfull : op. elf ., Chapl:er XIX.
2 Silvein : op. cit., H, 1"9.
 arder and Progress
If Hrazil confrontcd rhe ehallenge of t he rrcpics chicfly with
method s of public bygicne. ir would srill he unfair ro discounr rhe
conr ribution of medicines and drugs (both imponed and narve)
toward rbar purpose. Ncr should the cffort s of individuals he over-
lookcd, with rheir drivc for personal hygiene, domesric cleanlincss,
and thc proper use of homc remedies, all uf which rcccivcd consid-
erable dcvclopmcor during this periodo
Somcrimcs rhe lndianism rcflccrcd in thc \'ogue for rhc novels o
Ale ncar extended to a corrcspooding cnt husiasm for lndian foods
and remedi es. Filipc X cri Cclaco, in a book on dom csric hygiene
publis hcd in 1883, pointe d out that in the r nancr of dier, Brazilians
should remcmbe r thar. "like rhe Arabs and Indians, we livc in rhc
rropics." and should rbcrcforc he moderare in thc use of "far, oily ,
or bcavily swccrcncd'' foods and wincs." In rhcir place he recom-
mcndcd tapioca roots, manioc cur. arrowroot, vams, breadfrui r,
nnd bana nas, all indi pcnous and nourishing foods. Nor did he rejecr
rhe employmem of cert ain indigenous drugs and nat ive remedies.
In the principal cirics of Brazil various medical spccialisrs began
ro appear: denrists, surgcons, obsrerricians, oculisrs. Thc " American
dcnnsr" became an insriturion in Rio de j aneiro, Sao Paulo. R ccife.
and crhcr prog rcssivc cenrers. Evcn an Engl ishman like D r. R aw-
linson of R ccfc sryle d himsclf an " American denrist," though in
facr he was more Brazilian than American or Brirish in his propen-
siry ro play rhe num bcrs game instead of devorin g hirnsclf ro bis pro-
fcssion. N cvcnheless, not a few Brazilians studied odonrologv , in rhe ~

Unircd Statcs and returncd as full- fl cdgcd " American dcnrisrs."

,\ tost Hrazilians of rhe rime, cvcn those in rhc ciries. cleancd rheir
recrh wir h wood or cigarenc ashes or with nigbtshadc. afre r w hich
rhcy gargled wirh boric acid. l r w as nor until the toorbpaste Od ol
appcarcd, wirh accompanvinp advcrrising and profcssional rccom-
mendeeions, thar rhe middle class bc gan to abandon crude t radi-
rional dental marcrials.
Boric acid was also used widely as un er e barh, bur it too was
replaccd by manufactured anides such as Colirio \ l oll ra Brasil.
Maura Brasil, an oculisr, was perhaps che mase celebrared medical
man o his time. Orher imporr:lt1t doctors o the perioJ w ere T orres
Homem ami che Baron de Pctrbpolis, among rhe clder generarian,
and Silva Lima, ;\ Iiguel Couro. Francisco de Casrro, Silva Arajo,
Ant6nio Austregsilo, Osvaldo Cruz, and '\figucl Percira among
3 Filipe S cri Cu b r;o: O Com elbro d.J f.Jmili.J B r~ J lrirol (Rio de Janeiro. 1883) .
 T bc Cballellge o( tbe Tropics ;8;
rhc Yllllnger meno"lhcrc was also V ital Brasil, foundcr of an insriru-
non rhar soon bccamc world-famous: [he Burantan, alehough pre-
vious work wirh snakc-bire poisoning bad bccn done by j oo
Barisra de Laccrda, director of rhc X arionalMuseum, "who discov-
crcd rbe anridoric acrion of potassium permanganate on sneke bite
and won a stare prizc of 30 eolitos rhc rcwirh. " 4 Urias also bclieved
in the efficacy uf a ccrtain burronwccd in combatting snakc bite in
any stage of thc infcction, w hethe r adminisrercd orally, rccrally, or
by injcct ion.
At rhis rime, muc h was madc of thc virtucs of mst , which was
considcrcd superior tu East Indian teas rom e\'cry poinr of view,
parricularly fo r consurnption for tropical co un t rics. Evcn G reat
Britain carne ro rccommcnd thc use of nuu for rbe troops in irs
tropical cclcnies. a dirccrive which rcsulrcd in considerable bcnefir
ro Brazilian fina nccs." Orher rcfreshing drinks laudcd as healrhful
and appropriate ro tropical living werc J{uilrilll, praised parricu-
larly by the sagc Lus Percira Barrero. Jfa ; and cs u, for which
[he physician Cosm de S Pcreira was thc principal advocare.
During this pe riod mcdical hygi cnisrs bccame more crirical of an
over-Eu ro pcan manncr and style of drcss on rhc pan of middlc-
class Brazilians. Such overdrcssing was t hc cause of much ill-hcalrh,
rhey decl ared, alt hough rhcy conrinucd ro rccornmend annel
d othing for [hose who suffered from chcst or abdomin al disorders.
Furtbermore, in the win rer, parricularly ar nighr, no agcd person
should be indoors wirhour his silk or wool srccking cap. Felr hars
were [ O be uscd outdoors. From [he age of rwclve, suspenders
rarher rhan consrricring bclrs shculd he worn by men, while
women shoul d use elastic girdles in prcference ro rigiJ corsees. T he
fecr should alway s be kcpr wnrm: "head cool, waist free, feer
wa rm."
In rhis rransirional era, ccrrain aspects of medicine indicarcd [he
sharp cont rast bct ween rhc old and rhc ncw. Leeches and blcedings
we re still crnploycd. yet elccr rcrherapy had beco uscd generally
since about 1879, at lcast in rhc citics. One o thc pioneer clecrro-
rhcrapisrs was T oms de Carvalho, whosc rrearmcnr includcd elec-
tri e barhs as well as dry applicarion .
Anothcr conrrasr was secn in thc rapid growth of public hygicne.
In 191 9. in a publication cclebra ting t hc one hundredth ann ivcrsary
4 Silvetra: o p. cit., JI, 75.
r. Ch:>rles \ V. n " mville_Fife: T b.. Uni,..d !at n of 9ra:iI (Lnndon, ' 9' 0), p. 11 5.
 Order and Progress

of {he N ational Academy of .\ledicine, Alfredo N ascimento

poinred out rhe "velociry" wirh which Brazil had raiscd irself ro rhe
status of a modem c ivilized natinn in irs program of medic ine and
hygie nc. Ile citcd thc dcvelopmenrs in saniration, in ambulancc and
emergen cy serviccs, in laboratories and polyclinics, and in instirutes
to combar typ hoid ami smallpox. an d parricula rly singled out rhe
adminisrrarion of Prcsidenr R od rig ues Alves as a period of espe4
cially inrcnsc progress." Credit for a g reat deal of rhis program, o
course. goes en rhc R cpublic, hur sincc Imperial t imes, privare indi-
viduals also had playcd rheir part in helping ro bring Brazilians inro
grcate r harmony w irh rhcir t ropical living conditions. Thus visiring
foreigners Iike Lambcrg could advise Europeans in Brazil thar. in
rhc c ase o ycllow fevc r or otbcr t ropica l diseascs. rbey would be
wise to consulr a Brazilian physician in prefcrcn cc ro a Europcan.
In domcstic bygicnc, rbc period was still complicated by a vcry
clase relariooship bcrwccn man nnd bc est, a rclarionship w hich en-
coura gcd rhc prcsence o f al! sorts o insccr ami animal pesrs. Thcre
were many rnosquirocs. chiggers. ants, and fl ies bo th wirhin and
around rhe houscs an d in the ya rds anJ garJens. The cartle had
ricks. sheep, borses. dogs. cnts, and caged hirds were full of fleas:
t he yards were overrun wirh bars, buzzards. spiders. lizards, roads,
and becrlcs. and the houses fult o cockroachcs. Orher domcstic ani-
rnals, pigeon s, ducks, chickcns, and turkeys. attract ed rats. with thc
col1seq llent dangcr o bu bonic plag ue, and domesric nonpoisonous
snakes werc ofren used in con junct ion wit h cats ro kcep dow n the
rod en r popul arion. Inr ensive warfarc was wagcd ag ainst mosqui-
toes; rhanks t o Osvaldo Crux. wh o was known as " D r. ;\ losquiro -
Killcr" (Dr. M ata-Mosquito) . grcar m ides wc re made in control-
ling carriers o yellow fevcr.
"No marrer how clean rhe houscs are. they are ncvcr free from
cockroachcs, " wrote Lambe rg al rhe cnd of the ninereenrh c emu ry.
"Thesc pests are cspcciallv nu mcrous in cld an d di rry houses, bur
yon can also sec rhcm in rhc anics of rhc ricb." They c hewed
evcry thing except metals; llothing w as spared : clothillg. leather,
hooks. o r papers, infl icting Jamage that often r eached serio us p ro-
porrions. Lamberg note d th:H the)' even "ate the pomades in the

~ Alfredo :-':~sc imento , O CerJI ell.irio J . Academia ,V acional de M ediein.:r. l'ri_

m rrdioJ e Ewlur.iu da M eJicina 1/0 Br.1Ji/ (O ri;(iJlJ .:mJ Develuf1lwnt uf .\ledicillt
in Rra:U) (Ri" de J~m' iru, ' 919 ),1'1" " 7- 19. See ~I,o l eo n dio Rihe;ro : A J fedi_
cin.1 no fJraril (Riu de J omeiro, "'~O ).
 Tb e Cbalenge of tbe Trop cs

hair of slecping pcoplc." T .\ Iany pornadcs and salves werc in use ar

rhc rime, both for rhe carc of lile hair ami bcard ano for rbe trear-
ment of skin eruprions ano abrasions, ami thcrc werc often licc in
rhe hair, nor only of women of thc poorer classcs, bur also of rhe
well-to-do.
Aga inst rhese r nultiplc pests various dcfcnscs wcre employed .
Py rcthrum was uscd againsr fleas in middle-class homes. but on th e
planrarions a solution made from psmcari (Brazilian minr) was
placed in various " am of the housc. Flypapcr kept down rhe fly
population, and arsenic was used against tcrmires. The policing of
gardcns and yards was still considcrcd rhe bc sr mcthod of mosquito
control, a prccedure ro which many added a smudgc of cumin. As
for rhe rars, ir was not suffi cicnr re consign rhcm to rhc tender mer-
ejes of cars tasrcfully named ,\ timi or Fanny, oc evcn Noble (F j-
dalgo), Pasha. or Duke, they were also poisoned wirh a mixture o
limc and fluur, which caused them ro swell up and die,
T ;\!au rici o Lamberg: () Bra sil, pp. 21 -J .
 ~[XIIIJ~

Tite Restoraiion Movenzent

S TRAl"GE AS IT MAY SEBI , rhe fi rst decades o rhc prescot ccn-

rury in Brazil were marked by rhe paradox o a rnonarchisr
restoranon mo vcmenr, subsc ribed ro by very inrclligcnr men de-
spiec rhe tapio u rbanixarion ano indusrrializarion and rhe waves o
European i mmigrarion rhar had madc for rapid progress since rhe
late years of t hc Em pirc. T he crux o this movemenr was rhc "so-
cial question, " an issue consisrenrly ignored by rhc rcpublicans.
Thus a situaran arase in which rhe "innovarors," thar s. rhe repub-
licans, wcre forced ro rakc th e defensivo against tbe monarchisrs,
w ho suddcnly passed from a son of archaic Sebasrianism ro assume
a modem. aggrcssive, and cven rcvolurionary posirion 0 0 t he poliri-
cal and cconomic sociology of rhc pcriod.'
Can it be th ar young republieans laek ed any k ind of recepriviry
ro th is SO l'( of revol urion> ~ Cen ainly rhe problem of th c participa-
rion of labor in rhc organizarion

and direcrion of narional Iife was
never brougbr inro focu s by any republ ican leader, and ir remained
for a grandson of Ped ro 11, a champion of t he apparently archaic
cause of monarchism. ro define the sit uation in polirical and socia-
I Seba'itianism is a c ult fo unded upnn a sixteentb-century Port uguesc king who
dtseppe ared while on a military campaign in N orth A frica. Followers of Ihis cu lt
befiev e thar Seba_tian ncver died but will rerurn 10 his pecplc in a momenr of
nee d. T he samc son (lf lcgend l1"urishcd ar onc time in England concerning King
A nhur. (Translaror.)
2 The stateme nts collected seern 10 indicare thar so rne were at leaSI vaguely
rece peive 10 such a program and were willing 10 go alon g with Pinheiro ;\hchado
or anot her j oaquim Nabuco in suc h a mo vcmcnt. Iln the origin al te xl. rhe autho r
includcs .p deposincns at this poinr. Since most of rhern are rath er noncomminal,
they have heen omitted h (lm th e !tan,laton. (Translator.) 1
,86
 T be Restoraton .\1ove1J1/?11t
logical rerms. Bur rhc tru th is (as alrcady emphasizcd tlIallY times)
thar during rhc fi rsr two or rhrce dccades of rhc Rcpublic rhere was
no poliricallcader who accordcd the "social quesnon " rhe vigorous
emphasis ir was givcn by j oaquiru Xabuco duri ng hs great days as
depury from Pernambuco in thc Imperial Chambcr. Lauro Sodr"
perhaps could havc bcen rhe successor to Nabuco in this respect,
bur he lacked not only rhc ralent. wisdcm. voicc. and charisma of
rhc aurhor of O A boticionnno, bur also rhc necessary spirir and
enfightcnmenr. Amon g thc political fi gures of esrablishcd presngc.
Pinheiro .\tachado, norcd for his quict cffccrivencss rather than for
legislanve display, was in virtuallv rhe ideal situation ro bccorne a
sort of "conservarivc revolutionary" over th c "social question." But
if Pinhciro did not lack thc requisito enlighrenmenr. he did lack al-
lies in this diffi culr advenrure whi ch, if succcssful. could havc ele-
vared the gacbo lcadcr ro the starure of a truc statcsman. j oo
Barreta, in his book Estado do R o de [ancira: A spectos Polticos e
EC01101llicos sratcs thar Pinheiro "tachado "was an exceprional ty pe
of 6ghrer. B is lcadership was not rhat of rhc strong man of rhe
pampas ." H e was a "good d iscipli naran," but he lackcd ideas ami
had no sensc of social issucs on whicb ro exercisc rhis discipline.
Insrcad he drearned of rhc da)' when he cou ld "put aside rhe toga"
and don rhc " po ncho of rhc J{o1lcho" as a son of Brazilian cquiva-
lenr of T hcodorc Roosevelt.'
[t is a pity rhar rhc Pinhciro ,\ Iachado who in 19 10 proclaimed
himsclf bcfore rhe Senare of thc Rcpublic as being sensible uf " rhe
righrs of rhosc w ho work, those who slavc. thosc of humble
origin," rights which had bcen "forgonen in rhis regimc of incqual-
iry," should noncrhelcss havc lackcd the intellccrual vigor ro rurn
rhis scnsibiliry inro pclirical acrion." Wth his prestigc and his 110n -
demagogic pcrsonaliry. he could ha ve rcndered rhis innnrion juro
posirive sociallegislarion. which already exisred in concrete fon n in
U ruguay and Argentina, and rhc lack of which had so unfavorably

3 A disciple of Ikn jamin Cnn, rm r ao d mo denre gm ernur uf Par who, in 1 ~ !lQ.

tried to avo id rhe rebd lion of his p rm -ince againsr he ne", ly proclairoed rep ublican
regime . (T ranslaro r.)
4 l oao Barreto : Eu"do do Rio de Janeiro: A l pCC roJ PolticOJ e 1'; co II';lI/icoJ
( R o de Janeiro, 191 ; ), p. ' 4.
~ Femn <l spcech rcc orde d in rhe A nJ d o Conf!;resso !\'" cio'tiJI. For a pa;os-
taking aec ount uf wh at hapX'ned in rhe u me CongTess ;n cn nn eerinn wirh the
l oao Candido rcvolr, !>ce JlY.> Carlus de Ca rvalh,,: O tit'ro da ,Ui nh" V id" (R o
de J ane ro, 1912 ), p p. .1<)9-410.
 arder and Progress
m pressed borh Clcmcnccau and Farbcr Gare. Brazilian labor Iaw s
similar ro rhosc of irs soutbcrn neighbors would undoubrcdly have
attracred rhc fiowcr of European immigrarion afrer rhe closc of rhc
Firsr \Vorld \ \ 'a r; instead. thcse immigranrs chose ro go ro Argen-
tina and. evcn more, ro t he Uruguay of Banle y O rdoez.
Paradc xically, ir was Prince Lus de Orl ans-Braganca w ho.
from his Parisian cxile. bccame thc pionccr of [he starc sccialisrn
advocared carlicr by rhe Posirivisrs bur reduccd ro insignificance
undcr rhc program of ext reme economic libcralism of rhe provisional
governme nr and Ruy Barbosa. Joao Lu s Al ces, Alcindo G uana-
bara, and, cspc cially. G ilberto Amado ( ro narne onl y rhree inrellcc-
ruals esrcer ncd by Pinhciro M achado for tbcir high intelligence)
could well have forced pan of rhis conscrvarive social rc vol urion ro
afford cffcc rivc prorccrion ro thc Brazilian laboring class at a t ime
when tbe situation in Brazil was srill fle xible and adaptable ro social
tncasurcs so rcccnrly triumpham in Europc. Suc h a rcvolurion, di -
rectcd by Pinheiro ,\ ta chado, would clcarly have been uscful for
lile dcvclo pmc nr nor only of indust ry but also of ag r iculturc w irbin
[he framcwork of a na rional economl'. In a recenr biogra phy of
Pinheiro Machado. Profcssor Costa P rto said rhat " he [Xlachado ]
could have bc cn a supcrb lceder of th c masses at a t ime when rhese
masscs had not at raincd thcir porcntial strcngrh" ; and he arrribured
his failure ro do so ro thc sim ple [acr rhat Pinhciro ,\ Iac hado pre-
fcrrcd " ro cmploy trickcry, direc ting rhc pcoplc throug h a panl'
which was nor hing more rhan a legal fi cnon." ro
lt would perhaps havc been the du ry of t bose imellccruals,
backed by the aurhontarian Pinheiro, ro sysrc ma rize his ideas oro
bert er, his in ruirions, giving rhcm t he logical form of a polirical phi-
losophy lending to rhe upgrading of rhe working class w hic h, in
Pi nh ciro's own words, had beco "so forgoncn" in t his " rcgim e of
incqualiry." Thar rhis sysrema rizaricn did nor rake place secms ro
havo bc cn lcss rhc aulr of Pinheiro [han of thc int ellccru als thcm-
sclves, and parricoalrly of rhc l'oung est and r nosr persuasi\'e of
t hem. Professor G ilberto Ama do. Dnc of the most cle arhcaded ami
intelligent m en of his generation. But not one of [he m conce rned
himself w ith [he subject, enn under the provocadon of Cleme n-
ceau's criticism, :\,()( one o ffcred ro serve as guide [O the blindness
of a pcrsp icacious but ign orant leader. Kot one was preparcd to
8 Q...!a P(; n o : l 'j1/bei,o ,H;tchlldo C Sel< T cmw-Tentllri1:11 Ji' lnt l'TfWc/llf o cRio
de Jand to, ' 95 ' l , p, " 4'
 Tb e R estorat on A!o't:cmcnt

cl arify a problem which rcquircd thc cnlighrenment of pcrson s

vcrsed in sociology, as well as in finance and ju nsprudcnce, and in
addinon ro rhis enlig hrenmcnr rhc abiliry ro act as m nences ;r;riscs
in rransl ating such kno wlcdge inro a plan of ac tion for rhc charis-
maric, if somewha r rudc sourhem leader.
And so ir was Princc D on Lus, wir h his manifest pu blisbcd in
rhc lJirio do Congresso Nec onat on A ugusr 17, ' 9 13, who COUf;l-
geously andlucidly poscd the "social qucstion" which alarmcd re-
publicans of rhc old guard w hile rhc Senarc was busy conrcsring rhc
appointmcm o f ,\1 anuel de O livcira Lima ro t he Brirish Legat ion in
London 00 the grounds rhar thc aurhor of Sept .11 m de RpubIiquc
I1U Br s bad rurncd dangc rously mo narch ist.

This manifesro was no inn oc uous doc umento In ir the Princc de-
clared: "Wirhout cncouraging my fricnds ro violence. much lcss ro
an always disasrrous civil war, I hope rhar. when thc momcnt
comes, we monarchists \ViII kn ow ho w to follow rhc manir cou rse
necessary fo r the coumr)"s salvarion." A nd he pointcd ou t rhar t hc
monarchical regimes of Europe wcrc disringuishing rbcmselves by
rheir inrelligcnt and cffcc rivc protccrion of [h e working class. a pro-
gram w hich wou ld be pursucd by t hc restored Empire in Brazil and
which would show rhar Em pirc as capablc of bcing more mo dcrn
than [he presem Repuhlic. In a scnsc, rhc manifesro of D om Lu s
was rcviving thc words of j oaqu im N abu co, who had wamcd the
Empirc of t his problem bcfore rhc pronunciarion of N ovcrnbc r 15
had removed him from rhc polirical sccne and replaccd him with
preachers of cr her polincal religions.
T o rhis bold ch allenge on [he pan uf a past rhac rhrearened ro
rcsuscirat c itsclf in t he form of a more sociall y advaoccd fut ure, rhc
Positivist mission in Brazil respo nded with irs Pam phler 350. per-
haps the mosr signiticanr of a series co nraining such ntles as "Leve
of Princi pies Bascd un O rder," "Progrese as an End," "To U ve for
Othcrs," "Te Livc Enlghrcncd." Wrin en by R. T cixeira ,\ t cnJ es,
Pamph ler 350 appearcd in R io de j anciro in 19 13 ("Year CXXV of
th c F renc h Rcvolution and Ll X of [he :-':omlal Era" ) unJer t hc
title O lmprio Brasi/eiro e 11 Repblica Brasileira perl11Jte a Regen-
era~iioSocial ('FIJe Rrazilian Empire alld tIJe Rr, li.1Il Republic
Confro m ed by lhe QlIestioll of Social ReKelleratiol1 ). T his rcpuJ i-
ated the accusat ion of Prince D om Lu s that t hc R epub lic had
failcd ro com ply with [he social aspects o its program through its
inability ro raise tseH ahovc thc eonfl icts o f special interests. O n
39 Order and Progress
pagc 30 of t his important dccumcnr in Brazilian labor history,
Teixeira .\ tcoJ es wrir cs: "Thc r nosr complete fraterniry has bccn
ac hicv cd borh among Braailians and wirh orhcr pccples, w herever
thcv ma), be. T hc coming o rhc Rcpublic w as ncccssary in o rdcr ro
enahle thc free prolc rariar to eme rge from rhc oppressive simarion
in which ir fo und irsclf in Hraxil. In facr, (lile of rhe firsr acts of rhc
rcpublican rcgime wns ro cstablish annua l vacarions for w o rkers
similar ro rhosc enjcyed by public funcrionaries. At the same time ir
bcgan rbc dignifying movemenc to dissolve the diffcrenccs berween
da)' laborcrs and orhcr public employ ccs. . . . O ne can scc th ar
rhis who lc movcme nr te> give dignitv te t hc proletariat w as in ac-
cord w irh rhc na rurc o f rhc rcpublican rcgim e and quite co ntrary to
rhc d vnastic ami arisrocraric prcj udiccs o f rhc mona rchy." And,
speaking direcrlv to the manifcsrc of Dom Lus: " In whar Euro-
pean monarcby is rh e digniry o f rhe prolctariar more respecred t han
in rhe Hraz.ilian Rcpubl c, as rhe .\ lanifcsro claims>" 7
T hc manifesro had dcclared tha t [he Rcpublic was " a govem -
ment by and for t hc few ar rhe expense of tb e many,' rhar rhc
government gave " nor rhe slighrcst artention'' ro "t he well-bcing of
th c pcople," and that "thc labo r problcm s . . . partly resolved by
rh e p rincipal Europcun monarchies" had noe cven be en fae ed in
Brazil. T hc republicm gO\'ern ment had srood by. doing nothing,
while thc labo r siruario, bcco ming intolerable. was rh rearening
Brazil. " as in the ncighbo ring Rcpoblic. wirh rhe speeter o f anar-
chisric socia lism."
T he c riticis m of D om Lu s was larg clv justified. The alienarion o
thc rcpublican governme m from the labor quesrion had been poinrcd
out. as wc havc sccn. by such diversifi cd obscrvers as Clemcnccau
and Farher G affrc, and st ill anot her coldly objcct ive viewpcinr was
gi\'en by rhc Eng lishman Charl es \V. Domville-Fife in his book Tb e
U nted Surtes of Brszil. This much-rraveled Brit ish obscrver said
rb ar in [he East End of Lcndon. as well as in rhe p(K)r scctions of
other largo ciries in G rear Hrirain. R ussia. Germany. Belgium. and
Spain. he had w itncssed " sc cnes of c ro w ded. sordid p(werry , w hich
no sysrem of government yet devised can effe crually cope w i(h or
prevent." Bu! in Sao Paulo rhese sord id eondirio ns scemed nm to
prevail. an d w hile rh e pe oplc were apparenrl)' hap py. wth room
and work en ough fo r al1, " it woul d be an umruth so say (ha[ the
lahou rer en joys more frcedom o r securi(y. o r even as much, as he
r R. T eixeir. "'endn : O / m ptfrl o 8 r.r j/eiro e 01 R efJi b/j e.r BrolliJejr.r p er.rnre 01
Regnlerolf iio S,oei.r' ( Ro de J. nciro. ' 91) , p. )0.
 T he Restoration l l 07.:emc1lt 39
'
does under the Iimited Monarc hy of great and grcarer Brirain." ~ In
Brazil, "moncy rules as in al1 rcpublica n countries." And in repub-
lics ruled by moncy the gcncralization of the Princc as tu rhc 1110n
archics' grcarer sensitiviry to rhc cause of thc working man secms to
have Leen con fi rrncd, ar lcasr for rhosc rnonarchies which wcrc ar
all arrenrivc to labor: Germ any more than EnglanJ ; Belgium, 1101-
land, Swedcn, and N orway more rhan republican Franco.
In a pamphlct cnrirlcd Jfl111l1af do ,\fonar qllisM, issucd in Sao
Paulo in 19' 3, Couro de .\ lagalh!ics also affinucd rhe superioriry of
the monarchy ovcr the Republic on this issue, point ing out rhar,
because uf its heredirary narurc. the monarchy was not a govem -
mem of part ics or spccial inrcrcsts and, nor heing dependem upon
clections, was also free from rhc infi uenee of money. Xlcncy had
played an important pan in rcpublican elccrions; the United Stares
and Frnncc had bccomc "vcritahlc markcrs'' in this respect. lr was
nor rarc, "in rcpublican Brazil in '9 13, ro scc a candidato buying
votes." This bcing thc case, whar was ro prevent England, for in -
srance, " from sending mone)' here through irs ,lgenrs for thc pur.
pose of clccring a Presidcnr coogcnial ro irs fi nancia! inrcrcsts in
Brazil? " The monarchy. on the other ha nd, was thc bese guaranrce
of order ami narion al conrin uity and at rhc same time a "modern
[ype of governmem capable of favoring progress and social re-
form ." More [han any othc r system, ir eould proteet rhe popular
intcresr. since it was nor subjecr tO the desircs of any group. The
resroration uf rhc monarchy in Brazil, insofar as narive ind ustries
were conecrned, would not only incl udc "a moderare prorcction-
ism variable with rhc nccds of the moment, bue alsc woul d be a
defender of thc cc nsumer." At rhe samc time ir would clcarly
"guaranree cmploymenr ro labor," prorecring and valorizing the
work ers in wavs rhar had nor cvcn beco arrempred by a Repubhc
too closcly compromised by its obligations tu regional and eco-
nomic inreresrs. These ends cculd "bcst be achievcd rhrough a 11100
archy" , with " po wer remaining stable w ithin one fam ily," the chicf
of state would not flee d " tu court the fan lr of the proletariat ar
reguest the hclp of the rieh in an c!ee[ion campaign." \l
It was in the facc af sllch concrete argumenrs for a monarehical
restorarion that T cixeira .\1 endes felt himsclf obliged to recognize
that [he Republie was being compromiscd in its " social ambitions"
IlChuJes \ \'. D om\"ille-Fik T he U niteJ St Jter o( HrJziJ (ton don, 19 10 ), pp.
l 09, 1: 5,
9CoUto de .\ b g\l lhi es: M Jnu.:l/ do ,\fonarqui fta (Sao PauJo, 19'3 >, pp. Il!. n, 60.
392 arder and I'rogress

by "disrurbances causc d by t he spontancous abcrrarions and the

fatal inrellecrual anarchy in modero rcvolurionary movcments." 1
In his opinin, howevcr. t he guilt for t hese aberrat icns cculd not be
laid tu Positivismowhich. since rhe foundation o rhc Church o rhe
Positivisr A post lcship by ,\ ligue! Lcmos in 1881 , had con rinually
arrcm prcd ro counrcracr "rhc empirica! bhndncss of rhc Imperial
govc rnmcm'' wirh t hc "polincal solurions" proposed by the "Reli-
gion o H urnanity'' for rcsolving thc problcrns o Brazil. Neverthe-
lcss, tbe Brazilian monarch, dcspiee having cngagcd Benjamn Con-
stanr "as a (cac het fo r his child rcn ami grandchil dren .. . never
showcd himsc!f in ao)' way impressed by rhc influcncc o Auguste
Ccmrc." \ Vhar greatcr error could Dom Pedro have made, thoughr
the Posir ivists. than that of being inJiffcrcnt ro Pcsirivism? Evi-
denrly what rhc Empirc dcsircd was "ro mainrain thc Brazilian
pcoplc pcrmancnrly in rhe same statc of theological and militar)'
dissolurion rhcy found rhcmsclvcs in ar rhc time of lndependcnce" ,
and to closc Hrazil ro rhc "pcaccful sciemific-indusrrial" regime
which wculd have led re t he happicst stare in human history
" through rhe concifiarion of rhc [orces o Order and Progrese." 2
This conciliarion, 0 0 whic h Teixcira Mendes wisely insisred, still
did not quite succced in enahling him ro live up to j oio Camilo de
Oli vcira T rres's overempharic designaeion of hirn in O Positvinno
no Brasil ( 'osisivinn in Rrlzil) as "the rnost advanccd socialist in
rhc liberal armosphcrc o rhc Empire." T his ritle propc rly bclongs
ro Ioaquim N abuco. whosc wo rk in th is respect was continued
afrcr rhe heginning o rhc rwcnncrh ccnrury by P rince Dorn Lu s.
According ro rhe Posirivisrs. ir had heen rhc Republic whic h had
oponed Brazil ro a "scicnnfic-industrial" regimc by reconciling rhe
forccs of Order and Progress. Thc regime had, o coursc. suffcred
sorn e "disrurbanccs" in making this cffort. bur th csc wcre largcly
due to the inclusi n in irs ranks o " polit ical fi gures from the "-100-
archisr Pan )' ami cvcn from thc ranks o the slavcholders." Such
poliricians knew no policy orber rhan that o "metaphysical dcmoc-
racy ," It was natu ral rhar their tendenc)' had been to aet in the
republican government as they had acted in the monarchy, "chang-
ing ool)' where the popular anitudes and rhe nanJ re o rep ublican-
ism maJe [hcir former attitudes im po~s ib le . " According ro Teix eira
.\ Iendes, ir was the presence o sllch figures in the new go\'ernment
I T cixcin .\ femlr-s: op. cif. p. .lJ. Also !iee Veninc i" F ilho : Allg rlJto C 01>lte e a
R" pblica CRio .le j aneiro, 19)7 ) .
2 T e ixeira ,\ lcn.ks: " p. cit., pp . JI - l.
 T be Restorat on Movement J9J
rha r accountcd fcr the Illany "Iarucus culogies . .. of rhc Impe-
rial regime, of th e Imperial sra tesmcn, and cspccially of t hc sccond
E mpcror." X cverthelcss, tl.e cmincnr Posirivist lcadcr rccognized
rhar it was rhc Republic which hall cncouragcd rhc dcvclopmcnr of
"ind ustrial Fanfarc un der rhc prcrexr of material and hygienic im-
provcmenr," of "art ifi cial immigrarion, " aTHI evcn of "t hc promot ion
of gambling habits, from high fina ncc down to rbc lorrcries.' Fur-
t hermore, "slavocratic rendcncics in rclarions wirh rhe proletariae"
ccnt inucd ro characterizc rcpublican procederes on che "social
quesrion." Despire rhesc rcpublican errors, howcvc r, rhe Brazil ian
people "vete no longer shacklcd wrh " legal instirurions which
sharply conrradicred rhc normal re publican regime of l Iuruaniry."
In Brazil, "a11 rhc roads to human rcgcneration' wcre still widc
opcn."
From a prcvious pamphlet- A Propsito de L iberdade de Cultos
(Concerning the Freedom o e l/fu ), published in 1888- 1'eixeira
Xle ndes. in rc spondinp to the cha ll cnging manifesro of D om Lus,
t ranscribcd nn exprcssivc note about " parliamenrary judgment."
And from a publicarion of the sarnc year cntitlcd A Prop6sito da
A gtilro Republicana he includcd an cven more imercst ing note
provokcd by rhc appearance of thc first par npbler and direcred to
[he deputy j oaquim N abuco. In rhc fi rst note, T cxeira Mcndcs ex-
plaincd rhat ro che Posirivisrs rhe rcpublican fo rm of govcrnrnenr
did nor m ean parliamcntarianism o r rcprcscnmtive govermne nt or
even free elecrions of pu blic servanrs-c-rhcsc t hings had alrcady cx-
isrcd in rhc monarchics. 1'0 rhc Posirivists, rcpublican governmcnt
signifi ed "a gO\'ernment wi rhour rhc sligluest alfiance w ith Ch urch
or milirary , which dedicares irself politically to rhc sysrema tizarion
of indusmal Iife based on humanit arian motives through the teach-
ings of Sciencc." If rhis type of republican govemmcnr wcre iniri-
arcd in Braxil, ir would have tu he under a popular lcader. not a
parfiamenrary or clccrivc systcm. Thercforc, ir would be dict are-
r ia l. T hc bcst rhing would have bccn for thc Emperor ro have raken
thc initiarivc of "transfc rming thc consrirunonal monarchy into a
rcpublican dicraro rship.' Sincc "rhc conversin of Cirizcn Miguel
Lemos to [he Rcli gion of H umanity in 1878," chis had becn t he
polit ical program of rhc Posirivisr forces."
Confronred w irh rhc "social question," this kind of rcpublican
3 bid., p. S ,
fR . T eixeira .\ l endes: A fr opsito da Agitarao Remblicar,J (R io de Janeiro .
, III1Ri . pp. n , ' 4'
394 arder and Progress
dicr aro rship co uld bave acrcd w irh fcwer hi ndrances than a rcgim c
held back by consriturional and legalisric scruples, as rhc Republic
had bc cn sincc irs inceprion. So t har, by 191 3. rhc Posirivisrs could
pride t hemsclves on baving done "er)' little for Hrazilian labor savc
eliminating "rhc conrrnst bcrwcen rhe so-calcd 'da)' laborers' and
those dcsignatcd as 'public cmployecs,' " a decisivo action in dissolv-
ing "rhe odiou s distinc rion s separaring th e rniddlc from rhe work ing
classes" maintained duri ng thc Empirc. Thcsc disrincrions. arrrib-
urcd by rhc Positivisrs ro thc E.rnpire whcn rhcy w cre in reality
more parriarcb al rhan Imperial, "even wen c so far as ro use corporal
punishmcnt in thc military forces, punishmenrs abohshed legally by
[he Arrny in Imperial times bur kepr by rhe N avy un til the procla -
rnation of rhc Republic, along wirh t he wide scparerion bcrwccn
officcrs and scamcn." ~
This was rhe somcwhar abstraer ami rhetorical response of rhe
Posirivists to th e incisive ami o b jecrive manifcsto of Prince Dom
Lus. Ir is clcar rhar in ' 91 3 Brazil ian Positivisrn could hoast of very
few solid conr ribut ions, t hrough rhe Repu blic w hich was in pan irs
creation, ro [he cause of rhe workingman. Ir was privare individuals
of Carholic orienrarion like rhc engi ncer Meneses in Pernambuco or
of neoca pitalisr-c-if not parasocialist-c-persuasion Iike Lu s
Tarq inio in Bahia whc. within rhc realm of possibiliry , did mosr
in behalf of labor. ,\ lcanwhilc the go"ernmcm was busy ing irself in
developing rhc coffce indusrry, in improving pubhc hygiene in Rio
de janeiro ( a cause vigorously opposed by tbe Posieivisrs and the
occasion for a ridiculous revolr during rhe regime of Prcsident R od-
rigues Alves). in building up thc po m . in arrracring European im-
migrams, in rehabiliraring rhc lndians, ando somewhar bclaredly. in
exploiring thc country's ru hher rcsources.
Alongsidc the Catholic effons si nce colonial times to fu rther the
cause of Brazilians as human bcinps, t he Posirivist conrribut ion
"
rhercfore scems rarhcr small. Even in a Repuhlic foundcd largcly on
non -Catholic principies. ir rcrnaincd for Catholic laymen ro make
t he greates t posit ivo con rribu rion re rhe "social qucsrion," a quesrion
systcmarically ignored by rhc govern ment as well as by t hc priest -
hood and the Church.
H ow linlc those Catholic efforts werc recognized by rhe Posiriv-
isrs is indicared by rhe lan ers' erecrion of a monumcnr to "[he de-
fensc o thc Repuhlic as pcrsoni fic d by Floriano Peixoto," the work
~ Teixd r:a MenJes : O /mpn io Br.uileiro .. . ! p. 18.
 Tb e Restoration sovemem 39,
of a Posirivist sculpto r Eduardo S. Apparcntly it ncver cccurrcd
to this scu lpror. ao orthodcx vorary of rhe Rcligion of H umaniry. to
show any indication in bis monumenta l crearion of the importnnce
of rhe proletariat in Brazilian sociery. Instead, this society is pre-
senred as a Posirivisr conquesc, rhe rcsulr of thc aspirarions of thc
disciplcs of Comte in Brazil.
T bcsc circumstanccs seem to indicare rhar rhc Positivist contribu-
rion ca t hc solurion of rhe labor problcrn was H ry small indeed.
Cerrainly, concret e Positivisr effo rts in chis respect were not equal
10 rhc facrion's cnrhusiasm for rhe absrracrion of "U niversal Frarcr-
niry," and werc inferior to evcn rhc rathcr insignificam offi cial
Carholic contriburion. Neither of thesc gronps contributcd one
hundredth pan of rhc effort which cou ld-c-and should-c-havc becn
madc in a tradirionally C hristian coumry rhat was bccoming indus-
trializcd and modemizcd at a rccklcss pace.
Ir wa s parrly as a rcsulr of having sccn rhe conditions of pcoplc in
rhe interior thar A. Coelhc Rodrigues, ajtcr cxpcricncing fi frecn
years of thc regimc he had hailed as rhc "savior from the throes of
miscry," public ly rctracred whar he had wnrtcn "against the mon-
archj- and in favor of rhe ncw govcrnmenr" and advocared rhc res-
roration of rhe Empire "as a radical rerncdy" for the failu re of rhe
republican experimento According to Coe1ho Rodrigues, rhc Re-
public had com pounded the Imperial error of "uncondirional ernan-
cipation of che slaves, ejecred improvid cnrly frum rhc slavc quarters
inro rhe ciry strects," by developing a policy almosr exclusively in
favor of "the poliricel landholders" of 550 Paulo and rhc south,
regions which "cxrr acred rh c mximum from rbc union in rerurn
for the absclute mnimum of hcncfi rs." Ruy Barhosa hirnself had
"joineJ rhe chorus of Paulisras and for a time evcn wielded rhc
baten." 8 If rhe days immcdiately afrer thc fifrccnth of Novembc r
werc marked by rhe rise of an arnbitious military group, almost all
Positivist and particularly fe ared by Genera issimo Deodoro, this
group was no lcss rerrifying rhan rhar made II p of southern "admin-
isrrative lawyers" and "ccmmcrcis l poliricians'' which develo pcd
afrer the consolidaron of the Republie. Aceording to Olclho Rod-
rigues, chis was a group of "ferocious indi\'idualists," who " were all
funivcly out 10 ger rhcirs, promoting a slrong southern lcadcr for
the eountry and at the same time trying to hinder the devcloprnem
8 A, Coc!ho Rodrigues: A Rrpiblica na Amrica Jo Sr.! ( Ein.~ic dcln , 1<}O"i ) , PI"
i~, 4. : 6-7'
 Order and P ro~ ress

of rhe pon of Tr res ami t hc navigan on of t hc A raguaia." 7 U n rhe

Araguaia qu csrion t hcrc was conflict berween Ruy Barbosa nnd the
t wo Paulisra ministcrs in rhe provisiona l go vernment . As rhese rwo
imporranr cconomic issues emerged in rhe early days of the ncw
rcgimc, thc Repu blic should have devclopcd a new type of relarion -
shi p betwccn privare reg io nal an d econom ic inrcrcsrs on the ene
hand ami rh c national govcrnmcnt o n the ot her . In this new pat-
rcrn, rhcrc had bccn an outsranding bloc of civilian Paulisric politi-
cians, oppcscd in part by militar-y elemcnrs From other arcas who
wcre less committed ro reg ional an d eco nomic advan rages t han the
cvilians. l loweve r. only sorne of thesc Paulism politicians were no-
table fo r their promotion of purely reg ional advanragcs. O rhcrs
wcre disringuished fo r t hcir invariable int egrity in considcring
problems from :1 narional rar hcr than a loca l vicwpoinr. It was be-
cause of the firsr grollp, an d in spire o f the sccon d. rhar rhe R epub-
lic in its early days secmed to be rendering Sao Pauto a verirablc El
D o t ado, with irs purc basc and broad-gau ging o t he Sao Paulo rail
linc ami rhc organization of mcrchant shipping bet wccn Sao Paul o
and R io Grande do Su!' Thcsc me asures bcne red t he cconomy o f
Sito Paulc (as alrcady ourlincd) nor only by suppo rti ng rhc increas-
ing famc of its coffec indusrry , bm also by encouraging imrnigra-
rion from Europe. lr is underst andablc t hat the re publican politi-
cians inrcrcsted in thc dcvclopmcnt o f rhc scurhem economy cou ld
no t sce t hc prorection o f the work ingman as a major probl em . Such
prorccrion would have subsranrial ly rcdu ccd (h e prof irs rhar wcre
making mi!l ionaires of lIlan)' of t hcm. The firsr years of rhc R cpub-
lic wcrc years of greed o n t hc pan o f rhc ind usrr ia lisrs and business-
meo, ma o)' of whom had bcccmc politicia ns as w ell. Bur if such
politica l infiltration had oc curred during t hc Em pirc. ir w ould have
provokcd rhe immcdiate inrervenrion o f rhc Empcro r.
Ir is o nly fair to point out rhar among rhe more p rogr essive [our-
nahsts ami pcliricians o f Sao P aulo, t hc re we rc [hose who w ere as
opposcd ro the opportllnisrs and the " alteady dcmora li7.ed rep ubli-
ca ns" as t hcy were ro t he l1lo narchists w ho were rrying u osucccss-
full ), ro reh abilita te t hclllselvcs by [he inauguration o f "socialistic"
rcforms. O ne suc h Olan w as Braslio Rod rig ues dos Santos, w ho
wrote in ' 9 0 tu his friend o rhe monarchisl:S ,\ l art im F ra ncisco de
Andrada: " It is in \'ain tha r t he monarchists look fo r t he people ro
retllrn to t he p:lst; restorario ns ca n only come abour [hrou gh force.
1 bid., pp. l 'r lO-
 T hc R estoration M07.JCment 397
and rhc force which broughr down thc monarchy will nor be rhc
onc ro raisc ir again. The logic of rhc fac t (in which 1 bclicve)
would nc r prcvent ir, cvcn if the rnonarchists wished ro an empr
anot hcr fi freenrh of N ovcmbcr. (AnJ if t hey attcm prcd it, 1 bclievc
ir would be a grand fia scc.) " O n ene point. howevcr, he rccognized
the dcficiency of the Republic, evcn in comparison "ro sorne of rhc
leasr liberal [counrrics of] Europc'': in thc mattcr of rcforms "of a
socialisr na ru re." For this rcason , it was his dcsire rhar ,\ lartim Fran-
cisco go along wirh him in a journalistic campaign for reforms
whic h would "makc for a rruc Republic insread of rhis ugly sham
wc have at presen t." Brasilio dos Sanros's socialisric lcrrcr was in-
cluded by ;\ lartim Francisco in Chaprcr VII of his Comribuindo
( Com rilmrill{!,) publishcd in Sao Paulo in 19 2 1. In t hc sarne hook
there are lerrcrs reccivcd from D 0 111 Lus de O rlans-Braganca.
who for rhe lofry and indcpcndent A ndrada was "rhe perfcc r
prince." .\ Iany of tbcse lencrs (wrirren rarbcr more objecrivcly
than that of Brastlio dos Santos) nor only declare for, but even
insist on rhe nccessiry for socialist rcfonns to enablc t he working-
man to achieve his duc digniry. " 1 note wit h great plcasurc," wrore
Dcm Lus "that rhcrc is at leasr on e mon archist in Brazil who
givcs a11 his atrcnrion ro rhe problema of labor, a quesrion of capital
irn porrancc nowadays. A fcw days ego, 1 had a conversarion on this
subjecr wirh my cousin. the King of Bclgium. He is rhe sovercign
who has given mosr rime ro the study of t hcse quesrions. Ir rnust he
said rhat in Bclgium, as in rhc orhcr principal monarchics of Europe,
rhe laws prorecr rhc worker much 1110re rhan in republics such as
Franee and rhe Unired Srarcs." And he adds, survcyiog thc social
rcnovation going on in Uruguay under Barril' and rhc repercussions
of rhis activiry in Argentina: " In Sourh Amrica norhing has heen
done until now in rhis rcspccr; but it is nor possible rhar thc ques-
tion will fail ro emerge onc o rhese days. Since norhing has bcen
prepared, ir will quickly assume gigant ie proporrions. Look nt what
is happening in Argentina." And in anothcr letrer ro his Paulista
fr iend on Scprcmbcr 1 1, 19 1 3. Dom Lus declared himself anxious
for action which would bring abom a rhird reign that would pro\'e
rhe monarchy more eapahlc rhan the Republic of valorizing the
workingman: "T he armosphere is saturated wirh words. Evcn rhe
admirable discourses of Ruy no longer have the same impact." Ir
was nor only rhetoric w hich sarurared thc Brazilian amlOsphcre of
those days: there \Vas also thc saruration by a progressivism which
39 8 a rder and Pregresr

signifi ed 001)' prog ress in rerms o rhings. almos! cor npletcly ovcr-
look ing the advanccment o rhc people who wcrc car rying out t bis
progrcss.
T his neglecr o rhc workingman 0 0 [he pan o gcvemmcnr offi -
cials pllt Pinhciro "tachado. rhc srrong man o R io G rande do Su!'
in an ideal po sition ro do sOlllcrh ing abour this forgoncn cIcment o
rhc popul arion ami to realizo in Brazil a labor program similar ro
rhar o Barde y O rdocz in U ruguay. Ir is rrue that Pinh eiro ., ta-
cbadc did nor co jo)' Barrlc's advanragc o more rhan [wenty years
in Paris spent in close cont acr wirh Latine and the Freneh Posiriv-
ists ami wirh masrcrs o rhe Sorhonne and [he Collge de France.
Bur he could have ovcrcomc this defi ciency by ordcring srudics o
labo r laws and organizarions by rhose sarnc ralcnted mcn of lettcrs
who had mo re t han once drcctcd t heir efforrs ro examining Brazil-
ian econom ic and fi nancia! problcms. Ir is t hcrcfore han! ro under-
stand whv rhc rnosr ralcnrcd of Pinhciro's followers, rhc young [aw
profcssor G ilhen o Amado, prcferrcd t o accepr an innocuous mis-
sion ro H olla nd undcr rhe supe rvisin o Lau ro ;\ Iller, fo r t he
preparation of une more repo rt 011 Fn ropcan immigrarion. insrcad
of un dcrta king rhc Iar mo re impon ant rask of making an objccrive
srud y of Banle's lahor rcfo nus in U rug uay ami rheir relarionship ro
the various forms of Europcan starc soc ialism. \Virh the hclp of
such a sru dv. Pinhciro could havc preparcd himself for a mission o
labor o rganiz ation which. as scnator frorn R io G rand e do Sul and a
narionalleader ar thc hcighr of bis prcstig e, he was in a unique pcsi-
tion ro ca rry our. Unforruncrelj-, as we hace sccn, w har r cally hap-
pcncd was t hat t hc problcm was neglec ted by t he Republic. and rhe
ntass of workers, ho rh w hite and descendcnrs of slavcs. wcrc lefr
almosr complc rcly aba ndoned." ::"'0 real labo r leader eme rged in
t hc carly Repub lic, and ir was not until the eve of rhc First \ \'or hl
War rhar Princc Lu s de Orl ans-Braganca rook bis st and in favor
of rhc wo rkingman. Dcm Lu ls's attem pt at a rcsrorarion of the
monarchy based on an cnlighte ncd social prog ram lacked t he con-
tcxr o suitable c irc umsranccs. N everrheless. d ur ing the regim e of
Pr csident I le rmcs da Fonscca ( 1910- 14), there were tim es w hcn
matters seemed ro favor rhis apparcmly unpro pirious :l.lhenru re,

8 T his auandunme nt uf a large ' ''''I", rli"n of Ihe ro l'ub lio n ca<.lsed particular
alarm among p ll hlic'~l'irilrd medica l mm, w hu hcgan \O cry IOlldly Ihat Brazil
wa~ [ot"comin!l a "' :J., t hosp ital." It ,.-a~ [he", n i... , tal her [han h".e in fav or of
labor, w hich lUused Ihe puliticia m. and d erg}" w social aelio n.
 Tbe R estorat on Jfo'l.'c1Jlcnt 399
and whcn Dcm Lus, in the eyes of orthodox republicans. bcgan ro
appear as a rhrear ro rhc cstablishcd ordcr.
O ne such momcnr. which occurrcd before Dom Luis issued his
manifcsr o. was rbc j050 Cndido rebellion. lt is not out of line ro
considcr rhis rnovcmenr, which in ' 910 disturbcd the rradirionally
peaceful rclarionsbips bcrwecn officcrs and menoas a form of prole-
tarian insurrccrion. And the same could be said of a previous move-
ment, rhar of naval machinisrs in Recifc in 19 9, In rhc earlier rebcl-
lion, thc machinists arrernpred ro align rhcmselvcs with rhcir civilian
conrcres alrcady organized undcr rhe Central Association of Sea-
mcn. rhe N aval Fircmcn's Associarion, and the N aval Cclliers'
U nion, all wit h hcadq uarters in Rio de j anciro ami branchcs in the
narion's principal scaports. Thc Pernamhucan newspapcr A Ptria,
sym parhct ic to rhc cause of the workers, had clashed wirh the Xl ari-
time Serviccs Company on Augusr 2 8. 1909. denouncing the COIll -
pany as "t he property of Senator Rosa e Silva and his family," who
were aIso prcprictors of rhc anti-prolerarian newspaper /Jirio de
Pernambuco. Under irs editor Pblio Puga, a Brazilian of lralian
origino A I' tra had styled itsclf rhe "defender of rhc working
classcs," rcferred to rhc seriking machinisrs as "p rolcrarian scamen,"
and accused Marine Cc mmandant Cun ha, Caprain of the Ports of
Pernambuco. as aiding rhc capitalisrs by hclping "smash the prole-
rariar."
There is linlc douht th ar thc leadcrs o rbe searnen's insurrection
of 1910 conducted by j oo Cndido had also developed rheir revo-
luronary sentimcnrs under Europcan infl uences. In one of thc most
intercsring books of the periodo Poltica versus Alar;lIha (l'olitics
versus tbe Na't'Y), w ritren by e ne who signs hmsclf merely " A
Naval Office r," ir is claimcd rhat j oo Cndido "shapc d and pcr 4

fecrcd [his revolurionary scnrimcnrs] du ring his long stay in Eng-

land." Ir is also po ssble , however, thar the Recife uprising hall its
influen ce on rhc action o j oiio Cndido. as weIl as on rhc dissans-
facrions of fircmcn and collicrs in orhcr ports. Fircrnen, recognized
by " A Naval Officcr" as being the "esscntial spirit of modern ves-
scls," werc in grear shortagc: 1 ,1 0 0 wcrc nccdcd and rhc Na vy had
only 944. H ow had this short age be en fillcd, asks the author of
Poltica '1.'ersus Marinha? By the contracring o " heterogeneous
ourside clemems, incompatible with naval discipline," Even for
cigners were admlu ed into the N avy : Portugucse, G reeks. Ameri-
canso Barbadoans, The Mi1w GeTolis had engaged " Englishmen
40 0 Order and Progress
who reccived separare rarions, more plenti fu l anJ of ben cr quality
rhan [hose gi vcn our own searncn, an od ious and un just siruation." 9
Racial scgregarion also exisred among the crew of chis large ship,
alo ng wi rh t he segregar ion berwcen officcrs and meno 1':0 mention
of chis irriraring discrimination berwccn Englishmen and Brazilians
is mad e in rhc rcccnt work of Professor Cruz Costa enrirled O Post-
,:jS1JIO 1M Repblica (Posit cinn ; 11 tbe Republic ) , Cruz Costa
starcs rhat rhe reasons (oc rhc rebellion lay in "rhe low salaries. rhe
exccssivc bours. rhc bad (001.1, ando above all, rhe iIl treatmcnr and
rhc fl oggings. " I T eixcira .\lendes, in his monograph A A nstia e a
Poltica Jl odem.l, Sob retudo R epublicana (A1111lesty and M odern
I'olisics. Panicutsrty R epubiican adds one further rnorivation :
"revolutionarv insrincts in a stare of dcspererion." 2
T bc problcm was more complexo however, than rhe repo rts o
rhe rcbellion made it out ro be, and rhe situation thesc reports depict
was nor Iimited ro the Navy alone. The facr is that the Navy had
modernized irs mater ial equipmcm without having prepa rcd ies per-
sonnel for rhc tcchnical rcqurcmcnts of such cqu iprncnt. The olJ
story of the cart bcforc [he horse. And lacking t his human prepara-
rion, ir was necessary to follo", rhc characrcrisrically Brazilian pro
ccdurc of improvisarion. scouring thc ports for instant rech nicians.
machinisrs. and f ircrncn. incorporat ing nar ive rhugs and foreigners
wirh an arc hisr ideas inro a N avy accustcmed to thc old sryles of
discipline, including rhar of rhc lash. The result was thar rraditional
discipline was brokcn down by thesc new arrivals. a breakdown
thar was hasrcncd by rhc moral, religious. and cducarional neglcce
suffcrcd by rbc regular crews, most of w hicb were made up of
former slavcs or their desccndants, accusrorncd tu rhc parriarchal
condirions and disciplines of rhc slavc qu art ers."
In 19 10, according rn "A N aval Officer." crcws on thc warships
werc made up of 50 pec cenr Neg rees, 30 per ccnt rnulattos, l a per
cent caboctos, and 10 P'" cen t whites or near-wh ires. O f the N c-
genes, ma ny were "physically inepr,' not even knowing "how
~ "Um O fi cial da Arma<la~ ( A S a\ al Office r) : I'olitira 1!ertm ,uarinh.J ( Rio de
janciro. n.d.) , Pp- n ....g.
I Cru z Costa : O PoJt'imlO na R .:ptif>lica (Sio Paulo, 19.14 1, p. 197.
2 R. Teixeira xtcndcs. A AnS/la e a Poltica .\loJerna, So bretuJo Repuh/lrana
( R io de Jane iro , 19 ' 0 ).
a In his D e A t pirant e a Almirante ( Fro m M idJ/)iptlloln ro Admira/) (Rio de
Jan eim , " " 7 ), IV , ~H. Anu r Jaeeguay fOO said thaf sinee the Empire, scamen had
!Jcen recru ifed largel y "fro1ll thc malefactors and rilfraff of thc largc coa,tal eities."
 T be R estoration Al ove111cnt 4 1
properly ro car, slccp, or dress.' T o " A N aval O fficcr," they wcre
an inferio r racc, "burdcncd by an incapacity for prcgress." Their
wagcs wcrc spenr immediarely on robaccc. .\tinas chcesc. sardines,
looking glasses, and almenacs, t hey amuscd themsclves by playing
lorro and domi noes and dancing rhc samboJ; and ncarly all of t hem
werc rhc vicrims of a "sickly senrirnent ality'' which often broughr
abolir lovc rragedies, not only berwccn mate and female, bu t also
bct wecn adult scarnen und adolescent cabin bo ys. llliterarc, "wit h-
out rhc rcsrrainrs of rcligio n't-c-Posirivisrs and prog rcssivc rcpubli-
cans would nor cvcn consi dcr rhe possibility of rcligicus scrviccs in
rhc Arm cd Forces-c-thcy lived " under circums rances most propi-
ricus for rhc encouragerncm of vice and crime." T bcy did nor fecl
bumiliared by punis hmenr. rather, rhey fclr [he neccssiry of [he
"a urhor ity of t heir officcrs." Thc lash, according ro "A Naval Offi -
cer,' was t hus "li rcrally indispensable," so long as rhc currenr moral
condirions conrinued on th c ships of rhe Brazilian Navy so proudly
displayed by [he Rcpublic as cvidc ncc of ics milirary supc riority in
Sourh Am rica." This lack of discipline in rhc ranks accoun rs also
for rhc liaron do Rio Branco's desirc ro rec rganize the Army under
G erm n offi cers of rbe most rigid varicry. The N avy was equally in
nccd of suc h masrcrs, so long as rhcir insrruction wes accompanied
by rhe medical, religio us. civic, and cducarional serviccs necessary
ro integra re rhesc seamcn inro t hc normal p.urerns of Brazilian soci-
er)', According to j accguay in his notable scciological work on rhe
organizaticn of rhc Brazilian X a\'Y, in 1895 "through lack of physi-
cal and tec hnical rraining, ninc-t cnt hs of our scamcn and cabin bcy s
in rhe regu lar N avy are still in rhc apprcnrice class; in rhc British
N avy rhcy would srill be 'boys,' in rhc F rench, 'mousses?" 5
\Vhar had happcncd in rhc N avy under rhc Republic was cxactlv
w har had happcned ro rhe Army, ro Rio de j ancirc , ro rhc ports.
and 10 industri es: marerials and techniq ucs had bcen modcmizcd
wir hou r a corrcsponding adaprarion of pcrs'ons ro mee[ rh e ncw
conJ itions. In 1906 a hold program of naval de"elopmcm was initi-
atcd. bllt again undcrraken by rhe erroncous "su pcrimpositio n of
the material problem un rhat of personncl" referred to by the au-
rhor of Poltica 'I.'t.'rslIs .\fdril1hoJ.lI I'or did rhe remblican govern-
menr an empt, e"en wh ile the ships we re being consrruc[cd in En g ~
4 " Um Oficial da A rma, Ia" ; op. cit., pp.ll6, llo.
5 }. c{>g uay : ur. cit. , IV, \lJ.
11 "V m O fi cial da Arm. da" : op. cit., p. 8...
4 0Z a rder and Progress

land, ro rrain thc berrer elemcnrs among irs prescnr pcrsonncl "so
t hat th e new and more powerful ships mighr have thc advan rage o
bcing mar mcd by sclecte d CiCWS . "
Thc drama of rhe Hrazilia n N avy was thus a small-scale version
o the drama o Brazil ar thc m m o th c century . th c N avy, like t he
coumr)' at largc. was lacking in what somccnc has called "indu st rial
infilrrarion." Even rhc naval officers for the most pan continucd to
be graduares of rhc law schools of Recife and Sao Paulo: acadcmics
wirh archaic prepararion for a nevo indust rial era. In 19 10 " A Naval
O ffi ccr" wrorc rhat his colleagucs werc "all cxt rcmely intelligcnt.
many were very able. and a few eccn erudito." N or nne, however,
kncw hc w ro pilor a ship.' T hcsc orficers clcarly nceded further ed-
ucarion , having existed for y ears in rhc long-dead days of the sailing
ship. A Brirish naval mission should have bcen callcd in. co rrcspond-
ing ro {he German mission dcsire d by rhc Baro n do Rio Branco for
thc rchabi lirarion of t hc Army and ro th c Frencb mission which had
airead)' transformcd t he milira ry policc of Sao Paulo into rhe besr
and mosr efficicnr organization of irs kind in Scuth Amcrica. Thcrc
was also nee d for an educarional programo which. in addirion ro
imparring rhc necessary practica] rraining ro otficers, would raisc
rhe "moral and inrcllecr ual levcl" of rhc wa rranr-officcr class. The
nced for this intermediare class was clca rly of supreme urgenc)' in
all branch cs of rhc milita ry, jusr as ir was in agriculmrc, commcrcc,
and indusrry. [accguay. ut th c cnd of thc nincrcent h ecn tury, had
alrcady sugges ted rhar ccrt ain fie lds-c-Ior examplc, mctallurgy.
mech anics, naval consr rucr ion, and fi shing- w cre good arcas "for
rhc recruiring of more or lcss quelificd seilors for rhc staffi ng of
modero naval vesscls." Ile also suggcstcd rhat sorne of t hc pre-
indust rial acriviries he considcred. T hc "j,mgadeiro of norr hcm
Brazil" was a good cxample rhcsc caboctos. he pointcd out, had a
"notable apritude for t hc life of rhc sea." ~
There was no serious attempt, howcver, ro develop rechnicians
ro serve as an intermediar), class bctwcen (he rradir ional lcvels of
"uppcr" and "lower." T his necessary link in the dass stn lcture was
nceded in agricult urc, trying ro bccomc modern by training agron 4

(llnists wilh co llege degrees \vithout devel oping foremen and over-
seers; it was nceded in industrYi it was needed in t he A rme d Fo rees.
Tbid., p. W5'
~ ArtUf J aceguay ; "Condil;'Oes Atuai!. da Marin ha Brasilcira," Re'l:iHa BrasileirJ
aml ! of'n,J1 do Co m m .:rcio (R io de Janciro. ' Ik/i).
 T be R estorat on ,\[07.:e111em

In the Army. rhe situation was faith fully portraycd hy Lamberg.

who bad nored. ar thc cnd of rhc nincrecnrh cenrury. that the
cou rscs at thc Brazilian \1ilitary Acadcmy were "so inadequarc fo r
milirary pracriccs" t har "rhc officc rs graduare wit h a vasr general
educ ation ami. ar rhe expense of pracrical militar)' scicncc in dcprh.
gain a more or lcss complete crudit ion in many other aspects of
human knowledge. " For rhis rcason, thc Brazilian Army. wieh irs
"largo numbcr of gcnerals and senior offi ccrs of great lcarning," had
a mili rary capacity limircd "mcrcly ro bravura. ro rhc knowlcdgc
aTHI practico of rechnical cxcrcises, to rhe manual of arms, and.
finally, ro rbeoret ical informarion." Ser apainsr rhis unifor rncd lirc
wirh bach clors' or docrors' dcgrees wcre rhc common soldicrsc-
"caboclos, Negrees, mular ros, and ru ffi ans of all sor ts: of a very
10\\' degree." 9
Thc siruarion had changed ver)' linlc by the cnd of the period.
when General ,\ laitrot arrivcd ro srudy milirary problcms in Hrazil
and orhcr Sourh American countrics. As a rcsult of his srudics, Mai-
rrot concluded thar rhe Brazilian Army was lacking in moral uniry.
rhat its ranks werc formcd "of clcmcnrs who are strangcrs to onc
anothcr, where rhe chief offi cers are unknown ano are secn by rhc
men only in rhe critica! hour of hanlc." T he whole organizarion
necded ro be changed "from top to borrom" if ir was t deserve the
labcl of a mo dern fighring force.' This could nor be done by scnd-
ing irs ccllcge-rraincd offi cers to Germany or France, bccausc as
nnorher perceptive fo reigner- Domville-Fife-obserH d, rhe grear
sizc of Brazil (and, he could have added, irs t ropical nature) ren-
dcred rhe ado prion of German organization and strategy urrerly
impossiblc. lt was from thc Amcricans in Cuba. or from the British
in rhe T ransvaal and rhe (Jricnr, that rhc Brazilians should he lcam -
ing stratcgy, ractics, and milirary organization." But thc basic and
mmcdiarc problcm of thc Brazlian Armed Forces was to ensure
rhcir integral unity. by devcloping an "inrermcdiary class," and so
prcvenring rbeir officers from being an lirc utrerly out of coruact
with rhe ranks whcn both should he fin ding common causc in the
confrontation of a specifi cally tropical, 50mh American militar)'
. .
SlruatlOn.

9 .' h urido L~ mhcrg : O Br.u il, p. JO].

1 G n. Chark s A. ,\ I aitrllt : L , f1,nCf el les Rpubliquf ! SIIJ-A mhicilina (Paris.
' 910). pp. lJ1 - 1.
~ n om\'iI1e-Fife: op. cit. p. J 16.
 Order md Progress

It w as also rh c problcm of ncwly dcvclo ping industries, wher e

growth was handicappcd by rhc same lack of conuuu nicarion be-
t wc en cxec urivcs and workers. [t was t hc problem of an elcctorate
t hat w as increasing repidly wit hout a eo rresponding undcrstanding
of t hc polirical issucs raiscd by the political lire. It was rhc problem
of mcdic al g raduares in Bahia and R io de j anciro aloof from the
viral pract ica! knowlcdge of tropical diseascs an d hcrbal remedies
possesscd by ma ny of rhc X egro and caboclo wirc h dc c rors nnd
medicine meno It was rhc problem of agriculrurc, w here attelIlpts al
modcrnizarion werc being ma dc un an abstraer aca demic lcvel,
\virbour csrablishing pracncal experime ntal sc hools fo r t he t raining
of overseers in t hosc spc cifi cs of t ropical agriculr ure rh ar could not
be learncd from rcac hcrs im ported from G ermany or the United
Su res.
Evcn so. t he pcriod of Braxil ian hisrory covercd by rhis srudy can
boast of many ac hicvem cnr s. sorne of rhem practical, w hich sub-
sranriarc its cl aim to bave bce n an era of nacional prog ress. A sorn e-
whar disordcrly progress, bur progress nonetheless. Ruy Barhosa,
Antonio Prado, and A nr nio Conselhciro ; Santos D umont. ,\ t a-
c hado de Assis, t he Bacon do R io Brac eo. t he epic of Acre; Joaquirn
Nabuco, Carlos G omes, D clrniro G ouvcia. Thc valorization of
coffee. Butantan. Thc (Isvaldo Cruz Instieut e; A venida Central ;
Ronden.
1 inclu dc Anrnio Consc lheiro on this Iist bccausc rbc incidcnr of
Canu dos was also a Brazilian vicro ry : rhar of organizing backland -
crs of the mosr va ricd o rigins inro a group wirh t he social discipline
necessary. among orher rhings. ro cstablish a cornmunit y and t
ac hicvc a form of progrcss. The famous hamlcr, though for a t ime a
t horn in t he f1esh of rhe Republic an d a ccunrerrnovemcnr te its
ostens ible progress, ca n now he secn primarily as a group affirm ation
as sociologically significa nr as th ar of t hc brave soldicrs who dic d in
an ancm pr t o subjugare ehcm an d integrare them inro thc narional
panern of life. Frorn rhar time 00 , rhe backl and er of rhc nort h was
rcconci led to a Rcpublic he had form er ly rejccred rh roug h his rra-
di dcnal lo yalry . srrerching back to colonial t imes, ro a K ing and,
even more srrc ngly. a O ueen." 1Iard as it was for the mo re remo te

3 This hel .lid nm C'SC~pe the Fren ehm~ n Mu e. who noted th ~t the b)e kl)n.lers
uf Ccn dllring lhe d rougJlI I)f 1877 rn :ch-cd gnHrnmem aid in lhe mme of chc
Que..n. H e al", ntlted lha! in Rio de JAn eiru Prinees> habd, on pruclaiming Aholi-
liun, "'As fen-emly hailed by Ihe ln"'e r das"",,,- nnl AS Pr joce" U f regem, bUI Wilh
 'FIJe Restoretion M ove111cnt

backlanders ro sec rhc Emperor ami Emprcss supcrscdcd by a Re-

public, ir is significanr rhar neo rhcy cou ld eventually accept tbc
change-rhe replacemenr of rhc Ro yal " l yth by a gowrnment
found ed on the Posirivist mono: "Ordcr and Progrcss."
This was a difficulr change, bur that ir was accomplishcd is a fa cr.
And ir was done by mcans of a ncw abstraction which co uld be
termed t he Scien rific .\ Iyt h: a myt h thar th e Posirivist lite and its
symparhizcrs somc how managcd t u communicarc tu all other
groups wit hin th e Hrazilian popularion. And so ir was t har rhc P'"
riod becem c une dedic ared, if nor tu thc masses ar lcase to most of
the mid dle class: dedicared also ro rhc glorificarion DE "sciennfic
govcrnmenr,' "scientific polines," "scicntific diplornacy, " and
cven "scicnrific spiritisrn'' and "scicntifi c rc1 igion." In 1909, as he
appcared smiling and happy on rhe streets of Rio de janciro, Kilo
Pecanha. Prcsidern of rhc Republic, was salutcd familiarly by a man
of t he peo plc with the words: "Bita, Presidente cientfico! ( Hi
rhcrc, scicnrific Presidcnrl ) "

ShOUfS of " V h -a a Rainha!"- A lfred .\tare : l.!' Brh iJ: Excu rnon J Trac en Su 10
l'r01.'inu s (Pars, I !!yo) , p. oH1 .
 Gl ossary,

Supplementary Reading List,

Addiuonal Recent Books

Published in Brazil,

Illdcx
 GIoSSaI)'

abiu-Fru it of (he ebieiro (Poutera caimito).

arai-Fruit of rhc oraizeiro, or assai emerpe palrn (Euterpe otero-
cea) .
arrn'is1no- Social c1imbing by vulgar means.
bmnba-m eu-boi-s-Iv rradincnal dance and festival hcld especially in
northcrn Hrazil in whicb ene danc cr wears a bull's hcad and is
rorruenrcd by ot her danccrs w hile a c ho rus sings appropriare folk
songs.
buriti- T hc wine maurit ia or mu rit y palm (M auritia 'l.'inifer).
ceboclo-:Term loosely uscd to indicare :lo)' inha biranr of rhc Bra-
zilian interior who has a trace o ludian blood. It can alsc apply re
a pure-blooded Hrazilian ludian or a ha lf-breed (whire and 10-
dian ). Sometimes ir is uscd wirh mixtures of Indian and Negro, if
rhe individual in qucstion has Indian fcaturcs and straight black
hair. By extensin, thc rerm is used ro apply ro any backwoods-
man of norrh, ncrrhcast. or central Braxil.
cl1boc/ir1J1o- A n ob jccr, idea. or anirudc idcnnfi cd wit h rhe caboclo.
A conscious cult ivarion or cclcbration of csbacto rrairs.
caj-The yellow [ruit o rhc cajJzeir., or hog plum (Spondas
lim a). Al t hou gh ir has a ra ncid smell, ir is quite edible. and a re-
freshing drink is mad e from irs juico.
caj-Cashew ( A 1JaCarditl111 occidentales, from w hich cashcw nuts
are obraincd. Its asrringene fruit also makcs an cxccllcnr drink.
ca1J1buc-Fruit o rhc cn nlmcsze ro or trcc my rtlc (.lfy rcia plica-
tocostam ,
capoeira-Literally. a chickcn coop. bur in t hc scnse usually em-
ployed in Brazil, rcfers ro a mcthod of fighting in which bor h
4" ,
 Gossorv
hands and Ieer are employed. somcnmes with knivcs on thc fcct.
Ir prohably originatcd from A frica and was pracriced wirh such
effecriveness by the slavcs rhat owners fe ared for thcir own safery
as well as for rhar of the human propen y in wbich tbcy had in-
vcst cd their moncy. Accordingly, cs poeira was prohibired, but it
survivcd among rhc dcscendanrs of slaves in the form of a fasci-
naring balleric movemcnt employing 311 rhe aggressive tcchniqucs
of rhe an in slow motion ami withou t touching one's opponem.
V isirors to rhc ciry of Bahia may seill sce this half dance-half
combar pracriced. in somcwhat degenerare form, by YOllng men
crnploycd by rhc T ourist Hureau. The term also rcfers ro rhc
rough sccond-growth land found in sorne pans of rhe interior of
Brazi1.
carn3tba-T he wax of rhc carnaitheira (Co rpemicia cerera) uscd
for t hc manufacture of floor wax and wax candles.
caroba-Variolls trees of th e jacaranda grollp.
caudilho (Spanish caudil1o)-j\ l ilitary or poltical leadcr, head of a
facrion, generally holdi ng power through st rong~a rm recries.
caudilbismo (Spanish ceudiltinnov -The culr of rhc strcng leadcr
in rn ilitary or poliricallie; rhe characrerisric acrions of a caudilho.
coco-Various kinds of nuts or fruits from [he coconut palm o A lso
a po pular folk dance of rhc norrhcasr of Brazi l.
comadre-T he term uscd bc rwcen parents and godr norhcr. Ir can
also be used for spccial fricndships and is frcquendy cmployed
bctwcen pe fSO llS of differing social classes as a means of indicating
respect withou t having ro maintain a relarionship of social equal-
Ity .
compadre-T he masculino form of comadre.
CUfcu=--A popu lar dish madc of srcamed rice, manioc , or corn meal,
probably of Africa n origino
dOMado-( 1) A livcly m usical piece, generally in march tempo,
(2 ) a stew made of tripe.
espanbolis11lo-Ha\'ing Spanish characrcristics. A predilection for
Spanish culture.
farofa-A dish rnade of manioc meal brown ed wirh oil or burter and
rnixcd wirh cggs or mear; also uscd for stuffing fi sh or fow l.
f.r...enda-A large planranon of any kind.
feijoada-Virtua lly the Brazilian narional dish. Made wirh black
beans bo ilcd wirh various kinds of meat and vcgetables and served
wirh farota and rice.
 Glossary
irute- do-conde-s-X eo know n as p nba. The fr uit of rhe sugar ap ple
(A lmOl1a squamosa),
gacbo-:-:Thc cow boy of sourhcrn Brazil. T hc rcrm is applicd by
cxrcnsion ro any inhabiranr of rhc srarc of R io Grande do Sul.
grumira7JlIJ- Brazilian cherry. Fruir of rhc RU{Cl1iIJ dombeyi.
guajiru-A lso guajuru, guajcru. Icaco cocoplum (Cbry sobmus
icaco).
guaral/-A shrub (P. CUp.,l1a) from which a pop ular soft drink is
made.
jabmicaba-A rou nd, cdible, cherry-likc fruit which grows dircctly
from tbc trunk of rhe jaburicaba tree (Myciaria ctIU/ilora).
jacu, jacutillga-A bird of thc guan family . / acutillga is also applied
ro a fonn of hcmatiric iron ore fou nd in rbe starc of R io de J a-
neiro.
jttJl1bo-T he rose applc, which is cdiblc and exists in several vario-
ties in Brazil. inc luding thc [nnbo-rosa and jambo-de-caroyo.
jangada-A raft madc of fi ve logs lashcd togcrhcr uscd for fishing
in rhe north ami nor thcasr of Brazil. T hc usual rafr is abour lO by
7 fec r and has a masr ami ruddcr. Highly scaworrhy. although
almosr consranrly awash, rhe jangada wir h irs crew of t wo or
rhree men often rcmains for days on rhe open sea. Unril recenrly,
nearly all t he tishing indusrry in the non hcasr was carried on by
jangadeiros.
jangadeiro- T he ow ner or c rewman of a jangada.
/atifrndio-A largc counrry esta te; usually cmployed in agrieul-
turco
1I1acab4-Also mac4j. A fonn of palm (A. sclerocarpav rhc nuts
o f w hie h yield an cdiblc oil rhat is also uscd in soap making.
mal du pays- A "narional malady": genera lly applied to a social
artit ude or political U f social p roblem.
1I1andaCtJnl-T he Peru cercus (c. p''TlI'l.-'ialnls ).
1J1andioca-Th e common cassava (M.m ihot escutenm ), rhc sou rce
of rnanioc fl our and tapioca. A ve ry impcrram plant in t hc Bra-
zilian economy.
mIJng4- Thc fr uit of rhc mango.
maracatu-A Brazilian carniva l dance of African origin pcrformcd
in thc northcasr, espccially in Pernambuco.
maracuj-Passion fl owcr (l'aniflo r) from rhc fr uit of w hich a
pleasant and rcfrcshing drink is ruede.
mat-Paraguay t ea (llcx paraguay emis ), rhe sourcc of a healrh ful
 Glossary

drink ,-ery popula r in rhe south o Brazil and rccently quite im-
p0rtant as an exporto
ma:ri:rl.'- ( 1) A popular dance ami t he music for such a dance; (2 )
a ghcrkin.
mestico-T crm applied to any individual o mixed blood.
1Itodinha-A popular song, usually romanric in naru rc.
orix-A voo doo prie sr.
palmatria- A narrow. fiar srick formerly used on rhc palm.. of
back ward or recalcitranr grarnmar school pu pils. Some of rhcsc
instrumcnrs of torture had a largc hole horcd in thc middle. N eed-
lcss ro say, rhc hales ofren ca uscd blisrcrs rcgarded by rheir 1'05-
sessors as a speci al son of acadcmic stgmata,
pas de qwJtTc-A dance cmploying four paces.
pl.'ixada-A fi sb srew, bc uillabaisse.
pitanga-Brazil cherry (Eu[!,eni,lllnifiora ).
pitomba-Fruir of rhc ptombeira (L uschnathiana) .
pll:ruri-Al~o pixurnn; a fo no of nlltl11 cg .
!abi_A Brazilian thrush, similar in appcarane e ro t he A me rican
robin.
Sa'm ba-T hc mese famous Hrazilian popular dance, probably of
African origino
sepoti-:The Fruir of (he sapodilla (A cbras rapota) .
StlT/lpatel-A dish made of pig's or shecp's visccra and blood.
sertoo-T he scmi-a rid backlands of Brazil.
rerum ejo- Inhabitant o rhc rertdo.
tucupi-A condimcnr made o manioc and peppcr, used in the
Amazon as the basis o a delicious sauce.
'l;inhtico- A rrec (Plathy1lt1.'1Iia ret cu sds ) of the mimosa family.

R.\V.II.
 SII/,/,/e1lltll!"')' Readillg Lis!

l. I'olitcal
A IlRAS CH t:S. I.k " SllEf_ lW: A IJJ e A los do Goc rn o Provis rio, Ro de Ja-
nerro, ,<)O].
BASR"'.J M. L n i s ClO: H ist ria Sine era dJ R ep blica: T entJti'1'a de l ntcr-
pretJfio M arxista da H iu r s . R o de j aneir o, 1957.
RASTOS, H \-....IJlt:RlO; R u y B.lrboJil. M iniu ro da l ndepend nc e E conomice Jo
Bras l. R o de j anciro, '9-l9.
Bm:UIl [R. Gro ~{;[ C. A .: 1)<1 MOlla'<1l1 .i Rt'pblica: H ist ria de I'arrido Re-
pu blicillM do Brasil, 1870- 1889. Rio de j anc iro, 1954.
BRl._'so, ERS hl SlIn: Historio e Tr,r.fiflJes da CiJ.lJ e d e SJo Pauto. Sao
Paulo, 19B.
Cn'Qun M~ , Dl()x isl,\ : Rt'Jllinircn ci.u J01 CWlp.wlu Jo l'araKllay . Ro de j a-
neirc, 19 ';1.
O S Scr tiics. Pu blis hcd in Eogls h as Rebellion in tbe
Cl.'1<Il A, r l "C1. YI>i:S 1M:
Bactr ands, Chicago. 19-\4.
EDMO:-1I0, Lt.ls, et ,TI. : A R epblica, Rio de j aneiro. 1939.
F 1GUt:l REI)O, 1.1 :1"' : Grandes Sotasdos do Rr.ui/. md cdn. R io de Janeiro, 194% .
Fm" ~H:A , A:-IlA I. FU IR[ 11.-\ : n o f'oda E:t:t'Cu rh'o 110 Repblica Brasileira.
Rio de j anciro, 19 16.
FR A1'o CO, AHl?"SO A K1>;OS m: ,\ l u.o : H ist ra e 'Teor a do r .Jrtido 1'oltico n o
Direit o Connttucionsi Bresuevo. R o de j allciro, 1948.
- - - : U m Esred sta d a R epblica. R io de Jane iro, 1955.
F RE [RE, F vuse u.o: H ist ria COllStitll cional dil R epblica. Rio d e janeiro, 1894.
L A...IlIt:RT. j Ac Qn :s : Le Rrsil, St ruct ure Socale el Insrit ut ans Politiqucs.
Pa rs, [95:1 .
LE LA~ ?" OL', ,\ 1.U' R[CE: L e Br sil. Paris, 19.'4.
llist ria Constitucional J o Brssl. Rio de j anciro, 19 15.
L EAl ., A l: ltf.l.lsn :
LFlH., Al:ItELl ASO : Hstr a da Civ i/iz. {'a o ' autista. Sao P a uln, 1954.
L IMA, H u ... u :s: 'Tob as Barrero. Sao Paulo, 1939.
LIM .\., O U \'E IRA: o Im prio Rr,u i/eiro. Sao P a ulo, 1 9 ~ 1-

''3
4/4 Suppementary Resd ng L st
LI ~ S, h ", :-- : l1 cnj.r71/iJl COTlStJnI . Rio de J anciro, 1936.
.\1A.GAUl f S j ,::"TO!\, R., cd.: 1) 0 11/ Ped ro II e " ConJu .1 de H J TTill. Sio Paulo,
1956.
.\l u .o, ClCSTUIO Josi: 1lF.; O G ov m o J' ro1.,ri o ( J R t'Volflf 11O d e 1893. Sao
Paulo, 1938.
\ t IRA:"IlA , P OS T ES D.~ : A Mar;elll do Direro. Ro de j anciro, I g ll.
- -- : A .\lor<l/ do Futuro. Rio de janciro. 19 13 .
" I O!\ AIS, E \lA R I ~1 0 UE ; J)J .\1 01I..1 ' q llio1 paTa ,1 Repblica. R o d e J an c ir o , 1936.
,' t ORAZ.:, CH ARLES: Les T roj! Ages du 8 Th il . Pars, 19H .
NA lJn:o , j OAQt:l :-'I : O A bolicionismo . l.on don. 1883_
O u n : IR A T URRE S, l OAo C"'''tlLO (lE: A Democrs c s Co rO.lJ .t. R o de j aneir o,
1957
ROL"RE, Aca::--OR[lE; A Connuuim e R epublicana. R o de j aneiro, 1910.
SILH Rou lA, JO-"'O\;IM nA: H ist ria d" Colon iz.T(Jo d o Brasil. Rio dc j anciro,
19 111 .
SO[JR. ~ EU;O;'; ' VE R ~ [(:" : Panoranu do Segundo /mprio. Sao Paulo. 1939.

n. Foreign O bseruers of tbe Pcriod

ADA:\.!. . Pa ur.: L es V is;ges d u Hr st. Par s, 19 '4'
ALI.AIN , t!l.!lu: : Rio de J.meiro. Paris and Ro de j anci ro, 181:1 6.
AS URf: WS, C. c.: Rrau J, /11 Condit ons al/d Prom ecn. N ew York, 188, .
A S lIlOl:ARD. BAROS n': t e l'rof.{res Br silien , Par s. 19 ' 1.
BABSO!\". R OC,FR' V.; T be Fu turc o f Soutb A merice. Bostc n, 19 ' S.
BAi.LOl1 .\ IAIUll:-r .\1. : Equasorial A merice. Boston and S e..... Yo rk. 1891 .
B.:!I. .. ETT. FR A" " : Forty Y t'ars lI Br.n il. London, 19 I..
BERNARllI: Z .\ IASl.:n .: E l BrMiI. Buen os A ires. 1908 .
Buocn, J. O . P.: M m , M anTlers, snd storsts in Somb A merice. London, ' 9 10 .
BRYo :, J A!l.I ES Al.: Sourh A mer ca: O tnerv sno ns .wJ lmpressons. Ncw York.
19 13 .
Hn.s lcHo S , F R. j o slPII: Le Brsit d'A u iourd'bui, Paris, 19 10.
CU AGAS, ) oAn: De Bond-s-Algnns A spectos da Cr.i1izafJo n r,u ileirll. Llshon,
I &}"
C L[ !l.u : s cr.Al T. G EORGES: N otes d e V oy af.{t' dans r A mTique d u Sud. Paris,
19 11.
COI.:n-. LO\':'5: ttllde de Bologie Indust rie/le sur Je Caf . Rio de j aneiro,
18S3
e RA l G. l 'n " L1E B.: Recottecnons o f :1.1I l t-Fst ed Expedit on. Philadelph ia
and London, ' 907.
D F.LE IlEQl.E. J.: A T rooers t'A mr que JII Sud. Pars, 1907.
D FNI S. Pn:RRE: L e n rb il JU XX, Sicte . Paris, 1917.
E LLlOTT. L . L : Brozi , 'Today J1Id 'tomorro-. N ew York. 19 ' 7.
FO RJ). ISAAC: Tropcat A merice. l .on d on. I!193 .
GAFFRr.. L. A.: V isions JII Rrsil. Par is, ' 911 .
G Al DOIS, EtGf.SE: En A mrique du Sud . Pars. n.d.
G A S PA R I ~, A GESOR I.t~:: 1. 'Amrique d event t'Europe. Pars, SIl7.
 Suppiementary Reading List '1 5

Gltt:U .E, t::V<>UA ltU f . (lE: tude du Rrh il. Bressels, I llllfl .
I fA ltIlE S Rt.'FlG, \ \" E .; Tb e Putum,y,: T bc De'!:irs I'.rr,dise. Lon don , ' 9 11 .
K mnrn, DA.sIEL P ., and j AlI-l ES C. F u :n :m :R; IJ rJzil J1/d tbe Brezilim s. Bosrun,
18 57.
L AM IlERG, \!A UR cIO ; O Bras. Ro de j aneiro , 18g6.
L A TTEt.'X , J)Fl ; A u l',ys de /'O r er des Demann. Par s, [9 10.
L ';CI.ERC, M Al: ; L enres dn Br sit. P a r s, I H,!o .
,\ l Acol.A, FU lt l:cCIO ; I: Europ.l a 1,1 Conqllist.l det'A merica Latina. Venice,
1894 ,
M A[nt OT, Gs.: L, Frsnce er let R pnbliques Sud-Amrica nrs. Par s, ' 9 lO.
M ARE, A U'RED : L e Br sil. P a r s , ' 8<)0.
M All.T1S , P f.R C Y A . ; Tbrougb Fve Repnblics. L ondon. 1905 .
,\l EROU, G .~RcA ; E Bres t In telecmst, Buenos Aires, ,<)OO.
h hCH EL, [RSEST: A Tracers I'Hmispherr Sud. Pars, ISIl 7 .
O RL.:AS S-B RAGAS'o;;A, Lu is UE: Sous la Croix du Sud. Par is, ' 9 1L
P EARSOS , H exev c, ; T be R ubber Coum r v o f tbe A mJzon. New York, '91 1.
PI STO, SILVA: N o Brasil. Opor to, 11179.
PRA[lf:Z , CHAR LES; N onvotes nedes mr le Br sit. Paris, 18, z.
R OOs EH .LT, THf:O[JORF. : T brougb the HrazUiJll w tdemess. N ew York, 19104.
SA :'> I PA[O, J. Pf.FlE[RA : O Brs s l Mrfllai. Opo rto, I H9!).
SlI-llTII , H ER8 f:RT 1-1 .; Brazil, the Amazon anJ tb e COoJst. N ew York, 1879,
S n :[ S EN , K ARL \'ON DE; N : Durcb Z emrs-Bres ten. Leipzig, 1886.
T l: ROT, l lE:NR I; En Al1JTiqlle Lome, Pars, T9ull.
Wf.LLS, j AlI-l ES \ V .: T brce T boussnd stites T brough Brazi/. London. 1887.
\\'nH ~ R , T IIOll-1AS P , B [(;(; ; P oneer ng in South BroJzi/, London, 1878.

1II. E C01l0 111iCS

A SCA Rf.LlI , TI,; LlIO : Aprere1ltaflto do UrariJ. R urne, 1955.

B ASTmf:. ROGER: 8 rsil, T erre de s Contrastes. Par s, 1957.
COI..RTI:-': . R i::-,:F.: Le Problme de la Cniusetion conom auc du Irsi/. Paris,
'9041.
Documentos l'ar/am cntaf f"s: O Brasil, Suas Riquezas Noturais, Suss 111-
dnrias. Rio d e j aneir o, 1907.
FERRANIl, PAt:L: UO r J ,\linoJs G erait. O ur o Pr ro, 1894-
L EAL, V n OR Nuses. Corone ismo , En x sda, e V oto . R o de j aneiro. 19049.
:\l u.I.1H, SiRG lO: O R ou iro do Caf. Sio Paulo, ' 946,
N ASH, Rov : T be Conqnen of RroJzil. New York , 19z6.
NORMASO, J. r.: Br.nil: A Srudy o f Economic T vpes. Chapel Hill, 1935
T AC S A" . A FOX SO [li: E . ; H isto ria do Caf no Brasil. R io de Janeiro, 1943.

rv. Social md Cultural

A MADO, G[L BnTO; G rlto de A rcill. Rio de j anciro, [9 19.
- - -,: M m ha f'orma{lto no R rcife. Rio de j aneiro, ' 955.
CostA, J OAO CRT,.Z : A H st ory of Ideas in RroJU/. Berk elcy , '9604'
 Sup plementary Readng U n

O ...... U SC[SO, A TIIOS ; 'J lr o, SalJo, t Pcedeiro t m P rro Altg re 1/ 0 Sculo

XI X. R io de j aneir o, Porto Alegr e sn d Sao Paulo, 1956.
O U"'RTE, P... eco. and j , F. Il~: AL.\IE10'" PRADO, eds.: A legrias e T riste zas de
um.s E ucedors A lem o n o 8r.Jsil. Sao Paulo, 1956.
H "'RRIS, ,\lA R\"I S : 'Toum ond COII1I N"y in 8rolzil. N ew York, 1956.
\hlllls S, Ld s: O " atriarcol e o 8.Jcharel. Sao Paulo, 195) .
NE\"ES, ED UA RDO DAS, ed.: O Canto r d e J l odi1h.tS 8 rasileiras. Q uarcsma , ' 931.
Srrls, Sr.o a.e v J.: V assou ras, A Br szili.m Coffee COfl1lty , 1650- 1900. Csm-
bridge, ~1as~. , 1957.
\ V AGI_EY, Cll "' lltF S: A mazon T os...'1I , A StuJy of M an in sbe Tropics. New
YOr k, 1953

v. Reigion
AIIRf.t', C AS UTO: Adol fo RI.'ZI.'rr.J de ,UI.'nl.'U's: N OM S Riop;Tiiic.Js com Et bOfo
da H t t ris de Espiritism o no Braril. Sn Ps ulo, 1950.
ClV.IlTRU :, A. R., and A. N . DE ~ !F.SQt: lrA ; H ist rioJ J os R.UistilS 1/0 Brasil. Sc
P au lo, 1940.
K U' l'i H I Y, J. L.: Cinq lle1/14 A not d e .\l erod lllo 1/0 Brasil. Sao Paulc, 1918.
Li:ONAII. D, t :'\.IlLE G .: " L't gliM' peesbyr ricnne au Br sil" and " O Prot es-
tantsmo Brasilciro" in R t:v itta d e JI ist ria. Sao Pauln, 195'.
J-ln u : IlV. , E Ul.A RDO CAII. I.OS; A MJ f on.!ri.t e e Igrt: jol Critt:i. Sao Paulo, ' 90 "
RE1S, A lV ARo: o Etpiritimw. 1 ed n. Ro de j aneiro, ' 9 ,6.
R Ifll:l IlO, 80... S t RG F;S; O r adr e I' rot en ante. Sao Paulo. 1950.
R IIIEIRO, Lt:O ~' l'IO, and "h':RIU I CA MPOS' O Espritis1l/o 110 Braiit. Ri o de
j aneiro. 19 )1.
R UI, j OAO !lO [psc ud. P ... m.o B.~ RR HO ) : A s Rd igioes no R o. Pa rs. ' 917.
SU tpp, S. .l., Fa. A ...18ROl S',; Os ,Hllckt>n . P i l rto Alegre, n .d.
\VII.Lt:...1S, E M l.lO; A A cultllra( aO dos A tenes no Brasil. Sao Paulo, 1946.
Z ION I, V'UcNTE ,\1 .: O ' robl..ma El prifol 1/0 Brasil. Si o Pa ulo, '941.

VI. Liter-uure W hich Mirrors tbe Period

A S URAr' f., C "'RI.US UR U~1 ~lO :>o n Ccm(is/Sot:s de M in.u . 1944.
[lE:
AR " SIIA, G "A~ " : Canaj. ' 9'H, tt . Rostlln, 1910.
AZ f.n :llo . A I.t:SlO; o .\fu/Jto. ' SIl!.
B"'NDt:lR". ,\ 1A:>O l' EL: E~'ocafiio J o R ec ie.
Ll :\I "' , J ORGF: D~: ; o Mundo Jo M enino tmpossioel,
\1 0 Il.F.LY , H t:LEl'iA: .t linha V ida de J fenina. 19H .
P O",IP FU , R At: L; O A tencu. d~S8.
Q t: f:IROZ . R.... Qt'F:L n: O Q uillu . 19 30.
R i.Go, jo~ L1NS no: Menino de Engenho. (l'lant.ltion Boy , Eng. tr., N ew
York, 1966.) 1931.

G .F.
 Additional Rccent Books
Published in Brazil

ABk EO. J "Y ,\ l E: EduCilf ao, Sociedade e D esenc ooimemo. Rio de janciro,
11)68.
A U:SCAR, E IIGAR DE ; O C.tTntrL'al Ca riOCJ .llr.u's da .Hlricil. Rio de j aneiro,
I)S'
ALMf.IflA. RES AYO: ,\1,,1/11.11de Coleta Folclrica. Ro de janeiro, 1965,
A MU AL. IGNcIO ;\h :-m:L A ZH EllO oo: E m ilio sobre i1 Re'l:olu fiio Bresileire.
R o de j aneiro, Ig6J .
ASIHIAIlE. G n.IIERTo Os'uo 1)[ : Pro psit os de Unit:rrsidolJe. R ecite, ' 9'15.
A S llR"llt:, ,\ l RIO me : Mrica de f eit i fll ri.J 1/0 flrasi/. Sao Pauto, I9 I .
AZf:\'u>o, AR O!.l>O /)[, el st.: l1'aril, T erre e o H onrem, I (As B.lles FsiCIlI ).
Sao Paulo, ' ')64-
An:n:l'IIJ, FU S A:- [)() nt:: A Cutrurs l/r.lrilfrll: lntrodu f30 JO Estudo da Cul-
tura no Braril. 4t h edn., rev. and ampl. Sao Paulo, 11)4.
AlEVEOO, TH ALES m:; Cuftur, e S tuiJ fiio Racial Tl O Brasil. Rio de j aneiro.
'966
BA~llt:I RA. ,\ 1A:-'l;[J,; G uia de Du ro l' rt1to. 4th edil . Rio de j aneiro, 19} '
- - -: Rio de [m etro em Prosa e V erl O. Rio de j aneiro, 11)65.
B ASTl ll E. R{)(;u . and FLOIl ~:STA:-' Ft: R:-' A:-'IlES: rencos c N egros cm sao 'alllo:
Erllai o So cio l gico r o b r e A.p <:<: t OJ J" f orm .Jfiio . J,f'>llifnt .Jfo er A l u " r e
Fet os d o l'reconceito d e Cor 11'> Sociedsde Paulist.ma. and edn. Si o Paulo,
1959
B U Tl DF: , R o es.e: So ciolog a do Folclore Brasitera. Si o P aalo , 1959.
B ASTOS. lh: :-'I HFRTo ; Desenv oirimcnt a 0 11 EICrJddJo: A spect os de l nf/u-
ncias Externas 1101 FonnarJo Ec onmica d o Brasil. Sio Pauto, 11)6...
l h :Al; Ll F.ll, G II.U: S. P " UL EL:GF::-'r, C HARRl) S S EA\-', and Luis A RR() BU ;\1AItTlss:
f dllcil f iio BrasiJeira e Colgios d e Psdr e. Sao Paulo, 1966.
Bt:LW , J o s . .\ tA ItIA: 1fltoria da Rep blica (188!r19H ). 4th edn. Sio Paulo,
1959
B t: zHlR A. D A!'i I~:L V O IOA C AVALCA1H I: A IJJl,adol , .U ocam bos e tocsmbeiros.
Pr ef. by Gilberro Freyre. Reclfe, 11)65.

' '7
418 Additonal Recent Books Pubisbed in Brazil
BOIlEl'" FU.HO. HER ~Ul.lJ ; Fisionoma e Elpiriro do Mol1l1ule1//{o. (T he folk
thearre of the norrbeasr.) Sin Paulo, 1966.
B IlITO, '\1.\ il IO /H S In ...' A meced emes d.! Semana de Arte Xodcrna , a n d ed n.
V ol. I of H ist ris do sto ermnno Brssileiro, R io de jancir o. 1964.
R RITT O, ) n-'Iu n ,\ I I.-' NIZ ne: /)0 .Uodernim to J HOlS.! N ocs. Rio de j aneiro.

'066
BRc No, ER NAS I SII.U : ViJgem eo l'as dos I'Jllliwlt. R io d e j aneiro, 11)66.
B CLHf.S, O CTV IO GOI; n IA 1).:. et J/.: Edllca ro para o Desem-oto imemo. Rio
de j anciro, 19M.

C...I.I....IlO. As n;slo; 0 1 lndunr an da Seca e os "Galilells" de Pernambuco.

( Aspecrs of thc fighe for agra rian ref orm in Brazil. ) R io de janeir n, Il}6o.
C AI.Z AU\'..., B ATISTA B e s rr o G "' IIRIEl. er ll.: Culturls Prncios s dl A mawnia.
Rie de j aneiro, 1966.
C':o.' '''R''' CASCt'l 'O. Lc s nA; AntologiJ do Folc/llre Brosileiro, jrd edn. Sao
Paulo, 195'
- - - ; Hiu 6ria da A limm tJfo 110 Brasil, I (Card.ipio lndlgens, Dieta A r,i.
CJlJa, Emenm l'orrugllt?sJ ). Sao Paulo, 197.
C...:o.IAIlGO, J OSf. F RASClSCO 11[ : Exodo RUrll no Brasil: Formes, Causas t
Cons eon nc as Econ micas l'r incipJis. R io de j anciro, 190 '
C......1PtlS. R~S "'TO CA RS [ 1110 oe: Ideolo1{ia dos Postar " opu/"rn do N ordeste.
R ecife, 1959.
- - - : IgrejJ.l'olticl e Regiao. Recite, 1967.
C Asnmo. AST S IO: 01 Par ceiros do R io Bonito: Esmdo sobre o CJipir,
l'allliuQ l' I Tr.J1Itfor/1U/fl/O dos Sem .\leios de Vida. R io de j aue iru, 1964.
C ARr..-lso. Fl:RSA S I..-l Ih:sR IQn:. a nd (kT\"IO IAs s I : Mobilidld.J Soci,1 e1ll
Ftorls n potis: A spectos das Relares entre N egros e Brancol Imml
Comun dode do lIrJSiI Jleridioll.Jl. San Paulo, 1960 .
C... RIlAI.1l0. D ELGAI"-' DE: H ist ria [)iplo",.tica do Hlasil. Sao Pa ulo , 1959.
C",x v"'l.I to. J OSf: R OIlRIG \,t;S I)f:: A tpectos de Influencia Africana no Formafio
Soc st do Brasil, )oao Pcssca , lQ7.
C"'STU.l.I"l, }os : A UfRA I.DO : A spectos do R omance Brasieira. Rio de janeiro ,
1961.
C HACO S . V ....'-'lI x n l: H istril das ldias Socialistas no Rrltil. R io de j aneiro ,
1'165
COST.... L ",M ARTl SE P f:RElRA n... : Capoeirll,em: A A rte dJ lJefeM J'esroal Rra-
slcira. R io de j aneiro, 191\ 1.
CoSTA P (; RTO : O Pan oreio no FOnJll fo do N ordeste. R io de j anejro, 1959.
Coonxuo. A rR ~ s lo: A Lit eratura II Q Rraril, 111 (Simbolismo, lmpressonsmo,
Modernism o ). R io de j anciro, 1959.

DA:" TAS. H l ' M BERTO: A mazonia, Cemnbo do Futuro: N otls de Vilgem.

Sao Paulo, 1966.
Difc us s j i :S IOR, ,\1ASl:E1.: ImigrlfaO. Urb,nizarJo. l1/duttrillh:-d fJO: Esmdo
sobre A lgI/1/1 A spectos da Contribu c o Cultu ral do Imigrame 110 Brasil.
Rio de j anciro, 191'>4.
- - -: Regin Cultura1 do Brasil. Rio de j aneiro, 1960.

 Addtional Recent Books Pnblisbed in Brmil 41 9
D l'ART~ SJlGIO G n u ,, : E'or que Exutenr A nol/folbctos 7/0 Brolsi/? Rio de
}aneiro, 1963.

E5Tn "A .\ I , CAII.I.oS: A Questtio JJ Cu/tllrol Popuer, Rin de j aneir o, 19'63.

FA~, Run Cangaceiros e Fanticos: G nese e Luuu, Rio de j aneiru, 1963.

F n ls As uES, Fl.OREST ":-1 : Educolfijo e So cedadc no Bras t. Sao Paulo, 1<)66.
A b lfegrafijo J o N egro Tia S ociedsde de Clssses. Rio de j aneiro,
196....
Mudolllf olS Socie s 1/0 Brasil: A spectos do Desenv o e nncnto Jol So.
c edade Brasilra. Sao Pacl o, 1960.
- - -: A So ciotogia numa Era de Rn Jolu fijo So ca. Sao Pauto, 193.
F ERS AS ll l:5, G O~ yALn;s : R rgiJo. Crt'11fa 1: A dtllde: Ums Visijo da Re-
t giosdade Reath 'a J I' Peqncnos e AUdios A w icu/torl!S de S ub-A ress de
Pernambu co , Recite, 1963.
F OIl.\ CCl li, ,\ h RIAU I:S ,\ 1E SCA R 1 ~ 1: O Esmdsnte e ol T rantf onl1Jfiio da 50-
ciedade Breti eira. Sao Paulo. 195.
FR A ~CO, Aros sc A lll S OS UE .\ IELO: EVO/Uf Jo da Cr se Brssiteire. Sao Paulo,

195
FR r Y ll l:, G ILBER TO : For f JS ArlllJd,u e O utrols Forcss: N ovas ComiderJfes
sobre as R elolf iJes entre as For fas A rll/oldols e as Dema s Forcas de Segu-
rolllf ol. Reci te, ly65.

~
~~~.: Qll aS/! Po sica. m d edn . Rin de janeiro, , <)66.
; E11I T omo de A lguns T mulos A ro-Criuos. Salvador, 11)60.
; H 01Jlo'm , Cu/turol e Trpico. Recite, Iy6Z .
: VidJ. Forma e Coro R io de j anci rn, I l) Z.
: U m Engenhe ro Franc s no Rrssi. ( Int imare diary of Louis Lger
Vauthier ; Brazilian Icrrers of samc.] Ro de j anciro, 1960.
- --: G uia l'rtico, H inrico e S entimental dJ CidJde do Recije. 4th edn.
Rio de Janeiro, 1<)68.
- -- : O mds: 2" G Uiol l'r.itieo, Histrico e Semmemat de () Jade Rrasileirll.
j rd edn. Rio de j aneiro, 1960.
- -- : .ti Propsito de Frades: SUKt:stt!S elll T omo J J /nfl ublci.l de Re,
lgiosos de SJo Francisco I! de Outras Ora m s 10brr o D esemrotv imento de
.\lClJeTn.lr C h ,j/iZJf ik s Cristas, Esped <l/lIIt:m e J ilt H iIpJnical , " <JI T r-
picos. Sal vador, 1959.
FL'RT A[lO, Cn.so : A O perafJ o N ordeste, R io de j an eiro , 1959.
- - - : A Pr-Rn :olufao Br,u i/eira. Rio de j ancir o, 19z,
- - - : l'erspecri!.'dS dJ E conoma RrJsi/eira. m d edn . R io de j aneir o, I l)O.

G m : LA RT, Josi: A l.I'IO; Brasil do Boj e do Couro, Rie de j aneir o, 19'65.

GOl: \"I: IA, APA REC IlJ" J OLY : Proten res de A lII.lllbii: Um Estudo do' Escabe
O CUpJCiOTla/. Rio de j anciro, 1965.
G l1l.'l.IA IlA" S, H ARlIH O ; O Sentido .V acio1/JI dos Problemas do N ordeste
Brssiteiro, R io de j aneiro, 1959.
420 Additional R ecent Books Pubtisbed in Brmit
H ADI>At>. J A.\ tn. A U, lA S Sl: R: R n'olu f aO Cl.l h.tllil e R n 'olufa o Branle ra. Ri o
d e j anciro . 1961.
H Ol.As!>"" , S i R'il{J ik'.... RQl f. Uf; : H isr ria G eral da Ci1..iliZAfaO Brafilt"ira. So
Paulo, 1964.
: V is.io do l'ilriliiO, os "Hoth'os Ed nicos no Descobrmemo e Colo-
niZoI fiio d o Brasil. R io d e j anciro, 1959.

iAS SI. Ck.,.;' VIIJ: In J w t ri.tliZoI f.i o e D esmvotvimento S ocial no BraliJ. R io d e

janciro, ' 93.
Instit uto j oaq uim S"abucu d e Pesq uisas Soc iais. H st rio d os R tlllol d e
Cigarros: A Litogrsfia 110 A nrgo Recie, Pr ef. bv , ~1a\l ro ~ Inta . Reeife,
1965
: T r(lllsforlllar.io R egion.tl " Ci enciil Soci olgica, 1 (Conrideraroes em
T rno de Problemas de R e orma A grri.t 1/ 0 Brasl, em G eral, e na Z01Ia
Ca1lin:ieira d e Pernambuco, e/JI l'ar ticular ). Pr cf. by Gilbe rro Freyre.
Recite, ' 94.

LAG ES[Sr , 11 . D. B.~II. R l'[l. m:: t.en ocin o e I' rorr ituiri o no Brasil. (Soeiologi-
c al stu dy.) R io de janciro , 19&1.
LA.\I BUT. j ACQl: ES: 0 1 Dois BT.tl r. R io de j an ci ro, 1959.
LATI ~', MIRA S lJE B.... RROS: O H omem e o Tr pico. ( A Br;IZ ilian ex pericnc e.]
R o de j anciro, 1959.
: U ma Cidilde 1/1) Tr pico. SJo S cbastiiio J o R o d e [m e ro. R io d e
j aneiro, 1<}6 5'
LI.... I A. Au,;u; A :o.toROSO: O usdro S int tico J.I Literatur a Brasilera. m d edn.
Rio de j aneiro, 1959.
LI.\ tA, Esr.ccrc U[ ; O Mrm do Estranbo d or Cilng.1ceirOI. ( Bio-sociolog teal
essay.) Salvad or, 1965 '
LI"'S, ,\ h RCIOS lI.O PE HARROS: A spectos da Universid ade llrilsileir.1. Recife,
H)6 5

;'I,hcF.I)O, r-.: rRTAs : O Clii d OI l nbamuns. (A family of w arrtnrs and herders

of rhe head ware rs of (he j aguar ihe.) Fo rtaleza, 1965'
;\ IACU:L. CA RLOS FH;UrRICJJ po R fr.o : Sneeues de Economa Edncociona,
Recife, 1965.
,\ h CIEL, T;..\1o F II.t:Pr Rlco D(J RhiO: N roel de V ida do 'Trabs lbador Rur.11 na
2 011,1 d s .\t.1fa. Rccife, 1<}6+
,\ fAGAl IIA[ S j l ' SI0 R. R AI :'>I l:"' uo : R ui, o H omem e o M ilo. rnd e d n . R io de
j anctro, ' 96 5.
;'I, I ALCIIER, j osi: .\I ARIA [lA G AM A: Ind ios, G rau de lm egr' f ii o nil Comunidade,
Grnpo Ungurtico , L ocilli'Z.:tfiio. R io JI' j an eiro. 1<}6+
,\ 1AII.I S IIO, l S EZ IL PE~ ~"" : tmroduc i o .10 Enudo da Et'olufiio D espo rt'tIlJ no
Bras t. Rio de-j anciro, ' 959.
\ IRIO FILHO: O N egro n o Fn tr bol Hrasileiro. md ed n . Ro d e janci ro, ' 964'
~1ARTl S S, l v.... ~ PElJRO r)F.; IntrodUfiio J Economa Brilleiril. Rio d e jancir c ,
196 1.
,\ fARTl SS. Ll'CIASO: Ind flltri.1/i'Z.:triio, llurguesia N acional e Desenv oloimento,
{lnr rod uction tu Brazilia n c risis.) R o de j aneirn, 1968.
 Additional R ecent Books Pubiisbed in Rrazil 42 1
xt n.io. A vrxm 1)" Su.\',,: A Supcriordode do H or1JCm Tr opical. R io de
janciro , 195.
\ l Ello. j o~i: AS H):o,' IO GO"' C;:"LH~ Uf: EstlldoJ Pemrmbucenos: Crtica r
Problemas de A lgmnas Fomes JiI Ji isr ra de Penumbuco. Rec ife, IC}60.
\h kAS lIA, M Mu " /lO C"R:l.1O T"\AIl.f S Df: : Educafiio no Brasil. (Sketch o f his-
rorcat study . ) Recife, 1966.
" lonL, E n.\u R: Revolea J,} Chibm.J. (S ources for rhe hisrory uf rhe re vele of
thc eer by the sailor j oo C nd ido in 1910. ) Ru de j aneiro. 1959.
.\IUTA. ,\ tAUlO: VOtOJ e Ex-c oto s: Aspec tos da V ida So cial do N ordeste.
Recife, 19(,8.

=' AGU:. J ORGE ; f:ducil f Jo e Soc ed s-ie no !Jrill I910-1919. A raraqua ra, 19'
N As"ER, l) A\' III : A R et'olu fao 'lile 11.' l'erdeu a Ji MeJlIIa: Dtsrto de 11111 Re-
prtl.'r. R o de j aneiro, 195 '
Nn'[ s.lhn ll E1.;I. l.lo : Cmema N O'/Jilll0 Brss. Petr polis, 1966.
N If;M t;Y[W , O seAR: Afinhil Experiencia cm Rraslia. R io de j aneiro , 1961.
N L'M:S. ,\ t AW1" Tm:lIS: Emno S ccimdro e So cedade Brasieira. Rio de ja-
neirc, 19z .

Ol.l \E rW A, F RASKI.IS fl ~: : Que iI R M.'OllI fao BraJi/era? Ro de j aneiro, I9 I .

- --,; Re'i;olufiio e Co/ltr.J-RC't'oJllfao l/ O Brasil, R io de j anciro. 196: .
O LI'if.rRA, VAI.U!:... I AR I>f.; O 'Teatro RrilsiJeiro. Salvador, 1959.

PH ... lA I>t: .\lokA ls, j o, i:: Soci olog a JJ R t"IYllufao Brasie ra: An.ilise e nter-
pret<lf .10 do lJrilsil de fl ojeoRio de j anciro, 11}65.
- - - ; Trlldifao e T r<ll/J for1llaf ao dQ Br-ui: A nslise Sociolgica, Amro 4

polgiciI e l'sicanalitica. R io de j aneiro. 109.

Pnro, ERAS...IO; Sitll.lfao Jo Desemotommto Brasilcro e .J Educil fJO.
Curinba, 1959.
P IS TO, E SI h AO; Emologis Hrilsill'ir.J. Sao Paulo, 1956.
PI SI O, L. A. ti" CosTA : Socologe e Deicnvotv memo: T emas e Problemas
de N ono T t'111PO. R io de janeiro, 1C)3 '
PR M)() j s JOW. C.~ I(): A li1.'Oltl fJ o Hr.lJileiril. So Pauto, 1l,l66.
O Problema A grrio n.1 Z Ol/iI Can ev cre de Pernambuco: Conier nc as e
Debutes no Simposio RealizaJ o por lniciativs do INSTITUTO 10.1 -
QUIM N A HUCO lJF. l'E SQ U1SA S SOClA IS, N/I Maio de 196J. Recite,
19"'> 5
Q t:F IRO:r:, .\ I ARrA I sAL' RA P t-WURA Uf:: MrJfi.Jtlis11l0 ' 10 Brasil c no Mundo.
Sao Pau to. 1c)5'

R ABI:U .o. S\I.no : Os Aneuos do Padre Ccero: C()ndifes Socisis e Eco.

n micos Jo Arreianaro de [uazeiro do N orte. Recife, 197.
R ...... I Os. Gn:RREl wo : Mito e V crJ.JJ.. da R ev o/lI fao Il r.lsiJeir<l. Rio de j aneiro,
19(,3
Rus, AUIII. R C UA R F U RElRA ; A A lllil ZUlliil e iI Cobira Internacional, and
edn. Rio de j aneiro, H)65.
R IIlEIRO. D ARe \' : A 1'olrica l ndegenine Brasleira. Rio d e jane iro , 19z.
R I8E1 Ro, REs .-., er 111.: Viralino, Cermnsts Popular Jo N ordcne. Rec tfe, 1959.
422 Additonal R ecent Bookr Pubtisbed in Brazil
- - -; .'\allgo. Recife, 195.
R OIlR IGt;I: S, j osf: H O>;(lIlln : COI/Cili.l fiio e Reiorms 110 Br.u il: Um Drsafi o
H istrico-Poltico. R io de j anciro . 1965.

SIL\' U RA, P UXO IO PA : A "'(!'t'a C,lpital: l'or que, pJrJ onde e como M udar i1

Capital Federal, R io de j anciro, 1959.

Sn1>Rt:, K!'-:Lsn>; \\'Ut"':CK : H istoria dJ Literatura Brasileira: SCIIS Fu nda-
mem os Ec on micos. j rd cdn. R io de janeiro, 1<160.

TA \'ARE S, A,,:Rf:l.lo IJ ~: L l 'R A : O N ordeste: A spectos l'olticos, Econmicos e

l'sicos-sociais. Rec ifc, 1965.
T A\"Il M" j l,.' AREZ : O rganiuf Jo para o Brss. Ro de j aneiro, 1959.
TE ln rR A, AsS10 SI'ISOLA : Educafiio // 1// ireno. Sao Paulo, 1968.
TU,I ,ES, jovra. o Alot'/mem o S ndical nu Brast. Rio d e j aneiro. 1<)6 .
T OC AS Tl :- S, LEAN r'R o : A mez na, Nllturc'Z.1, Homem e Tcmpo . Rio de j a -
neiro, 1960.
T ORRES. )o o CHI llO !l E Or.I\'[IR ,A : Esm u ifi cil fiio Socs no Brasil: Suas Or -
gens Hist ricas e SI/JS Rt'iaf it'S COIII a Orgalliu riio do Pas. Sao Paulo,
1965
- - -: A Formaf Jo do Federalismo '10 Brsst. Sao Paulo, 1<)6 1.

V AI.F.N 'H:, \\ ' ALllt;;'" A R: ,Histicismo e R t'giiio: A spt'Cr05 do Sensmenumo

Nordestino, Rccifc, 1'/"
V USSA , I t l.lo : /f irr6ria do Brasil. Sao Paulo, H)61 -l.
Vl.\S SA .\ 10 0 (:;; Bsnde rsntes e Pioneiro s: " arale/o ent re J)uoJS Culturas. 8t h
cdn. R io de j anciro. J<)66 .
V I(.:'10R, ,\ l R IO: Cinco A nos que A l>alarJ111 o Brasil: D e [s nio QIlJJros eo
Mllrechal CaSf e/o Bronc o, R o de j anciro, 1<)65.
V IL A'-;A. M ARCO S V ISIClL' S, a nd ROBE R'fO C AVAI.CA S Tl A I.BCQt: [Jl.QJ:F. ; Coronel,
Corone s. Rio de j anciro, 195.
V ILA\- , \! ARfS V IS1C Il: S: Em T orno da Soc o ogia do CalJ1inhiio: N OJas
para U11I Esmdo d.n Rl.'laf es do Call1inh:io e do Alotor;s!,] com a l'aisagel1l
e o l /0 11lC11l Bruteros, e1ll G era/, e N ordenmo , e111 Particular. Recife,
1961,
V Il.I,"p, .\ 1.~R l " j o~ i: : A f orf it de T raba/hu no Brasil. Si o Psulo, 1l} 6 1.
VI:"'It.~ S, .\ I or ~ 's : 0 p,'rrios e CampOl/eU 11.1 RC1:oluf :io Brei trira. S o Paulo,
196, .

\\' II. LF-:>IS, L'\f1.lo: Uma V i/a HrasileiTa: Tradif :io e Tra nsifiio. Sio Paulo,
196 1

G.L
 l udcx

A. , H ., ; 8--6() re social p robler ns. 126- 7. 13' ;

Abilio, Colgio: m : Colgio A bilio re Ped ro 11 . H 6
A bo ic onisnro , O ( Xs buco }, xlv, Agosrini, ngclo, ~J ~, 35.;
l 8S. 19 z Ag ricult ural Pro tcct tve Sysrem,
abolirion: see slaverv 251=4
Abranres, .\ larques de, 299 agricuhure. 2 ~::9. 51..1)6. 129. 'J19,
Abranrcs, Viscounr of ~ . , ~ l_l Z--::9, l j -, ;~7; re indusr ry,
A breu. Ca pist rano de , xxv, l z, 243 xxx, lZi, 1 ~ 2 . 2 6~ . 27 2- 4, ]~ j
Abreu, Casimiro de, ~ . !S. re abolirlon, xxxviii; growth of,
Ab reu, Jos de, I I J xlix, 9! . 9~::9. 356; re national
Abreu e Lima, : 89 economv, 1.l:l6-..1, lZ5. ]88; gov-
Abreu e Silva, Flc r ncio Carlos de, em rnenr su ppu rt for o n !:!, 2() l ,
97. 103- 4 2.~J n.; in ne ighhor ing nations,
" Academ lc H ymn" ( G omes), 2.1 l86; researc h and edu carion. 16 1.
A c adcmy, 8razilia n, xvii i Cu . i <li ; re e afro planrutions,
Acad cmy of Lerrer s, xhx, ~4 ; social condirions, rural
Va rga s as mernbe r, xv i; Barrero Aguiar. D urval de Vjeir a, ~.; 9. 189.
ar, xxxi ' 9 !. ; ~L"""'9
Academv uf Science , oH Ake rs. C. L . l i i 'l., li~ n,
A cre, 144-5. 247, 250, 375, .o. A l Bresilc ( Lomonaco ) , 163
A dam, Fa rhe r, }07 A lagoas. 67
Adam, Paul , ~ZQ, } ]:_=3 , H~ Albert 1 (o f Belgium ) . 197
Ad ar ns, H cnrv, xlvii Albuqucrqce, Est vo de S Cevat-
ad verrising, !J H-4~. 3.!ll, 356--8. 179 canri de. !Ji:=]
aeronaurics, xlviii, 117. 277-8, 3 18,J. Alb uquerque, Jos J oaquim
Africa, xix, 1511, 184. 40} xtad eros e. IO,5. 1-18-=9.
Africa ns: scc Negrees '55, , 6:
Agassiz, Eliz abet h, 5.], 95 1/., Q n., Albuquerquc. Lt. Cu lo Cavalcanri d '.
1 1 7 7/. 14
Agassiz, Jean Lc uis R od olphe. 5].92, A lbuqucrq uc, " Iaria (Iai ) Ea val-
95-6; frien d o f Ped ro 11, X\'j; canti de. : 80-:

11 lndex

Albuquerque , Mereus de, 3t?5 Alv es de Figueiredo , Jos. 9].

Albuqucrque .\ Iincrvina de, 11 Z! 3=-1.4
A lbuqucrquc Cavalcanti, Joaqum Amado. Gilbc rto, viii, xvii, xlviii,
A rcoverde de. ' 99. Jl9 11 6, IJ 5. 3. ~.4. Ha. 398; re soc ial
A lbuq uerq ue .\ laran ho: see revol ution, 16 1, B, 3~J!
,\ h ranhi o, Albuquerq ue Amaral de Ver a C ruz, C r ispin, 151,
Alb uqucrqu c Mclo, Jos .\ fari a, 35~
1]~ A mazon ( R ivcr ), 3~, 9z=3
alcoholism, 71, t I l , H h ] B Amazonas, xl, 19 1-1 , p--6, 44-6,
Al eijadinho, Amonio F rancisco, 1 i~, ~6] , 12 4. 3Q '-l i rubber
xxv p[antat ions in, : 3:.:-J ,
A lencar, Ale xandrino de, 111, Z45-=7
H5 America: sce Unired SUtes
Alencar, J os de, xvii, xlv, 14, !..!J. " American" schools. 1 1 ~ 1 9
149. 158-<}, 16 : , 164. 35t?; re Amcr lcanlzatlon : see United Srares,
Ind ians, xviii, xxv, 159; recogn i- infl uence
rion, ~. 15 1 11.-'J ~H=i, ~ j ~; A mer icans: see U nited Srar es. cid-
creares na riona l image, 173::." zens in Brazil
l~i. 3Hz Arnerindians, xliii, 1.79, 198:::9, ~ 9: ;
A lerte, th e, S ~l., (j, 1 2 in lircr arure, xviii, 154, 15 _i cul-
A lexand cr , rcachcr, 113 ture, xix, xxv, xxxii, : 6 11., 161 ,
A Urc J o, J"v, 66-7. 'Y',J. ' iz /67, 169, ;J4, 3gZ social condi-
A lgiers, :.!!4 !!., H Z rions, 49 1.7., lt11, H l , 3'H; lan -
A li, Said, 1! 3 guage. I. ~ ! , 15<rOO; educarion of,
Allain, t mile. 198-] 00
Il , 191- Z. I'N
A lmanaque Rrasileiro Gsm ier, Z ~l 7f" Amics, Ed m undo de, 1 11
;W 1/, H 5. 147 ' /., ]65 n. Amodeo. z83
Alrneida, Cndido .\ teoJ es de, Anahaptisrs. 3" f1
149:':"5 an archisr n. H 1
Alrneid a. H eitor ,\todest o d', :Oi. A nch icta, Fathc r, 3!!!
3!4- lj A nchieta, Colgi o : see Colgo
Alme ida, J os Americe da, 116 Anchieta
A lmeida, j lia Le pes da, 149, 1.59, And alusia, ()1
.6, Ancl , Flvo, 79
Alrueida, Lad islas, Hl n. A ndr ad a, Antonio Carlos de, 3611"
Almcida, ,\ lanuel de, 149, 364 Andrada, "lart im Fra ncisco de , 3() ~!"
Almeida. Pius de, !91-=3 ,Q6-J
Almeida Braga. Em iliano Ribeiro de, And rada e Silva, Jos Bonifc io de:
84: "5 , B n, see Bnnifc io de And rad a e Silva,
A lces, A m onio Castro. xliv, 1!1- 14. Jos
~3 q, 154, 15li; recognirion. Z!, Andradc. Carlos Dr ummo nd de,
' 51 11., l B . '5~ xxv
Alves, Hr iro , xxxii, 8, 1/. And rad c, F igueira, In - S!.. IJ!4
A lves, Francisco de Paula Rodrigues. And rade, O swald de, ISS
xxix, 86-8. HJO::I . 1 3 ~, H5. H it, A nd rad c, Rod r igo .\ 1. F. de, viii
H; presldency of, xv, xlvii, 156, A ndrcws. C. c., 195, 198::9
H 7, 384, 394 Angevillc, D '. ;l~
Alves, j o o Luis. 388 animism. see voodoo
 l ndex 111

"Aniruisr nc F richisee des I'\' cgres de A ra jo, Sousa. 359

Baha, L' " ( Rod rigues ), 3~}=-' A raujo Filho, J. R. de. U2 11.
Anisns e 01 PolriclI Modrr1lll, A Ara xa, spa, 38 [
{T eixeira " Ien des ). 400 archi recrure, xviii, 2 5~. zn--6 j
A nit a, l "':"l foreign, 64, 95, 19; in cities, 111.
Anjo da Meia-:\'oite, O , 1S!! 1} 2- } , a ao, l~ ; c b ur c h , B O- Z
Anios, Au gusTO dos, l i A rcoverde. C ard inal. 20 1
A nnapolis I'\' a\'al Acadcrn v 9 1 Arcoverdc, j oaq uiru, 109
A nn unzio, G abriele d', 19 Argentina. xxii-oc xiii, 4}, 9 [. 17_~. 238.
A nrhou ard , Baron d', l2, 2(,Z 15 1- 2, 3~; rclat ions with Brazil,
anthropclgy. xxiv , xxvii, xxix xliii, xlvii, [1 n" 179. l.--l ; como
A m i-Rebate, ~9 pared wirh Hrazil, 3.. l lI. }11;
A m olo{l;ia Nacional ( Barrero ), I I [ rrade wirh Bra zil, 253, :h9; imrni-
A nton io, N egro, [_}9 gra tiun t o o ltSS, 388; labor
A ntoni o de Lisboa ( Pad ua }, Saine. moveme nr, 387. 197
Ij~ 1/, . 291_, 304, j jll A rgcntinians in Brazil, 19}
A ntonio V ieira ( Bahia) . school, Arin os de ,\ 1t,llu Franco. Afcnso.
n ' II, xxv, 134. H Z
'"
Anrwcr p. u z
Apello theat re ( Pern am buco ) ,
arisrocracy {in Brazil ), H ::5, 62.
~.J-=5 , &-8, [16, !} ~, l.s~" ;;5--6,
",
A ponsmemos para a H in ria d.1 R e-
H 9; re Republic. 'P i 4 ~ , 1_(iL"""'9,
184, Z17 ~~,; later ye ars, Z; ! . 14 [;
pblica dos Estados Unidos do mig raron uf, 2lZ::3, 2n
Brazil (Campos Porro ), 44-=5 armed torees. xxiii, xxxi, xxxviii-xli,
A pstolo, ]1 0- 1 xlvi, 11, ZI, 11 5, f ! ; in ed ucarlon,
Appea/ ro Com en'lItit'es, Atl xxiv, 182- J; pr esrige uf, 9 n. , 175-
(Com te ), }
A ppear.1/lce of R o de [s neiro; T he
6, !1-'r::80: re race, ! 17- S, Jl j .
349; rco rga nizarion, 1.!14; disci-
( C ruls), p (re food s an d pline in. 3<,!2, 4---' ; see alto A rmy;
pasthnes) I"-"avy
A quin o Fonsecs. j oaquim de, ~_4 Anuv, Brazilian. xvi, xxxi, xfvi, l E:.
A ranh n, Gra..a, xvii- xviii, 1 [ 1 , ! !, 144, 3 ~, HZ ; re r evolurion, xlv,
1_49, !55, 156 11. , I ~} , 200- 1, 141l, [6--17. I!J[ i re race, 11, 12, !1',
}lis.; re social r efor m, 324, 11l0-1, Itl.!!; re Positivism, 23. I S2.
H7 314; re Re public, :6:::j l, 44"""'9,
A r anha , O svaldo , [5 611 . 168, u 3- 4; und cr t he Ernpirc,
Araripc, T risro de A lencar. IJ12 , 3z=!l, }4{; re Sute, 4 2- 3, 18 1,
31)1-3 1}0. 393; educarion in, 109"""11,
Aranpe J nior , w 11j, !91, 194. 40j ; reo rganization,
A rar uanm , Coun t o f. 14- 5 184, 25 6, H 5, }47, 40 1-3 ;
Ars ]o, Elisio de. I ~ 11. d iscip line in, 337- 8, 394
Ara jo, Ferreira de. z!l. 141l 11., 151 Amel, acto r. ; } ~
A ra jo, j oaq um Ba rre ro Nauuco art nouvcau, z6}
de: tee N abuco de A ra]o, j oa- A rr hur, K iog. 3116 n.
quiru Barrero arrisans. 1 8~. 2I
A rajo, " Ian uel do ,\ t om e arts. rhe, xviii, xx, 6 z ::6, ~, 16},
Rodrigues d', 196 z83-:-4. 33(1-3, Il'! I- l
A ra ] o, Sih'a. !-49. }th A ry aas, Brazilians as, 160- 1
IV lndex

Asia . 158, 1 H n., 145-6 Cou ncil, 7. 173i music al Jife. 1!),
A sians, in Brazil, 104 78; School of .\ l edicine. I n.
A ssassinawr Ma( onicOJ {T axil}, l H - j , 115=9. 1116. 194 , W",,60;
ES as c ultural ccntcr, 1...!4. 110--1
A ssis, j o aq uim '\lachado de: see Bakunin .\ Iikhai l. 3) 1
.'.lachadu de Asss, j oaq um Ialdwi n locomonve, 94
A ssociaciio da Colonia. Brssileira, Bsllou .\ b t urio .\ 1.. 1J 8=9. 11 4. 21-6,
15' 330- 1
A te ncu ( A rgent ina ), xxiii Bancrofr, George, an d Ped ro 11 . 9.1
Areneu Leopoldincnsc, 3:1 Bandeira \ lannel Camero de Sousa,
nrheism, ii xviii, j l-]. 56. 101. 113-14
A rias of Cbemissry ( Youman } , 94 Bandcira de .\ Ielo. F rancisco de Assls
Arri, A. d', l~; re Ge rmans in Bra- Chareaubria nd. xlviii
lit, !.97 Bangu ,\ Iills. 311
Audiffr ce, Georges, re biology, 81 banks. I I J
Auler, Guilhe rmc, 156 //. Baprisrs. I II:I IJ,
A ustra lia, 160 Harbosa, Fforenr inc, 319
Acsrreg so. Anton io. 3~ 1 Barbo s a \ la nuel. H!
A usrr tans in Brazil, 6 1, ~9j , n 7~8 , BarlJm a, Ruy. xlvi. xlix, 33 .JI , ' _'--' .
25-.2 I.E . I-I r=!!... 151 11., ~H. 1.59, 1_{j4.
auromoh ilc s, 34' '_ 3, 1f13 , 'Ql , ] 111 n., 1i!!; inrellccr.
Aven ida, H otel ( R in de j aneiro ), xvi, xxii, H1 I ; polirical t hiok ing,
!U - o, 265 xxxiv- xl, xlv i, JO-I, lOO 1/.; as
A y rcs, Emlio Cardoso, 1}3. 179::80, orato r, xlviii, 111 - 4, 116, ' 55 . !1$1 ;
~ ':4, 352 and roona ecbv, 21=.8, 5.0, 339. 314;
Azcvedo. Aluisio de, xlv, 1_~5 , 11 0 , and narinnal im age, 39, !j1. 1j fc1;
118, ~49, ~~_, ~ H, '.12=9. 161, and Army, 45.-6, l.l1::"J; and u.s..
Ji4. 353-4. 3Q5 9'!, 91=1; soci al rh inking, 91, 'J~,
A zc\-ed (;-.t\ ;'-=-a res de, ~ 49 160- 1, 1_84-:"5,3 14, 150. H~ - 2, 354,
Azevedo, Aroldo de, 12111. 188,404; Y(! religio n, / 10, 1.31 , 186,
Azevedo, Arthur. 155. 157 1_~9. 2Q1-=3, 314, Jl~ ; nn rirles,
Azevc dn, Cost a, 92 ~J, 166; and N egre es. 160, 186;
A zeved o. j o o L cio 1.1 '. 190 (JO econornv, 1 ! ~, lQi~
A zevedo , .\tanue\ Amonio D uarre Barbosa de R esen de, Cssio.
de: see D uartc de Azeved o , 11 9:':} 1
xtsnuel Antonio Barbosa Lima, Alexand r e J os: sce
Azcvedo Pereira de Qucie s .\ l ar ia Lima, A lexandre J os Harbosa
Vincenrin a de. 75 Barcelona architect ure, ~4
Barral, Scnho ra, ?3
B.F.F.. governor of A mazonas, Barrero , Alfredo Coclho, J.l9
~4~j Barre ro, Barros, 53
Hahson, Roger \\ '. 11411. 1-'9 Barrer o. D anras. Gen., xxx i
Bach. J ohann Seb asrian. 134 Bar rero. jojiu, on .\ tac hado, 1-.1
Bal pc ndi. sra, 380 Bar rero. Lacte, 11I
Hagehor, \\ 'alter . xxiv Barrero, Lima, narive Brazitian. ' 59.
Bah ia, xlviii, 5-6, /071. , 59. ~, I1 j - 354
B , 133 71 ., Ha. H z=9. 3J..! ; Bar rero, L u s Pc rcira, 1] , P -3, / 18,
N egrees in. xxv, 5~. ~3(J; Ctry lJQ, 149= 50, l!lJ
 lndcx v
Barreta, P aulo : sce R iu, j o o do Bible. ISO, 1611!" Jl 7
Barrero. Plnio, 106 lJig .Uolley, T be (D os Passus) ,
Bar rero. T obias, XX\', xlv- xlvi, iZ 4, 155 ' 1., I S6 11.
15.211'J !J4, 162, 197, 225-6, ~ H; Bilac , Olavo, 11+ 149, ' 5 11., Ij l- 3,
in educarion, I!.S, ! ~ 8-J?, 151. on !59, 2'" , 1~', 31.1 4
race, 1(j .I , 184-S, 1 11 Bincr, Ca rlos, 11
Barrero de .\ l eneses, j o o : see Mcn- Hinculo, O , 140- 2
eses, joo Barrero de birds. j l-4, 7..6
Barrero X abuco de A rajo, j oaquim . bir rh ccnrrol, 2~ '(/
2l:l5=1 Bittcncourt, Ed rnundo, 148, 354
Barros, Feliciana de, 1.! 9 Bitten co urt, ;\ l an uel, !..!5
Barros, Francisco and Scbasrio ( do Hirjcn cou r t , Sampaio, 149, I j ~
R cgO ), 181 Bivar, ,\ Iilit ao, 38011.
Barr os Barrero, .\ lisscs, reac hcrs, 53 Bizcr. G corgcs. E =3
Bar rus Carvalhu, Am o nio de, viii Rlack Guar d, Il:l::! 1, 3', ' 76-7,
Barroso, Gustavo, 360 !19
"Bartolomeu d e G usm:io ," ~ Blanco, Am on io GU1.mn, on
Bastos, T avares, 86-7,1.49 N abuco, 31
Bastos de .\ leneses, D ur val, 146 11. Bland , J. O. p " : j1 IJ., : 65 11.
Bates, H en rv " ' alter, 9 2 Hlcsscd Sacramcnc, O rder of thc, 300,
Bart lc y Ordoez, 3.t1, 39 ; -8 3 ~3
Bcard , Charles and " Iarr , xxv Blot, pubhshcr, ' 5....
Beckma n, .\ tanuel, and .\laranhao Boa Via gcm, 1:0
up rislngs in 16t14, 49 Roa Vist a, Bar on de, ~J =4, 23 6 11 ,
becf see carde Boa V ista Repuhlican Cluh, 14S
bcgging, 0 Bocsgc. .' Ian uel .' ta rie Harbosn de,
Bel m. 53, S9,93 , 1 4~ 141 '--B - 14
Belgian influencc , ~ Bocay uva. Q uint inu, xxxix.-xl, ](i, ib
Bclg ians, in Braall, x liv, ~, 3 iZ- 1J, 79::80, 141- 8, 1_17; on l)'Atri,
Ji' ~ 9 Zt aoo, 24Zd3j, H1
Belgium, 6 1 , ~ , 3'}O-1, 397 Bol var , Simn, !j- 14
Belo H orizonte, as a new city, H 7 Bolivia, ~44
Benedictino order, ~ 9Zt E2, 3.1_6, Bom Consclho. Viscou nr do, 24
E2::1 1 Bom Retiro, 1 0 1
heoen ,leoces, 297, 30.1, H ~ Ron tlm, Baron css nf, 00 :-':egroes and
Bennen, F rank: on race and Empire, thc Rcpublic, 8 11.
I ~; and re volu rion, 11.2 Bon fi m, M srt fnlano do, so rcerer,
B rangers, I~ 3<:'.1
Bergson, H cnr i, philosopher, XXI Bonifcio de And r ada e Silva, J os,
Bcrnadcc . Arrhur. 336 11. xxi-ccx ii, 35, ~ ! 4, ~5Z, , 60, 1IIz,
Bern ardelli, H cnrique, 1Jl:3 21 3, ~ 42 , H~
Hern rdez, ,\ lan uel, 35 1 bnoks and readi ng: see lircrarurc ;
Bernc. xlvii, 35 2 p ublishing
Bern icr, P., H Z Hordalo, Rafael, Ip
Bevilaq ua. Clvis, social ph ilosop hcr, Bordclo, T bc ( R osa ) , 60-1
xx v; on civ il cede, xlx. l IS, S orges, Abilio Csar, I QSl, li
14\1 Borgcs. Alf redo Bart olo mcu da Rosa,
Bczer ra, Jos, !J5 11. !!J
v/ lndex
Born eo, 2 4 ~ 60, 65, 91, 193, 157. 186, 399::400,
Bossuct, jacq ues-B nig nc, 11 6
4'
Borafogo, farnilv life in, Si Brito, Lus Corr ia de, 3:6-7, B 1- 1
Horelho de '\hgalhacs. Amcsr Ar- Briro, R , Fa rias. 197
ma ndo, 212 Brito, Saturnino de , H ~
Hou cre, jeweler, 'Z.l Hr inanv , 304
Hradford, agronomisr, E S Brown. ,\ l iss, 1 1 7- 111, 119 11.
Braga, Emiliann R ibciro de A lmcida, Hr ud c rc r & Co ., 3~J
53 n., 84~ , }68 Hrum. Balrhazar. polirical philnso-
Br aganca linc, xl pher, xxii
Bra h m a R estaura nt, Ji3=i Hr vce, James, 161- 1; on Bra ailian
Hrand o. firmo 1~ 3 Constitution, 1 66 ; un church re-
Branncr. j ohn Casper, 91, l 55 7/., viralizaeion, l B ; un rhe Rcp ublic.
l O' 3-10-1; nn A rrny, 3-19
Branr, Mario, : 81 n. Buarq ue de H olanda. Aurlio: scc
Brs, V enccslau, xvi, XX XI , xlix, ~ H o landa, Aurlio Buanluc de
319. l23 bu bunic plague, H5
Brasil, A ssis, l OO, ~H. 366 Bchncr, Lud wi g, 115
Brasil, H ure! ( Prrc A legre) , ;44 Bueno. Pir nent n, xliii. 1.t9
Brasil, ,\ Io ur a, 3 ~ 2 Buenos A ires, 4l ' 171 , 157
Brasil, Vital , xlvii, H9. 1~ 3 Bll lh''es, Lco poldo de. 1!9
Br.ul; O : see Lambcrg, " ' auricio Burgcss. Q uaker , 3~1
Brasilianische Bank fu e D curschland , burial, 3'><:'
; 54 hll rili, s:
Breut: A Study of Econontc T y pes Burma, 1,15
( :"ormano ), I 12 Burnichon, j oseph. ~1=5 . l OO, 3 ~J ,
Hrau / an tbe Brezi ians: ICC Flete her, 3049; on c hurc h state, : 89, : 9 3- 4;
J. C. on rhe Chu rc h, 33- 5, 311-1}, 311
Brasil Imelecmsl, El ( .\ ' eroll) . 16 1 Hurro n, R ichard , lis 11., 16.
Braut, T oda y and T'omorro-ur: ser Buran ran lnsrirurc. xlvii, 359::iX', 383,
[ Iliott. L. E. 4()4
Brazilian Acadernv o f Lctrers, xvi,
xxxi, xlix, 164 cable, transatlan ric, xliv, 94. ~!l9
Brazilian At hencum , 1 1 1- 1 3 Cabo Friu, Viscounr de, 9Q
BrJzili,1n Excbangc ( \ " ileman) , u 8 Cab(><:la, wirch, 3<!9
Bra zilian Posirivisr Church, 12- 18, Cabodo Club, ~
'l su.
cahoros , !9l'I, !98::9, 113. 1 ~3 ,
Brazilian \\' ar Cotlcge, xxiii-xxiv 3;5, 4 1, 4(~4
Brazlian \ \'arr am Company, 155 Cabr al. Luis Gonl.aga, }3()
Brennand , Ricard o, collecror, Cabral, Ulisses Jos da Costa, 111
XXX II Cabrima, reachcr. 1 J 3
Br sil JII XX , Scle, Le: iee Denis, Cadiz ( Spain), 10
Picrre Cacuno, j cac. 1.55
8 rh l , L e ( ,\ Iarc ). 35 ~ cafs, 14?
Brhil, Le ( ,\ Inr) , 158 Ca ldas, spa, 3110
Br si d'A fljourd'hlli, L e: see Calder n, Francisco G arcia, xxii,
Bumichon, j osep h XXV I
Br it ains, in Brazil. xix-xx, =Z. 9, 5], Calmenn-Lvv, publis her, 15{)
 Index ','IJ

Cs lmon. M iguel, %00- 1 Ca rlsha d ( Bohemia ), ! 4..I., 351

Calmun, Ped ro, 3.tis Carmelit e o rder , n ?
Calgeras, Pand ia, xvi, xxii, ~5~, Carmen {Bizet ) , 2:-3
W Carnero, Jos ,\ laga lhaes, arc--r
Cmara, A rd ura, u s Carneirn, Luciano, ' 0 1 n.
Cdmara, Faelante de. !..!5 Carn eiro xtonrelrc farnily, ; 3j11.
Camaragibt: Factor}" 3:Q=1 carnival season, xix-ex, '..!9, :56, :.~,
Caruoens. Lus de, , 6 : l~
Ca mpan h a. spa, 380 Camor, ,\ 1.. 6:
Cam pista, D avid. politician, XXII. ~5 , C artcs ian p hilosoph j-, xx i
%..!9 Carvalh o,A nrnio de Barros, vii
Campos, Fr ancisco, XXIll Carvalho, Ca rlos de, 6 11.
Campos, O lm pio de, p 8 Car valho.D elgado de , 135
Cam pos, Pinto de , l B: Carvalh o.ster de, %97
Ca m pos, Rcuaro , E 7 Carvalho, F clisbcrto de, 1:
Cam pos ( p ro vince of R io de Carvalho. j oo Bernar dino de Sc usa,
J aneiro ) , xlv l!9
Campos Porto, \'I. E, de, :4 / " 4,! 1I., Ca rvalho. j o o F c rn an d es de, 75
43-:-S Carvalho, Jos Carlos de. 3 ~1 n,
Cam pos Sales. \ la nuel Ferva z de: Carva lho, T omas. 383
tee Sales .\ lanucl Fervaz de Ca sa Bar o de lpancrn a, firm , Hl
Cam po s CasJ de Perno , A {A zevedo),
Can a:i {A ranha ) , xvii-oo-iii, I S6 71 ., reo n,
163 , : 4t1 , 347 Caseme nr, Roger , 14H
Cand iani, singer, 7t1 Cash, \\' iluur J . ~5
Cindido, j oo, xxxi, xlix, %56 n., 340, Casrelo Bran c o , Cam ilo, ' 54
35 1 , 3t11 ~J J99 C asrllhos, JUlio de. 15 n-, H(eJ, 155 n.
C and le r, Q ua ker , 3(): ,~

Canudos. xxxi, xlvi, 9!:!, 100- 1. 171. Castro, F rancisco de, 3+1, 381
: 44, 3%(), 40 i Castro, G ent il de, po
Capibar ibe ( Rivcr ) , S!, 25 Castro, J . .\ 1. de, 377
capoere, IO-:-U, l.15- 8, : 64, JI 6, Castro, Lus de. 150
lt;>4 Castro , ,\ lagalhaes, E9":w
Ca puch in orde r, xliv, 3ol!=9. 3! :, Castro, Placido de, 144
ll ' Castro, Viveiros de, 1 15
Ca rapeb us, Jos de. li5 Castro e Sousa, M ilitao de, .E 5
Ca ravelas, H 8 Catete Palacc (Sao Pa ulu ), 75
Ca rd itf (\ "alcs ). 351=4 Cat hcc C hu rch : see chu rch and
Cerdoso. Fausto. : 00-1 , 37 ~ clergy
Cerd oso, Vicen te Lknin, social phi- Cat ho lic Co ngress, Firsr, j2 7-tI
losophcr . X X \', 355; en hisrorical Carholic socialism, 3l : -<}
st udies, xxix canje, ~j l, l B n. l Jl - 3. !.Sj. :61,
Cardoso A y res, Emilio : tec Ay res. 3lil. 3t;>.s
Em ilio Cerdoso Caruci, u :z=H
C a rd o sc Brcrhers, firm . , <)o Cavalcan re, Virgnia, 5' -' , 55-6, 116,
ca rtc atu re, 15%- j , 352- 3 : IJ
Carlos, Am on io, 118- 19 Cavalcanti, A maro, xxii. 219. 154 n.
Carlos, j oo, lB Ca valcanri, And r, 6 1
'1.'111 lndex

Cavalcanri, Pa ulo, 151 11. 1HS- ] 17, 3! 9=16. 31 8--H; and

Cavalcanti, Pedro, 168 n. state, xiv, xxx, 31- 4, 3. ~, 185-
C avakao ti. [ oaquim Ar coverde d e ~, 19 1 - 4. 199. ](j], E i , 3}o-! .
A lbuquerque, 199, 329 ]93; and Ped ro 11, xxxvii. 346;
Cavalcam de A lbuq uerq ue : see and ,\ Ia5{Jns, xliv, Z!d I I - IJ . Ej.
Alh uquerq ue 3H ' and politics, lIS, 10, 19, 56,
Cilt'ill/eria R usticilNa ( ,\ !ascagoi ), 9'?, 101- 1, 168,~ , ~ 88::9 , 191::-4.
11::-3 3 ~5, 3111::9. 331::-3, 339; and other
Caxambu. spa. ]80 cu lts, 10, 16 11., ~. l !l, 3!?4-::-5,
Caxias, D uke of ( Lima e Silva. L us 3 ~ ; music, 1.0 - 1., ]p ; ant iclerical-
A lvcs de ) , xliv-olv, I.H. I S: 11" ism, 9 [, 31j ; on cducatiu n, 110-
,', 11, !J J. ! 18, 11<rllu, l.!lj =1, 293,
Ee ara [state }, 54, slS.IS.1. 109::10 , ZZl;l; 3I j - llS, jl 9::.20, 3JI , j 5l.=2; de-
drought in, xliv; eruanciparion, cline of lIll. ~9J =i . ]08, E}, E 4::
xlv 15, 351 -1 ; on social lssues, IJI ,
Celso. Afa mo. 149. 154. 110 j Oj , 31j --l'l, 318--<;, 394::5 ; 0 0 racc,
Celso J nio r. Afonso, 157, n (ll/. !]j, !.l9; benevolences, 1 9 ~ , 197-
Central Associatinn of Seamen. 399 31.31 ]-6; rc viralieed, j 10-1 4,
C erro Cor da, Batrlc o, 11 //. ]3 0-4, 314; art and arc hitectu rc,
Cerurre, snger, 1 1 0 N. 330-3 ; and labo r, 351. 391l1l.; see
Csar, ,\ t oreira, }l O illso Proresrantisrn; religio" ; Spir-
Ceylon. ZZ9, 145-6 itsrn; spiriruahsm
Chacn , T r ajano, 145 Chur ch of the Posirivisr Aposrlcship.
Chagas. Carlos, 359 lO'
Charn ber of Depurics, [.19, 185:::6. Ccero, Pad re, ] oIl
195, E~ ern anci pation o, xliii; Cdsde do R ec ie, ~ i~
abolition, xlv cmerna, xx, 9.1
Chandl er. 91 Ciranda, da nce, J I
C baracter (Smiles ) , I lZ Crandinba, dance, 11
charines: sec benevolences city planning, ~4, IjZ - ] , n o, 133- 4.
Chaelcrnagne, S.~ 156 163, 113-:-4
Ch ase, Gilbe rr, 11 11. civil code, xlix
Ehateau briand, A ssis, xix, 13) civil disor der , xv
Charcaubeiand, Francois Ren , ~09, Cit'iliz.a ,,jo, Cat holic r evie w , I ! j
l'5 class, 1.05, I ~---E
Cha urard. Dom, 315 class ditfere nces, q , So. 1] 4, !i 4-:5
Ch icago, ~9 see also labor ; racc
C hile .H , 'J [ , !l; revolurion, 9 class distinctions, SS ; in music. ]!!.
Chileans, in Brazil, 19] Clemcnceau, G eorgcs, [.Qj, ] ~ 9. ] 37
C hina, zc)o 9, H <rSI; on rhe C hu rch, p]; on
chole ra. 344 social issues, 114:-5. l lll:l, sw
chor al gro ups, 75-6 clergy : see church and clergy
Ch ristia n D arnos. 313 climate, 1[g-1O, 1.19, ~ ~ Z, 160, HI ,
C hristian Fed era tion of Work crs, 316-1; and lifc srylc, 9, n~, 17S-
32 ~ 9, 3 ~ ; and archirecture, IJ ] . 174;
chu rch and clergv, xiv, xx-xxi, xxx, and immigrat ion, ~ ~
IH, 81-1, 110- 11. ~!5 , ~;~, p 6, Club JJ, 13<r4()
129.149, 159. !.JS, 197. ~.-6. cocos, 71
 11ldex IX

cocottes: see prostiturion 1$, 21=3 . 8 z- 4. 184. 13611., 3 ~.

Cdigo Filipino ( Mc ndcs) , !50 "5
Coelho Barreto, Alfredo: see Bar- Conceicio. Mana j oaq uina da, 54::5
reto. A lfredo Cocl ho concc rt life, ZS-8. 1 ~5
Coelho Nero. H enrique " t ximo, 11, Confucian Grou p, 301
8(i, 157, 1 5 ~, 191 Congress fo r rhe Srudy of A fr o-
co ffee, I1 Z, 196, 216. ~j j ::5 , l S!!=9 ; Brazilian Sub jccrs, xxv
ex port o f. xv, 1.6J ,!,; rrade in, Conquon of Brazii, T be {Nas h ) ,
xxiii, 59, 3'U -4; in national eccn- 359""" 1
omy, 21(>-4, 218-]1 . 148, 169, 11.1 , Conselhciro, A ntonio, xxix, xxxi, xlvi,
3'15, 356, 36 [, 374. 394, 396, 404 ; 98, 10 1- 1. 11.6, 1.13. 3 8, 404
t ranspo rt of, H 1 Consra nr, Ben jamin ( .\ lagalhes,
Colrnb ra. Est cio. Hl, 100- 1, 166, Benjamn Ccnseanc BotcJ hode ),
33' xxxix-xl, !5, )6, 45=, 111, 335 .
Combra Un iversiry ( Po rtugal }, )~ 1} 391; as Posirivist, l l~, 8z -
H 11., 116:----1, 157. 169. 188 11. 5. 180, ;3 ~ . 374; re .\ lagalhaes. 96,
Colaco, Fili pe N eri, 3IJ_z LII-Il ; on educatio n, 106-8.
Colgio Ablio, 11 1, H.I 1..!!1-4, 114. 3181/.,' on rnilirarv
Colgio Americano, 3~ cducarion, 1 10
Colgo Anchiera, 11Q=J1 , 3 1.~- 16, Constant. Ben jamin, Jr. ( Brazilian ) .
H' ~~
Colgio de j 1io T eodor ico, 3(i9 Consrant. Ben jam in (of Fr ance },
Colegio de " lxico. xxiii Z 1 1/ .

Colgio Pesralozzi, l J S Constitution, Brazilian, xlvi, 11, 166,

Colgio Prog resso, 3 ~ Z=.Jll [.0'-..El, 191=3 nmdcled on rhat
Co llcge de Fr anco, 39 of U .5., 90, 91- 8
Collier. Pierre. P l> Constitu ti"nal A ssembly, l 5. 11.!1

,,,
Co l'inia Hr asileira, A sscciac o da, Conrendas, Baro n de, 137
Conro, D r. " Iiguel. 341=... 1-1
colony. Brazil as, xiii, xiv, 31..::J . 3l>' Comes Fluminenses ( Assis}, xliii
49. 56, 66-, 88, 198. ar o, n o, ~ ~. conrra band: iee sm uggl ing
16.1, 114 Contrib uindo ( Andra da), 397
Co lor, Lindolfo, 194 cooking: t ee food
Colum b ia Un iver siry, xxiv Coolev, Ch arles H orton, xxx
Cornair, 11m}. 17 Coope r, j ames Fenirnorc, 9 1
Comandu tuha, colon)', ~ Corco, G ustavo, xx
Com bate , O , !9 Corcovado, xlv
commcrc c, 4t::J, 93, IZ[ -Z. 119 Come r ly, " I r.. 39":"40
Eonnnerrio de Sao Pall lo, 31 'l. Comuc p s des Solles, I Sl l1.
com rnurucanons, 39, 1.! 9, 113 Correia, R aimu ndo, !!4
communism, xx, p , 195. lS ~ , 3]1-3 . Cor reia. Rivad via, : 00- [
3E; see abo .\ la rxism Correia. Scrzcdelo, 107-8, ~
Companhia Emp r io Ind ustrial do Corria de Hrito, Luis. 316-7. 31 1
N o rrc, 3' Co rreia de Olivcira, j oo A lfredo.
COOl p,mh ia Unido e Indsrria , ! 'll z8, ;)Z
Comrc, Auguste, xxi, I j . ! !S, u3. COTTeiOdo ['0"1,'0 ( Rio ) , +1::5, 4Z=!1
391_; cired, ix; philosophy of, xvi, Correio Alercolntil, 93
11, I ! z; influence in Br azil, 15. 17- Corre o Psulsrmo, l S. H 6
x l ndex
Corsi. Cario, 1 1 1 Cunha, Flores da , :00- 1
Cort if o, O ( A zevedo }, r ao st. Cunha. G asro da , 85, 200-1 , 243
Cc ruja. grammarian. 10 5 Cunha, H er culan o A ugusto Lassance,
Costa. Afonso, 15oJ 11" P9 60 .
Costa, Alberto T eixeira d a, } I 5-=-16 Ccnha, H igino Ccero da, 97, 115
Cost a, Antonio Maccdo, 191, ~ 94, Cu nha, ,\!ar ine Commandant , 399
188, 193, 331 C un ha, Q uint ino, 237
Costa, Cruz, 400
Costa , Flix d a. 61 dancing, xxvl, 5l, 58, 69, 72::"5, 7.6 11"
Costa, Isalrino, 168 n., 169 90,97, 1!-6, 151 n.,
364, 371,
Coeeglpe. Joao "iaurcio, Baron of; "
8(i,-J . 111>:::"1; on social issues, xlv, D am as, Car los L us de V argas,
88, ~41 . 299, l OO; o n srate rssucs, 1~=-8
lOO, 199 Danres, Dem ste nes fpi ranga de
cotton, l B ~., 1 5 ~, ; 55, 159. in na- Soma, -4
rional economy. 111, 227, 3tI Darcy, J ames, 2 ~1
Coumer-A erm, 19 D ad o, R ub n, ~
Caurt Planning Cornm ission, I P =3 D sudrs, the, 359
Co urinho, Afran io. 14811. D aza, 37
Couto, Dr. G ra~a. 372 Deb rer, j ean-Bapt isre, xvi, 61
COutO de ,\ 1agalhaes ( Rive r}, '91 Dcada R epu blicana, A ( Figueira) ,
Co urro, Pedro de, 1(11 182, 2.p
Cooey, Louis, 22 1 n, de eo r, l5-5:::1. ~ 41 -2 ; see also furnish-
crirne, z(i3::4
Crtse da Prafll, A ( Carvalho ), l J9
m"
Defoe, Daniel, ]7.(
Cr ie da Barrocba, A ( Sousa ), 146 n., Denis, Ferd inand . 66 /1,
' 47 Dcnis, Pierre, 2 ~~, 2Z2, 336
Cr uls, Gastao, p denrisrr v, ] 8 2
Cruls, Lus. xliv, !O} n. Deodoro d a Fonsec a: see Fonseca,
C r uz, D sval du, zOO::"I, 241. 156, ~~. Deodoro d a
3~. 345. 38! ; on yeltow fever, de pression, 1894, xlc
xvii, 147, li'S't on mosq uito con- Deruy, O r ville A lbert , 92, 255 11." 141,
t rol, 3-4 J~I
Cruz e Sousa, 161 Descric es Pr rics d a Provin cia d a
C ruz [Osvald o ) Instirure, 319, 4~i Bahia ( Aguia r l , ~ I
C ruz eiro, V lscount d e, 299
Cruzeiro, O , 36, 10 1 n.
D ever dos M onarquistas,
( ;-.;'abuco ) , 11 1

Cuba, f~ Dcwey. j ohn, xxiv
cuisine: see fo od Dia , O , ] 0
C unha, Co um da ( rxrh century l, Disbo a Q U.7tro, 0 , 115:, 9 1
loo DiMio da Rahia, 181 , 19 1
Ccnha, Euclydes da, xviii, XX \" xlix, lJirio de Conrntercio ( R io), E ::2
xlvii, ~J 11., ~4 ~. 101, 111, 155, Di.rio de N oticias ( Bahia }, ;" ] 0-1.,
159, ~ 154, 21) 1, 238, 243, 255 n., H 5, 45=7, I,P , L, S
H2, 365; on use of naeive ele- V idrio d e Pernam buco, xlviii, ~J 9,
mcnts, XX\', ~59, 3i15, 3(i] i on back- 99
lands, 192, 2J 7, 24 ~, 25(, 273, Dirio do Congresso N ac onsl, ]89
60 Dirios, club , 15
 l ndex xt

Dirios A ssociados, 135". O unca n, lsadoru, I SS

Dias, Antonio O oncalv es, xliii, 5(i, O usc, Eleonora, z.!I
Ill::! 4, 154. 15 8-60, 164, IV , , 04; D urch. in Brazil, 19M
un lndia ns, XX\', 159; populariry D uech compcrit ion, ! i ll
o f, xv ii, 7}. IS' 1!" 153; o n D urch East lndies, ' 46
national imagc, ~74, J(i4 Dutra, Firmo, ~ } !l., H ~ ; on rubber
D ias de Freirs, C ndido : tee Freirs, boom, '48
C nd ido D ias de
Diaz, Porfirio , ! 7, I_~ Eca de Q ueiroz, J os ,\ t aria: see
dictatorship, xxxi, 9, 11 11., IJ- 14, 1-.1, Ouciroe, J os ,\ la ria Er;a de
46, 2JO, ~ 7! economy, natio nal, xu-xxiv, xlvi-.
diet: see food xlvii, 14, 3 1- 3, 43, 59, 9z=-8, 145,
D inis, xt enuel Pereira, 9.!! 161-:-', !.!1=3~. ' '11, ~ 4 !l.. ' i.!.-
'""'9.
diphrheria, 344 ,67-(}, ' 7,-6, 197, 35(1' 36} ; agri-
diplomacy, xvi-xvii, xix, 179, 'O,, cultu ral, 1ll6--.1, z r j ; under rhe
BIl-9; tee airo foreign relations Republic, :1 8- 19, 375; re industry
Dix-huis Mois dant l'Amrique du and labor, ' 6', Ji7. 398
Sud ( R ob iano ), 163 Edison, Thomas A lva, 91, ' 9'
docrors: see medic ine ed ucation, xvii, xxiii, xxv, 30, B .
Dollo1T Princess, T be, 23 I P, lJJ , I~io. 19'-=3, ' 1!? '79-'
dolls, 55-::6, 97, 11 6 80, 140. 40' ; uode r t he E mpire.
Dol rcs, Ca rmen. 16, 311-(}. 194; scicnrific, 45, '...!l:::.3();
Dom Joao V I no Brasil ( Oliveira and rhe Chu rch, 58, 110":'11, '85-
L ima ) , t' 7, l~ 1 - 1 6, E 'l'::'}, 35S highe r , 82,
Dor ubr e, 361 Ij t?, ~ Z '-3 , I .<c.' , 194; V,S , influ-
D omvill e-Fife, Cha rles \ V., 38311., ence in, 93-=-4, I I~, 1' 4; reform of,
390=1 , 4 3 1)6, ~::9 ; srarisrics, !~j ::4, 193;
Don Q uixote (Cervantes ), 1.49 elemcntary, 104, 10S--9; discipline
D r ia, Escrsgnotle, I ~~, ~~" 7.1 11., in, 104-5, 108-9, 112 , 11 6, 11 8,
7.!! n., 79 1/ J! 4, 312- 18, 3;!; laoguage st ud y,
Dos Passos, J ohn, !J51!cJ 156 n, J()j--6, I.~ ; recreanon in, 105. 1(8,
D nucet, JH 11 1, '...! 4, IJ .9, E.5- 16; kind ergar -
Doye. Arrhur Cena n, 111 ten, 111, I IZ- I vocacional. 188-
Drago, Lus Pedro, I~S 9, 19 1-4; fo r professions,
d rama: see rheatre ll'
d rcss and gronming: xxxii, 38, 55--6, Educat on of a Soldier, T be (Corsi),
7),27,29:11:0, ' 0 1-', ' Ji, 'i", ' 67, ,"
358, 3";'z=-1I, 37", 37'::4, 3 }, }85 Educnon of H e1/TY AdlllllS, T he,
dro ught, 11177. xliv xlvii
D1Oz, Fr anr;ois Xa vie r. 150 Egyptian pone r)'. 11
drugs: see pharmacology Ei/fe! T ower, 43
D uarte de Azevedo, ,\ !an uel An - eleccions. 39 1
rnio, 54, 9:z=11, 204-:5 ; sup p0 rts electr-ification, xlv, 5.3
Republic. 25 elecerorherapy, 33
D umas, Alc xan drc, 153::4, 157 Elisio, Filinto, 114
D u m cnr . Alberto Santos, xvii, xlviii, ElI iutt. L. E., ~i5::1 ; on literaturc,
151 11., 154 aod 1/ ., 17-', 201, 25(i, !59. ~ t? ! ; on narional economy,
~.zz-8 , 284, J1 8~" 37h 4()'I Jj l , 2H~j , Ji l .=- J ; 00 nn rmgra-
XII Index
tio n, ~ ~ ; on thc Church, E 3. Estudos Brasileirost see V erssimo,
333; 00 med icine, H~ , 359 Jos
ElIis, Alfred , J r., 212 1/ . Eu. Conde d', xxxix ; un Indians, 199
em ancipat io n : see slave ry euge01cs, ~ 10-11
Ernsnucl, G iovanni, ~} 6 Europe. influence in Hrazil, 62=." 66,
Emission and Conversin n Bank, 1) 9=:P. 125 , I~_I!., IJ o-,
'H European w , 191 4' see \Vorld
Ernpire, xxxiv; a po int of ch ronol- \ Var 1
ogr oxvi-xvii, xxv, XXXV; ami na- E uropcans: see immigrarion
t inn al economy. xxxi, : 68; decline Eusebio de O ueir s, Viscoun r of, 2(,
of xxxvii, IZ , I S ~. 8 8- lO l , HS- evengellcal sccts, JOJ
(ti see airo rnonar chv Evangelist H ospital (R io ). 30_1
En A mr que Latine ( T u ror }, E'I.'o/u( io da Literatura Brasiere
16~ =3 ( R omero ) , 3}!
Engcnbero Franc s no Brasil, Um, Ewbank, T ho r na s, H - 5, 2~ 2.95. 3()4
p li n. e xpons. X\\ 14, 25!. 1 B~
Engerr. H otel, 3' 5
engineering, 64, IZ6, 1]2::-j , I ~l , 273-
4. Ji4 ,
F ., B,F ., Gove mor of Amazonas, 114-

England: see C rear Brirai n Faguer, mile, 355

En glish lang uagc, 90, ' )0, '34- 5. Fam fi.J Spiritll , 15-6
JH Iamily, xxxiii, 18, B -=.4, 51, 14. lB,
Episcopal Academy uf Sao Ped ro de I .1. 190; see airo patr iarchal socl-
Alcntara, 76 ce}" Br avil as
Episcopal Church, 292 Faria, Joaq uim Amaral j ansen
Eq uarorial Arnerica: toe Ballou, de. 361
" Iaturin ;\ 1. far mi ng : see agr iculrure
Era N01,:a, 8 Faroni. fir m, 71
Escola do Recife, XX\ ', xlvi Farpet , A s ( O rrigao) , 36J
Escols Superior de G uerra, xxiii Farqu har, fi rmo Z-.5.!
Escravi d a; o Clero , e o A bolicio- Farq uhar. Percival, 255
11;11110, O (Fonseca ) , 130 1/., Fasc iotti, Esrevao dos Santos. 104
185- 7 fasbiuns: see dress and grooming
Espinela, D ur val Guimaraes. 206 Faure , H!
espionage, 1411 1/ . "Federalisr Carnpaign," 'B
Esrsd sta d . R eplblica, UlII, 19 Fcdcration of Bra lian Spirulsr s,
Estadista do Imp rio, UlII {X abuco ], JO<
1281/., 155. 1 6 ~ Fede ration uf Christian Workers.
Et tedo de Sio Pouto , ~ ~5 pj
Estad o do Rio d e [ane ro ( Barrero ). Fei, D iago Anrnio, 211.9
lf!7 Fclbcr j uckcr & Co. }66
"Estado ::"\)" 0," xxiii Fergusson, Sir J ames, 41!
Esr rangeiros. H otel dos ( R io), Fc rnan des. Carlos Dias. 237
243=4 Fernand es. Elvi ra Chaves. 111
Esrrla. Baroness of, J7, 61, 64-::5 Fer rs z, Sampaio, i'9::11u, 177. 1'}9. 100-
Estrla. Viscounr of, ,[J, 2 0 1 1, 164
Esmdos A1JI.Jzonicos ( V er ssmo), Fer reira, Ceciliano .\ la mede, H1
36: Ferreira . Elisa Vilhcna, l oS
 lndex Xl11

Fcrreira, Pedro P ara nh os. un n, foreign influenccs, [33- 8, !64, 177;

Ferrer , 35 1 ree aso spec fic nat ons
Fer rero, G ugl iel mo, 15611" 19, 2 LO , forcign opinin, 19 3, 16.Z; rieles o f
JJl ho nor, [73; o f Empirc , 169-70
Ferri, E nr ieo, !96, z7_(l, P9, 33 ~ foreign relarions, xix-xx, xxiii-xxiv,
Festas Neconais (Ot vo ) , ]61 xliii, xlvi-xlviii, 40-1, ], 9!, 100,
F garo , t , 147 33 2-"""'9 ; see airo diplornacj -
Figucircdo, A nto nio Ped ro, ]l 8 FOTt )' Y caTS in ll razil ( Bc r mctt },
Figueiredn, J os Al ves de , 97, IJ i>
113- J 4 Forum, I j .!
Figuei redo, Pereira de , J5<:1 Fo u ricr, F r ancois " Iarie Char les, 13-
films , xx, 97 Jf , 198, 324
fi reworks, 19Q: 1, ~95 -6 Fox, 141
'l.,
tlag, Bra zilian, xlv, 6 , 7 11=.14, 16 Frade Estrangeiro, O ( Lace} , iD
Fleiuss, ;\ 1ax, h istorian, ~ p Fran ca J uni or, [54
Fletchcr, James C, 69n., 2.! n' J 91=S~ France , xvii, 304, 337, 3~ Brazilians
~ s--6, I .p ~'1 3~ 5 ; on literature, in, xlviii, 11, 151, 184, 3H ~5 ; 1'0-
~jL"""'9 ; on r acc, I ~g-J_O, JO!; on lirical issucs, 13 , 391 ; comparcd
the Church. 194-5, 29<' wirh Brazil, 34, l <!>, 339; influ-
Flor iano Pcixoto : scc Peixoto, Flo ri- c n ces in Brazil, H--:::!>, 58, 7..0, Zf .
ano ~~9h91 , u ear. [ ! 5:- 16, 13 ,
Folh a do ~orre , !.!5 134, 13:c8, 15 1.=3 , Ij 5L240-1.,
folklore, xviii, 154; in religin, xx uB, E;::], B, H 7, 355--6, 3.0,
Fonseca, Amon io Pires da, 1 1 1 372-3; c con o rnic r clations wir h.
F onscca, Aquino, 181 ~ E , l H ; armed fo rces, 350, 4~
Fonseca. D codoro da, xxxi, -f ' -l , 47- social issues, 39!, 39Z
8, 50, 95, aoo, 19 1- 1; on revelo- France, A oarole. 1! 4 , ~53 , !!l, 170,
rion , xxxix-xli, xlv-odvi, 80, 88, 90, Ei B
H t ; on R. Barbosa, 30, J ]-:-4; o n Francioni's (Rio), 140, zf3
com mc rcc, 4, 395; on t be mili- Francis of Assisi, Sr., 191-1
tarv, 48, [07, 171- 3, 181 Fran cisc a n nrd cr, 197, 3 ~8, 3lZ- [3
Fonseca, H er mcs da , xxxi, xliv, 1.]3, Francisco. ,\ fan im, 2 . l -3
1 ~4, 156, 345-6, 398::9 Franklin, Ben jamn, H 11., 29Z
Fo nseca, J oaq uim de A quino. !~ 4 Fr eem asons: tc e .\ lason ic n rdcr
Fonseca. L us A nselmo da, u s, 1 W.. Fr eir , Anihal, ~.7, 116
2 , 1J-!5- 8 Freir, Fclisbclo, 2 ~ ~=3
Fo nseca, Olm pio da , 359 Freir , j urtq ucira, ! j~
Fonseca, V ale ncia da, 66 Freirc, La ud elino , li9
Fonseca G alvo familv, ~311. Fr circ, M arias, E9
Fnntanelle, J. P., 359 Frcire, O sear , I Z5, 130-1, 359
Fom e, Cardoso, 359 Freir s, Augusto , T eixeira de, 149
F on res. Lourival. xvii Freir s, Ci ndido D ias d e, 108
fo od, xviij-xix, H - 4, 65, 76 11., 143, Freir s, H erculano de, ZQQ::: I
199, 140, ~f3 , ~ 4lt:9, ] 80- 1; na- F reir s, O r vio de , 379 n.
rive, 5!=3 , IH , 18 1- 3, 3z Freir s, R aim undo Das de, 74=5,
Force and Matta ( Buc hner ), [15 [98=-10, 1J 5 ; on thc U .S" 97
Fo rd, Isaac X ., ~, g, 1(13 Fr eir s, T cixeira de, lZ 3-S, 139,
foreign affairs- ue diplomacy 3f!4
XI V /ndex
Freneh, in Br azil, xxiv, J(\ ', xix, 57- G eorge, Sr. culr, 304
6 1, 65.92, 189. 1.93. 198, ~~. 134. G ermen language, 11.1, 130. 114
237, 2$ 7. z ~4, z ~, 199. } U -Ij . G crman lirerat ure, 157, 35~
4~2 G ermans, in Brazil, xvi, xix, 57. 60- 1.
Fren eh Guiana, xlvii 65, Lp , 144, ISIl-9. 193, 197. 207,
F reneh la ng uage, S-.
164. 355 I-.!, aar , ! !1- 8. 13 8, ~J o-I_. 25&-9.
Frene h literarurc, 56 270-1 .325-6 an d 71., 351; and re-
Fr eyciner, De, 68 ligion, 3o!bJ, .l u - 14, 368-<} an d
Freyre, Jos ,\ laria Silva, 2 16 armed [orces, 331. 4 1=3
Freyre J nior, A lfred o Alves de G ernu ny, 3Ho, 3~ lj infl uen ces in
Silva, 1 19 n. Brazil, 97. 99, 11 1 , 119'"'10, ! 13"':".4.
F rom in, Paulo de, I !J . 194. H Z u 8"""'9. 185, no. 154 .l6~, .ln .
fruits. 5 1- } 4 4
fruta-do-conde, 52 G ibbon. U.5. :'\aval O icer, 91
fun era l custorns, 77- 8 GHet. hairdresser, 17
F unke, A lfredo, 112 n. G ioconds, La ( Ponchielli.) , 71.:-3
fur nish ings, xxxi, xxxiii, 66-7. Z!:l_; see G ipping, manufacturero 94
abo d eco r G ladsrone, w'fam Ewa rr, 41- 2
Fnm rc of 50mh A m ericlI, T he ( Hah_ G la1.01I, M., 64
son ), 11411. Globo. H ot el ( R io) , 1 4~
Glvc rio, G en. Franc isco, 146 11., 1 z!l.
Gaertner, Er asro, 209- 10 , }68-9 180, 188. 113. H j -6, 141, 166
G affre, Father L. A., 112=5, }19. BJ- God. Cheisr, and Charh y Socie cy fo r
4. H ~4 1, 349, 388 Spirirual Srudies, 30_1
G aleno, H enrjqueta, 56, 11 6 " G od is Dead" movernent, xx-xxi
Galvo, Augusto, 21 Goeldi .\ I useum {Belm) , 360- 1
G alvo, H c rdco Pires, 1 I G o ian a. Baron nf, 18, 55. ~.E 11.
G alvan, R amiz, l OO Goiaoa ,\ l ills. P6---7
Gah"i o, Rodolfo, IJh , H 5 Goias, 1.3
G ama, Dornfcio da, 149. 315 O s e V asconcellos, Za charias de.
G ama, Lus. ' JO, 1.85. 11 4-=-J '99
G ama, Miguel do Sacramento Lepes. Gomes, Am onio Carlos. xxv, xhv, 68,
" ~O o-I , 73-j, 8. 155. 174. 364.
Ga ma. Saldanha d a. 100:-1, ~z.!l 4~4
gambling, 344. 353 Gor nes. D amasco. (
games. xxvi, 51-6, 59, 114. 119. 18o, Gomes, Eduardo. 117
3 15.3 67-7 0, J1j. 4~ C omes, Lus. 1 1 ]
gang warfare .l9- ~l? G oncalves. :\lalaq uias, 151 " .
G aribaldi, G iuseppe, 191.. 148 Gonzaga, Lus, ~9.1
Ga rnier, Bat iste Louis, publishe r. G or doo. J ohn .l(j.1
149'::"5 1,1 54 G ordon , Lin coln, xxiii
G arren, A lm eid a, 154 G onschalk . Louis .\ Io reau, 6---8
gas, dlurninarlng, 94 GoU\c ia. Dclm iro, I.p . 2p . 17.!l. 366,
G aurier, T h ophile, 1 jQ 4l!4
GoJu ta da T erde, 19 Gou vea, N ab uco de. 1 00
Ga-...etol de N oticias [ Rio }, ~H G onvcia, X erval de, !.D
G ~era MdicoJ da Rabia. u6 n. Grande , H otel (Sao Paulo j, ~ 44
C enos, 35 1 G ra\c. j o o j os, 35 I
 lndex

G resr Brirain, xxiii, 145::6, l B . 391...; H e...rt , T he (A micis) . IZ Z

soc ial condinons, xxvi, l 9Q::I; H e/ella ( Assis ). xfiii
compared with Brazil, .p , 160; H d lot , hairdresser, 19
Br azilians in. 61, ~l~o, 353::"4; H cnr iques. Adantn de .\ l ir anda,
in uences in Brazil, 6 7, 1)0-1, 95, ]j '
9~, 1 11 , II S-1 6., IZO, ~.9, !5~ , H enrz, Elea no r ( Lesfie ), I '1=!.!!
!H 1/. , 176-7, H Z, 36S~, 171; ex- H erald ( N .Y.) , 4!.. 141
ports to. 15 1, 378; an d arme d Hcrculano, Alcxandre, 15 4. 157
fc rces. 383. 4~1_ , 403 H e rrna nn v ( Louis) & en.. 14 1
Grecks. in Brazil, xvi, 199 H erndon, L' .s. naval officcr, 91
G roups fo r Social Srudics In Brazil, H erorldes, Sr., 76
l" highways. U I, H I- 1
G uac hall, Fernand o, lH " H igiene das Escolas " (Virorino ),
Gua nahara, A lcindo, 1 ~1 , 3 ~8 116 n.
0Il<l r.1II.1, H::-l H istoria Connit uc onat da Rep,blica
G uarani, O ( Fiomcs}, xliv, 68, 11, Z3. ( F rei re ), u z
7S Histria da l.iteramr a Bresileira ( Ro-
G uaran s, t he, ' 98, I l of,ll l , zS7, mero ). xlv, 161, H a
H istoria do Brasil ( V arn hagen ),
'-"
G uatemala. 36 161
Guble r, Adolphe. 311 Historia do Direito N acional ( .\ tar -
G udin, dr essr nak er, 71 tins ), 16z
G uignon, dressmakcr, 71 H isrorca R sulll of t be Posuvn
Cuimsrens, Al ph onsus de, IP MOW!I11ent in Brazil ( Lcrnos) ,
Guima es. dressmaker, 11 ,8
Gu imares, Bern ardo , ! 49 History Qf Rrazij ( Sourhey ), 150
Guima raes. Fra ncisco, 353=5 H olan da, Au r l io Buarq ue, 13 4
Gu illla cs. Gas par, z31 H olanda. Fr ancisco Buar que de, xvii
G uimaraes, Jos Maria ,\ lo re ir a, holidays, 54,l-.! , 19C!:::' , 1 94~, 353.
Z. I.4 1~...1!..i tee slso vacations; carni-
G u;m araes. Lus, 149 val season
G uimaracs. R icardo. I 9'- ZO H olland, social condirio ns. 391
G urgel, Silvr-io, ZOO- I H ornem, T orres, !!J. !5], 381
ho r uosex ualiry , I~, 146, 2ll6, 31-':), 351,
H ,t. _, 58--60
H ague Peace Conference, xtviii, 8z,
'0'
H o rre n, Rod 'V. vi, x, x ii i, 1J ~"
IH . IlSz. 1<')1, z51S so ., 11911., 118 1/., 13 11" l 0f7 n
hai r and ha ir srj-les, 79::80.. see s so 148 no, lB tI., 16 7 no, ~ n., 107 n.,
dress and groo ming 141 1{., 177 n. 309 11. , ES ~'J 316 st.,
H ait, ~1~ 31911_, p o n., 311 n., 336 n., H Oll.,
Halbo ur. J. F" l ~ 170 n~, 386 no, 3871/,
H ambloc h, E m csr, H 7 1/. hospirals. 1Z5. 'Z9. 1 98.=3~ 1 , 371
H anuuond, J ohn H ays. H ~ bcrels, 118-401, ~H
Ha m on, 35 1 H ugo, V ictor, xvi, 186
H ar r ison, F rcd cric , U -3 Human Nem re and rbe Social O rdcr
H art t, Cha rles F rcderic, 9Z , 1~1 (Cooley ), xxx
H an -u d U niversi rv. 57 11. H ungar ians. in Bra l, 60
H asslochcr . G er man o, l 00-Z H vacinrh, Brorhcr. 119
n 'l l ndex

hydrorherapy, ] 79::8 1 In fant j esus (cult ), ] 03- 4

hygi ene, social: see public hcalth lnoc ncia (Tauoay ), xlv, 156, 1. ~ 3
"H vrn n tu t he R cp ublc," ~4 Instit uto ,\ la nguin hos. 347, Hsr60
Inst it ut o O svaldc Cruz. 359. 404
Ida. ,\ 1111,', 1 '.9::1 0 l nstruction Publique ti Brsil, L'
leman j {eult ) , ]oJ ( Almeida ). 19:
Ignat ius uf Loy ola. 292 inrellectuals, xvii, xxi-xx vii, 19,12...
lllumnsmc dans 1111 Prosesrantin ne tss. 1Z 7-3 ~ , 3811; in polines. xvi-
de Connnuon Rcente, L ' ( Leo- xvii, 45-::6, 16 8=9, 374
na rd ), E l Internacional, H Olel, Ji3
tlusso A mericana, A ( Prado ), xlvi , inrernational affa irs: tee foreign af-
H . 97. 12-1 fa irs
irnrnigrarion , I.~, 97"""'9, 197. n ] - 4, lreson, Ella, I JO
121>--9, 263 1/., lE; and labo r, 142- Isabel. Princess R egene. xxxvii l-xxxix,
4. 31!8j from Europc, 16 1; and xlv, Ill. 151 1/.; on slavery and so-
racial issues, ~ I O, 1.13 , 156-:8; and cial issnes, x liv , ~ , I9, 17!l. !15 ,
the national economy, l ! 9, ZJ I, ~~. ~99. U~, .l.! 3, ~ 13 , :'9Z ,
168-7] . 39] - 4, 39; and social is- .J0.J '!., 40S n.
sues. lfu. P5, 34(j, H 1 lsadc rn, J os. or aror, ~3
irmnigration service, zn ltaborai, Viscoun r of, Z6
Im pe rial Ac ad e ruy, 103-l:l , 1 ~ I , 1 '3 - lraljn n in uence in Brazil, 97, 1 21 .
! t , IZ I 1J .f, ~ S5 , ~ 3 4
Im perial arc hives, 15(1 ltalian language. I: ~ . 134, IS
Im pe rial A ssemb ly. z8y lt alians, in Hraail, 60, 1.93, 1<)6-.1, 1.99.
Im pe r ial Black G uard, 9 105. Z 14, u 6-1. !J ~ , 250- 1, J56-1.
Im pe rial Eha mber, 3b: 159. z~o, 315, 33.' , H ~ ; 0 0 social
Im per ial H ospital for Lepen . ] 00 issues, , ~4 . P J; on labo r
lmprio Brasiieiro e a R epblica Bra- force. zB , 1(>0}, : 13 , 3oll"""'9 ;
sileira, O (T eixcira ,\ 1endes) , absorbed , Z70- 1; 00 religion, 31:,
3~9'::91 3! 4~I--S, 3 ~9
indepcndence, Brazilian, 35 11., 198, lraly, xliv, J5 !, 3llo
39' lt arnar atv Palace, 1 J 11 ., 51 71" 58.
India. o, I SR. lt6, Z90. 3~1 I{l.1
lndia n Protect ive Servicc , 1.9: Jtll ti.Jia, 8
Indians : tee Arne r ind ians Iru Seminarv, !n
In dians oI N ort h Amer lca, 94
ind ust ry, xviii, Ij!. t 5. 95--6. l ~, 173- j aboat o , 1.1
6; gro .....t b of, xiv, xlix, R9, 91- 1, j aceguay . Alm ira nte. Baron de. xvii,
!.!9. ! H . Z! 1-3 , z4 ~ . l~, z71- !1!, : 00- 1
j, 75-7; in So Pa ulo, xv, : U - 4; j aceguay, Arrur, 400 n ., 4(j1- :
and agrlculrure, xxx. : 67-8; and j acobina. Eduardo , !..!i=!1, 18,
rhe Rep ubljc, 3',>, 336, 347; gov- 3 17- 18
er nrne nt support fcr, 83, 223, Z6 2; j scq ues. O urlq ccs. 61
and social issues, 99, : 96-7. jZ-~, j agua ri, Yiscounr de. !99
H O, 395", 4:, tOi; an d r acc, H)(jI, j ames, H cnrv, ~i
; .!Ji sransric s. 12Z, ~ 6 3 ; lcaders of j ames, \ \ ' illialll, xxi, 9!, 10 1- :
361::, 404; and national cconorny , j ansen. J oaquilll Amoral, SI, S3
li, 388 j anuzzi, archite ct, !~
 lndex

j apan, xix, ) B labor , xv-xvi, d l'r95, 350- 1, 391=9;

j apanese. in Brazil, 142, 257. 159 domestic, 141-4; unions. 19 1, 195,
japur , Baron of, ~S ~ J2 ~I:I. 399 ; and t he Sute, '.5.1=4.
J ard im, Antonio da Silv a, 79":)10, !99, JI.!., J86; free: Ice slaverv, aboli-
B S, 324 tion of
J ava. 245 Lacerd a, Cario" xvi
j eq uirin honha. Viscounr of 11. 170- Lacerda , J oao Batist a de, 160--1 , JJ
1, 202 Lacc rta , 11!l
J esu it ord cr, ~9~ ; re Sute, 33, !93; on Lacr, Ca r los de, !J4, !Jl . 161, 3.!J,
et hnic g roups, 49 n., 304; nn cdu- JZ~
catio n, 110--11, 31 1-1 4, 316, H!!; Lafayc rrc. .\l atie j oscph Paul,
opposit ion ro, 329=30, 339 roe
j csus, 20, !511l, Lafitte, Piu re. 18, 21 - 2, 39):1
jewelry, 31'.=3 Lajc, j o o. ~.2!
Je ws, 6 1, 150--1 , ~ 88 , z ~5 , ~ :z, 186, lajes, Baron de, 7
l~" JI !l La martine, A lphoasc ,\ !a rie Lou isc
joan. Pope ( legendary), 141 de, 29'
joo V I, (lJ, @ , !l8, 99, 161 Lambari, spa, 380
Joao ,\ la nuel, Pad re, [99 Lamberg, '\Iaurcio, 5911., 111-4, ~ 2(),
j obirn, Jos. 146 11. [56-7, 195, 2 ~J , 3H d Il 4-:5,
J ohan nesb urg , 'J 'l)j
J ohnson, Ea r ! E ., xxx iii lsm c ta ( R ccife}, 145--6
J orge, A ra]o, I I!" J ~ Landv, Haroncss de, ~J
j omal das Fam lias, 1St:! La ne, "Od,' l!!l, 322
Iomal do Connnercio ( I\lanaus), Lane, R u us. 1111
233-4 Langaard, T . J. H" 356
Jornal Jo Connnorcio (R io ), 40, 43. Lange, Fran cisco Cu rr. 77'/.
4i', {lI, 141), 151, 2-!9,402 " . languagc: see English laoguagc:
j ornal do Reciie, 13 11, French language; G er man lan -
jornal Pcqueno ( Rcclfe ), !4S guage; iralian language ; Porro-
J os, Alcxa ndre, J guesc language; S paoish languagc
Jos. O ld, 108 law, the profession, u. 1.21- J ,
[onrnat des D bats, 1; ,',
journalism : tee press La", of the Free \ \'omb, xxx i, xxxiii,
[ournev in Brau l, A (A gassiz ) , 51 11, 128 'l.~ rjo 11., ~, !91, !.!1. n o,
Junguciro , G uer ra , 1[3, 153-4 )10, 335, 148
junsp rud ence, xlvi, yo Lawrence. T . L , 245, 2~3
Lazarise orde r, 2IZ- 13, 339
Kap pler, Iaido ro , 61-2 Le 80n, G usreve, 3<:>1. Pi
Kidd cr, D an iel P., 9 n., 9..1: '1., 93, Le o, Eurico de So usa, 'Z5
94 " ., 12 5--6, [51, l<}n., ~ 2?, 294- Leio, Policar po Lepes de. ' !l
s, 30 2 ,
315 Lc o, V irg nio M arq ues Ca rneiro,
Knig hr. Ed w ard Fred cr ick, 5=1, 12 , B
' 4, ' 8 , 4' Lcclc rc. I\ln, !5, !1
Kr opot kin. Perer Ale xeivich, 351 Lcf vre, Eugen io, 22Z n.
Ku Kl ux KJan, " legends, 5--6, E, ZII -,12
legisheu re. xlix, IZ , 18 1
La Fon rainc, J ean de. 11.4 Lchar , Fr anz, 13

X'tJIII lndex
Lei ureol, xlv, 17- 18 Lim, ,\ taximitien Paul t.m ile , 18 n.
Lti do V entre Livre: see Law of the IJj
Free \\'omb Llvo, T ito , 185
Leire, Benediro , 11; Lloyd Brasileiro line, xlix, 26] , IlS7,
Lernos, Amonio, 2f7 l4'
Lernos. Mig uel, 18, Z ~l , 391- ] Lobato, ,\ Iom ei ro, xviii, 359
Lenin, Vladi mir l tyich. 35 1 Lobo, A r lseedcs, 24 1
Leo (as papal n ame ) , 291 Lbo, H lio, 365
Leo XIII, Pope, 3 1.-~ . P J- ' Lornonaco, Alfonso, 1.6], 3D n.
Leonard , mile G., 111 London, 11 r;j, 2J 6, 14-';, 363
Leopoldina, Coo nt of, 141 Longfel1ow, H enry t vadsworth, xvi,
Iesbia nisrn, 59 9 1, 153 '!., II!!
Leslie, Eleanor ( H enrz) , ] !1- 1 8~ Loom is, Professor ( Yale ) . 91
3" Le pes, B., 160
Lisis, 346 Lopes, Castro , 1]6-8
Lima, Ab re u e. 189 Lopes, Paula, 113
Lima, A lexand re j os Barbosa, xxii, Le pes N eto, Simes, 159, 3]2
19":80, If, 1.1I , ~], 20.1 , 1] 6-7. L pez, Carlos Antonio, l~ 49
~5 3 , 148; as oratc r, 81, 8] ; as GO\"- L pez, Francisco So lano, 11 1/.., 1 1
crnor, 1'?5, 345 Lo rero, Ca no n, p O--I
Li m a, Aug usto de, ao r, 3] 1 Lo uis X I (of France ) , 19, !15
Lima, Barreto , 159. 354 Louis-Phihppe ( of France ) , H ?
Lima, H er r ncs, xvii Lowell, James Russell, 91
Lima, J. C. A lves, U 11. Loyo la, Artur, 3t?</
Lima, " Ianue] de Oliveira, xvii, xxv, Lucena, Baron de, 136n., 14 1, l B ,
l OO, PI , !.-6.t. 335-6, 3 ~, }65. 332 ; in the Republic, 4 ~, l)<l, 100;
3~9 crlccs of, 47, 145
Lima, Silva, IZ ~, !~5 , ~_ 1 ! . 1~_1 Lu duvica, Dona, 108
Lim a, So usa, 311 Lus, Pedro, 158
Lima e Silva, Luis Alves de: iee Lu is, Washington, xv, 100::" 1, U.!
Eaxias, D uke o f Lun d, T r oels, }46
Linda Flor, 'U Lundgren, H ermann. ]66
Lins, Albuq uerque, l U, 121 Lupanar, O ( Rosa ), 60--1
Lisboa, Coelho, 155 n., 200, P 9, 374 L usieds ( Ca moens ), I _~ ', 162
Lisboa, Joao, !}.5 Lurz, A dol fo, 359
Lisboa broth er s, ]11 Ly nc Thearre (R io ) , 7.1
Lisbon, xl, 1 3 ~. 180, 3~3
Literatura Brasilera ( Ar ar ipe ), .' la cedo, Buarq ue de, 182
]61':"3 ,\ !acedo, Fran cisco Ferraz de , 60 n.
lirer arure, xlvi, xlix, 11.4- 15, 154-:5, M acedo, Joaqu im Manue l de, Z ~ , 149,
IS9::o, 161- 3, 165; natio nalism 1-'jS
in, xvii-x viii, I n :::4, 361- 4; n a- M acedo Costa, A ntonio ; see Costa,
ruralism in, xx erhnic, xxv, 160, Amonio Macedo
161, L4-:5, H ~; foreign influences ,\ tachado, Amon io ,\ Iun iz, p
in , 99 n., 1 5 ~, 1 ~4, 355-6; and .\ Iachado, Jos G omcs Pinheiro, 2 00-
the press, 147- P ; and t he Ch urch, 1, 249, 266, 336-7, H8-?, 374,
15lbJ, 3]2; r omanticism in, H 8; 386 n., 3~7-8, ]9~
juvenile. 370 Machado de Assis, j oaq uim, xliii, xlix,
 l11dex XI X

57. 11 ' , " 4, 13 !!. ' 49, 16 1, ' 64=5, .\ la ranho, Joi o d'Alb uq uerque, 54,
'l.!.
~24 , lOO ~.I lSlS, 400f; success. ;~ 4, l lS~, 11, 1So-'
' 5' , IH::, 365 ; foreign crhics of, .\ Iar anhao ( ch y ), ~ 1. , ' ]0
157"""'9 , 163 ,\ lar an hiio, uprisng in, xl, 9'"""10, 49
Mackenzie College, 118 ,\ la re , Alfred , 158, 404 n., 405 1/.
Madcr a-St amor {railroad ) , xlix, .\ Iarccl, G abr iel, xx i
l 41=!! ,\ la reel ino, J os, 100- '
;\laestrini, Sgnor, F5 ,\f.1rgenl da H tsr ria, A ( C unha ),
,\ Iagalh iies, Amk ar A rm ando Bo- l O

telho de, 96. ' 11-' 3 .\farge111 d o H istoria da R eplblic.1,

,\ laga lhaes, Ben jamin Co nstant Bo- A: se r: Via na, J oaq uim
relho de : see Conseanr, Ben jamn .\ Iaria, J os, ]08
;\ Iagalhiies, Cclso de, ' 54, 3~-, 36.1 ,\ la r ia, J lio, E8, 311
,\ lagalhaes, Co nro de, XX''> 86-7, 91, .\ la riana, xx; Scmina ry, 12 1, 12 3
' 58, IJSo, 360, 39 ' .\ I ar iano, J os, 8iS, " S, ' 46, '-~~, 143.
Magalhacs, Goncalves de, ! 49 J05
;\ Iagalhaes, R., 11 n. ma rim ba, insrrument, z 1/.
Magalhiies, Valemim. 157 .lI, la rinho , Ssldanho, 7or:8(), 8:~ , 110,
Maia, Concstves, l ] 2 m
Maias, O s ( Q ueiroz ) , xlvii .\ lar ist arder , E 1- 14. EIS
M airror. Gen, C ha rles A., 4'?] .\ Ia ritime Services Cornpany, 399
malaria, xlix, 377. 3() ,\ Ia rques, Xavier, ' 59
Malatcsta, 35.' .\ la rq uo i, 9 1
Malaysia, 146 marriage, ,~, llb, 306- 2; see aso
Mollho. O, ' 53 m iscegenarion
Manet, Pard al, anri-Peixoro, ' 9 .\ Iann, Perey F. 36 ' 71.
Mamangu ape, Baron de, 306 .\ Iartins, Fr ancisco Gcncal ves ( V is-
Man A ccording to Scence ( Bich- count of So Lo urenco ) , ' ~ I
ner ), '.15 .\ I an ins, Grac iliana, 19'1
Manifesto Republicano: see Republi- .\ 1an ill5, Lus ( vrepenrence" ), 19
can Manifeito .\ Ian ins, Silvelra, xl, 155n., l OO, n6.
Mangabeir a, Or vio, xvii, 1(1)-:,1
M anguinhos, Inst it uto , 347,
,""
M art ins Jn ior. '1 5, '-46, ISS , :'~3,
H~ 186, 33S ; re polirics, xxv, 19, 13.
Mann, Thomas, ' u 11. ' 001/.., ,61; as o ratcr, 8 1, ~
rnanne rs, socia l, 57- S, (is Marx, K arl, i! 1, ]S I
Afallsiom and tbe Sbantiet ; T be .\ Iarxism, xvi, "I::-! l , 135; t ce olso
( Freyre) . xiv, xxix, E..! commurusm
manual arrs, '1 8, 3J l .\ la ry , T he V irgin, xxi, 1 8- ~ " ' 51 1/.,
M anllal d e V al/ f a, ' SI n. ~7j, 1 89-90,1 9~ , ] ~4. lo8 ,31~,
M almal do M onarquista ( Maga. J4J
lh es}, 39! ,\ l ascagni, P icrro, 21- ]
,\ la naus, 59, l ] }- 8, l 4l), l H .'\lasearenhas family. 362
.\ Ia nu d, J oaqu im, 68 ,\ Iason ie arde r. xx xii, xliv, 61. 197.
manufacruring: see industry 18 ~, 19~~ ] 06, 33~ j and rhe
marocam, 56, ~J!!, 21. 364 C hu re h, xliv. Z' , ] 11-13. 315,
;\lara nhao, A ugusto Severo de A lbu- m
querq ue, '...!7 .\ lassa, Antonio, 12
xx /ndex

J I,uterr snd tbe Sla'l.'ts, T be Mendonca, Sal vador d e, 15.!-, ~ 4]

( Fr eyre ) , xiv, xxix, 1 ~ 7 ~ . 173. Meneses, Carlos Al berto de, 1Z,
J" ] 16-8, 366, 394
mat, ~Jl , 155. ~-' H~-, 3J ,\ Ieneses, Ferrelra de, 6 1
,\ l atos, T ito de, 61 ,\ l coeses, j o o Barrero de, 15---6, 137,
.\ faltO G rosso, xl ~ H-:5
.\ l au3., Baron of ( 5oU5a ) , 37 Meneses, Siqueira de, 15"
,\ h ui, Viscounr d e, l ~ l . 111 , 114 J'. len ueci, Benedim, 2 q
.\ la upassant. G uy de, l...!4 ,\ Ienucci, Su d, 214-5
Maur fcio, Jos. 6R, ] 0 , Z~ " ,\ Iere Lo uise" ( R io), 59
,\ Iaur cio, V irglio, 3P Jl rire A gricole; S
.\ Iaur}', ,\ Iatthew Fonrainc, 91, 95 ,\ Ierou, G arcia, 161
maxixe, j], 1]', 316 M erry lVidow , T be ( Lehar ) , 13
"-Iedeit os, Borges de , nickname, ,\ t csq uit a, J lio de, 148, 101::.8
34' mencos, 68, 98, 112, ! H, !...6]; re
xt ed eros e A jb uquerq ue, Jos j e a- mona rchy. B, 10-11 ; an d racial
q uim: see A lbu querq ue, J os issucs, 11, ]60; and rbe Republic,
Joaquim Madelros e 1l5<}; in literarure , 15 7., !~; see
.\ Iedical Oub. 371 alsa m isccgenarion
medic ine, 99!!., 1] 9, 1]1- J . 181, )5 6- .\ l etc hn ikotf, l lya, 1-l9=50
7, 37.~8S , 404; t ropical d ist ases, method, au rh or's, xxix- xxxi\', 5 '11.
xvii, xlvii, xlix, 147; refor m in , ,\ l et hod ism, 1 18 71. , 191
9l ed ucarion, 106, !....I 4. 111- S. xt eeropoltan Opera Associarion,
119::3 1; native, 149::5 , 376-8; 3 16 11.
hospirals, ; 98-3'!!.i see 4/$0 ph ar - ,\ lexico, xxii-xxiii, 9, 103
macology migrat ion of wor kers, 173
.\ lelgarejo. 37 ,\ liguel-Pereira, L cia, vii
.\lelhoram ento do Cidade do Rio d e ,\ l ilan, 1.I
[aneiro, O ( V ieira Somo ). ' 31::3. .\ Iilano , X icolino. 136
173::4 ,\ t ilet , H cn riq ue Augusto, 1] - 14, ]18
,\ l ello, Jos Antonio Consalves, milit ar ism, J, ~'h 89, 91
1 !1 militarv: see armed forces; Army
,\ Iello Fra nco, Afonso Ar inos de : .\ Iilliet , S rgio, 16/!., 111 71,
see Arinos de J'. le llo F ranco, .\ l ilron, J ohn, ' 92
Afonso Mi nas Gcrais, 66, 13':!> uprislngs. X\',
Mela , A nr nla Lins V ieira, S5,91. xl, 49, 5~ 71. ; polines in, 2-l, 21 0 ;
1 3 .1 -.~ , n~ Polyrech nical Sehool, 194; in-
,\ t elo, Franc isco de Assis Charcau- dusr rv in, 230- 1, 161 , 267 71., 268
b riand Bandeira de, xlviii, 116 .11ilhlS G erilis, rhe, xli x, 25_t!. 39lr4~
J'. lelo, J os .\ t ar ia Albuquerq ue, m ineral resou rces: see min ing
1] t'!:-1 Jlinha F or milf ao {X abuco] , xlvii,
,\ t elo, Ra mos, 107- iI '55
.U en , Mann ers, and orels in 50mh :\ Iinho, Visco unrcss of, z{i
A mercs ( Bland) , 5H n. min ing, 21 .1, 230, l t1 ] , }6 1
J'. le ndes, R . T., T eixcira, xxi, 9 ,!!., J'. l iran da , I Q<]
11=1, 389'":94, 400 .\ liranda, Pontcs de, XX \ ', 116, 335
;\ Ie ndon~a, D eodoro (Mecbadc ) d e, misccgenanon, xviii, xlv, !'Xl, 1911-
1(j81 ; !, ] ~ 9 ; attitudes towa rd. XXX IIl,
 11ldcx XX I

55-6: lndian-whire, 1.0, 2!..!, H 6; .\ to reira, j uliano , 1]0-1, 18] ,20 1,203.
scc also tnestitot; mulattus J19
,\ l isericr dia, Santa Casa de, 2 98- 3 ~-, Mor eninba, A , 156
14 8 .\ Ior gan, j uh n Picrpo nt. 37 n.
,Hissio/l rio, O ( Sousa ), ~ . ,\ l oslems, 3 ~2 , lOO
,\ l olicsto, Hciror, 14:-=' jlo ra, Ccs:irio, lI Z:: 11l
. .
modinbas, Z ~ . 25 movre s: Jet' c mcrna
,\ lo hall1 lTIedanism : scc .\ t oslcms .\ I ozan , \\' olfgang Amad cus, ~ H
ruonarch v, xiii, xv, xxii, 13, [', 15- 16, .\ Iu irhcad , reachc r, 120
36, ~J, 1!. 7'L!l..I , 2 and Rio .H If/'UO, O {A zcvedo ) , .\ 1\", 161
Branco, n-i, xlvii, H 7: and rhe mulanos, 60, U , U!I-, 1.9 !l- u Ji. i .<:!J ;
A rm y, xxiii-xxiv, :11 decline of, ano slavcry, 55, 186; promincnt
I= ~ O, i+ 33I; rcsro r arion of, U. Brazilians as, 15, , ~6 11 ., IZ~ ; im-
15=1, 311. 386, J2=~n and socia l pr e ved condirions o f, t ZV-I., 1!l:5,
issucs, 113, 32.6 ; see .lIso INS i an d annc d [orces, !.Ji. I~
Emplee unde r the E rnpirc, ' 99; u nde r t hc
ruonasreries, 1.39 R cpublc, 190; sce .1IJO ruisccgcn-
.\ lonbeig, Picr rc, 1: 1J. at ion; X egroes
monetas)' valucs. x, xxxv .\ t uller , Lauro , n i. S6-7, H 2, 39R
,\ Ion iz, Patr icio, 3l ~ .\ l ullI furJ , Lewis, W
.\ Ioniz, Ped ro, l ll6 ,\ t uniz, Baron de. H ]
xton roc Doct rine, 97 .\ Iu rtinho, j oaq uim, !!l4, !.!9. 345
M on roe Palacc, xlvii-odviii, :65 music, xliv, 6Z-7H, l!s , 115- 16, IZ017.,
,\ l ont' A\vern e, Francisco de, HI-=: , 1.59, 1.{i3, !14=S , 31!=;; narive and
155 17., F!l popular, xviii, xxv, 156, 3jI cdu-
Mont e Rod rigues d'Ara jo , xtanuet eation, 193, ES- .6; c hurch. l P
do. ~ 9~ mus ical inserumenrs, Mi- 71
.\ tonteiro, Ant<lIlio Peregr ino .\ laeicl, .\ l usset , Alfr ed de, '50
!J 6. 18: mvsricism. xv ii, xx, xlvi, ~
J\ lontciro. Jos Rod r igues, : ','.
,\ I nnteiro , T obias, I.H N ahucn, Jos T' ho rnax: polieical
J\ l onteiro Filho, 1_9 p hilosophy, xxii; 0 11 abolition,
.\ I ontepin, Xavicr Aymo n, !! l s tI, ~ 51
.\ t ont pdier xtcdtcat 5e11001, !U X ab uco de Ara jo , j o aq uim Barrero,
.\ t onrish influc ncc, ~1 xlix, 49:::"J:~, ' 54, l 0 ', 1 jl , li S, 1~'
,\ Ior aes, Pru dente de, xv, xl, xlv-. .o.; ami social issucs, XX\" ~1 H-3.0,
xlvii, 79::80. 86-z, u1, ~25--(j, ;J!!, E S, 322-3 ; po lirical philosophv,
335-6, 345. 3i4 xvii, 23, li, ~4 , U_', 130, I{jI , 184,
.\ lo raes, V inicius de , xviii 3Q4 rccognirion. xviii, J...!j , 15 : 11.,
.\ l nrais, author of dicrionary, 12i"':"5, 155. 15 7; on emancipation, xliv-
01 xlv, L{)Q, 1_~ S=8 works o f, xlv.
,\ t urais, Alexandre Jos de .\ Ielo, P ai, xlvii, ' 49, 151- 2.; at t he P an-
~ i9 A merican Confer cncc, xlviii, 1.2 ;
.\ f orais, Alexandre J os d e Melo, on raci al issues. ~ , ~., 188=9
F ilho, '.i 9, '.H ~ ~J; on rhe monarc hv, 1~- ' 5 , 2] ,
,\ t urais, :\m onio de, [6 2 100 , ~ oo--' 339; o n rhe Army . !J.
J\ l ora is A ncora familv, 182, 233 rl . 4 ; as nra tor, 155, 161; as linguist,
,\ l or, J. L., ~i!l . .- 164, JH ; un labor , !9!. 319-, 3!l6n.,
XXIl Index

}87, }89' on the C hur ch, 1 85~7, 118-80. and labor, 19 1, 156, 17} ;
1 .~ 9, 191,:"}, }l8 see alto mulartos; race
N aegeli, Roberto Chrisriana, 109, }68 Neiva, A rt ur, 171, 359
n ames, 19 1- 1 N eologismos Indispens vets ( Lores ) ,
Naples. l B -:-" 1}6-7
Na scenres, Antenor, 104, a..4 X epomu cenc, Alberto, 155
Nascime nro, A lfredo. l84 N eukomm, Sigisrnund, 8
Nash, Ro y, lSl}-: 1 Neven du .\ t ont, ,\ la rk. lJ! n.
National Academ y of J\ ledicine. }84 New rlcans, 9 1
N arlonal Congress, 175 New York : Fire Deparrmenr, 9 1,
Nadonal Exposirion (R io) , xlviii-. Hisroricel Sociery, 9}, N arional
xlix Ciry Bank, '54; cn mrnercial ad-
N anonal Guard, xxxix, ' 1=8, 49,61 verrising, 3S~
Narional Gymn asium : see Im per ial N ewton, Isaac, '9'
Academy N icaragu a, 11!l
National M useurn , 94-:-5, 10}. l~ I. N ietzsche, Friedr-ich, 111. : 1: ; i ee
} 8} also Comre, Auguste
Nava l Colliers' U n in, 199 Xlreri, 111, 1.93
Na val Fl reme n's Associatio n, }99 X brega ( Reclfe ), } I "
Navy : revolr of xxxi, xl, xlvi, xlix, N ogueira, A lmeida, 15
: 00 n., H O, l l)9:"400 ; reo rganiza- X ogucira, Ataliba, 1: n,
t io n of, xlviii, 175, 184, '5 6, HS, No rmano, J. F., lU
H 7; on rece, 11. 17... " 00- 1; and N orte, H otel do ( Rio ), 141,)
t he Sute. 16, 18-30. 45::::6. condi- N orte, 0, 100
tions in, ..... }94. 400-: ; educaticn, N orrh fr ica, 35 1
194 ; see also armed [ orc es N o rwa y, l t? 7, l 9, } ~ I , }91
N azarerh (culr ), 3~4 Nossa Scnhora Aparecida (cult ),
N ecessidade d e mn Equilibrio Amer- 3'!4

N egrinho do Psst orco,

19 1 , }}l

icano, A ( Pe reira da Silva ) , 197
( Coelho ),
Nossa Senhora da Piedade ( culr ),
3OQ-.I
:"oJos.~a Senhora dn Socorro ( hospi-
Negroes, 11 1, 191.191. l OI-} , 339. tal ), 198
H } ; prcminenr Brazilians, xvii, Nosso Se nhor do Bonfim {cult },
165 ; cultu re and sociery of, xviii, } ~}~4
xxv, ~ , ....' 56, I} I. I j l , !..6J . I!iS, Notes de V OY<lg e dens r Amrique
315 n.; folkways of. xix, 10::"11, du Sud; t oe Clcmencesu, Georges
! 4'J, }OI::-}, 404; and religion, xxx, N otes on rbe Histor y of t he United
:6 no, 1Z~. }01 ~", }06, } I I, 33 1; Sunes of Rraul (Cam pos Porto ) ,
anirudes toward, xxxii, 34. 55, Z~, ....-:-5
: 8}. ) ~.!I , in polines and govern- N ovidsdes, :9":"} 1

ment, 8- 11. I9-J _!. 174, 176-80; Novo Friburgo, 1 10-11

as mamrnies, ji - l . l ll. . rmscege- N o-oo Mundo (N ew York ) , 9' , 1 4~
nation, 55-=6, 19. 101-16, 3....9; Xuncs, Carlind a C usr dia, 55
and social issues, t!o, 164; in litera - Nu nes. J. d e Castro, 6 ~_, IJ
rur e, 160, 11 .1j in education, 161)- n urses, 301
7!, 11}- ", 180; in rhe ar ts, 171"""'9 ;
in arme d forces, 1]4, I ~!K', H O, Oake nfull, J. e, HZ n., }8 111.
349, "00-1, 40} . in professions, O bser var rio ( R io) , xliv
 lndex xxm

O este. H o tel d ', 144 O uvidcr, Rau d o ( Rio ), 51, 59, 11,
oil, ]6..1 79
(Hind a, U 4, 11]. ! JS O xford '\Iovement. 191
O linda, Bishop o: lee Olivcirs. Vital
,\ la r ia G o nca lves de Pachcco. Flix, 148
O llvelra, A lberto de, 114, 1.19, 15 1.1 59 painring: tec arrs. rhe
(Hiveira, A ntonio M ariano Al berto f ,ls, O, xxxix, 61
d e, 359 Paica, Ata ulfo :'\'poles, 199 ' 1.,
Olivcira. Isabel H enr iq uera de Sousa 1~1 11.
e, 55, :~ 5 polnrar ria , 53 , ]1 1
Oltvetra, Joao A lfredo Ccrrea d e, Pan-A mer ican Confcre nce, xlviii,
Pr ime M inisrer, 28,; 31 1)0, ]~l
Oliveira, Sebast lo de. ] 67 Pan-A rncric anism, 9
Olivelra, Virgillo, 1~ Panam Canal. 359
O livcira. Vita l ,\ la ria G oncalves de , Panorama of t he Second Emtnre
xxx, xliv, z88, ]0] ( Sod r ), 11
O tiveira Lima , Manuel d e: see Lima, Papa e o COI/ cilio, O ( Barhosa ) ,
Manuel de O ltveira I IO, l ll . 1 !l9
ope ra, II s= HS, I n, l H , 1] 6, 1\I, Par . xlvii, 51, 114. 1]0, 'i1 j
315= 16; Italian, 68, H ::3, 15 , 85 ind uat r ializcd, xlviii, Z61 , z(j3, z.16
n pere tta . 73, 15 Para, Bishop of, xxx '~'I xljv
O porro ( Portugal ). xl P araguay , ]6, n i
oraro rY , 11 , 81- 7, Q, I Z ~, 149, !55. Parag uaya n \\'ar. xxxix, xliii, 48,
16.1 , 16] , ]18; Carholic, ]31 147 710, Z] ] n_o; as point of
Ordem , A (Sa ntos ). 146 ch ronolog y , xxxiii, XXX\-, 11 . ] 0 ,
"Ordem e I'rogreSlo," mon o, xl\'- 43. H O ; presrige o f Army in, xliv,
xlvi, t z n., 1]-::.14, 1]. 315. 405 7.l , 11 1, 174-::5, l .~ ] ; and r ace,
Orgm iz.lfiio N eciona, A (T or res ). 1 1 1-1 1, 19 1
Orinoco ( Rive r ), : 45 Parsgu ayans, in Brazil, 193
Orlando, Arr ur, I} s Paran ( srare) , xv]
D r lans-Braganca, Prinee Lu s de, 11, Paran, Viscount do, 199
288, 314, ]86, 38l!=94, 39t l Paran hos, J os .\ la r ia da Silva: lee
"Orrhographc Code for rh e Rio Hranco, Baron do
Brazilian Empire,' 1J1 Pa ranh us. j uca, u 1/.
Ortigi o, R amalho, ~1 , !J l . Hs . l~J ; Paris: Bra zilians in, 55, 1.9, ~j~, 119;
re Pedro 11 , 37-1:1, 39 'l., 49=5.~ ; sc hools. 8z- 3' 1 Z-t , I ~-t ; o pera
on Brazilian life sryle, 62, 261 in, ~ 3 ~
Orton, 9 z Parliamenr, xxxvii, xxxix, xlvi, 38,
Osear. Bishop o Mariana, xx yo
O s r to, G en ., !5Z 1/, Pa rreiras. artist, 2!!3
O sro de Almeida brorhers, 359 Pascal, Blalse, xxi
Osvaldn Cru z, Insritu to, H9, "~4 Passos. Francisco Pereira, xlvii, .u,
O uvo, Rodrigo, l OO. l~ Z ! 94. 224~ ,-l Z~,H z,.J4S
O rraviano, 158 P e sos Ma nuel P rizc, 105
rrikcr, firm, Tl Pasreur lnst irure, Z99, H 1
Ou ro Pr ro, Viseounr d e, xxxix- ocl, paSloris, l S
27- 8, E , ZOO, n o, ~4z , p o 71 ., I'Jtria, A ( Pern ambuco) , ] 99
311-1. )]6 TI . f otria Brasilera, A (O li\-eira) , Zl (l
XXIV l ndex
parria rc hal sociery, Brazil as, XiV-Xl', Peixoro. A fd.n io, 194, ]60; re
xxix.-xxx, xxxiv, 53-=4, 57- 8, Conselheiro, 101 ; and scientific
74, 79::-80, 1], 153 , tt? i'- 8, H J. re fo rm, 1]0- 1, 159
2] 0 , 2p , 29 3, ]0], H 9 Peixuro, Carlos, ora ror, 85
Pat rocn io, Jos de, 1...!1, 154, ISi, Peixoro, F lo riano, xlvi, 19 n., <'1 1,
~ 86-7, ! 72, 199, ~ 9 2 . 339, 345. H8;
Patronato Ag r cola, 26] !I" z1 3 polieical philosophy uf, xxxi, Z] ,
Patterson, u 1, !..-Zj , !J.! ~.fI.-, 394-::"5; and Arm y , xxxix-xli,
Parri, Adelina, 7 48"""'9 , ~ --I . 1JI..j.; on fol k rcligion,
Paula, Negress. 139 198, ]06
Paula, Sisrer, ]1,11 Pena. Afonso, Presiden e, xlviii,
Paulista Com pany. P 7 1!.12z. 194, 346, 35 8
" Pax," 1!1 Pena, Bel isr io and O sm io o, 359
Pan a, Frei, 3(l!!=:9 Pencd o, Baron de, xxii, 20 1
Pecanha, Al cebades. 18], 188 Penss-ior, ~ 1 _1 5
Pecanh a, N ilo , 14t? ~. !zfI, I J , Pens es D tacb es ( Faguer ). 355
188, 194, ] 29::3, 405 Pereira. A lfredo Severo dos Santos,
ped dlers. 54, 56,69, 221 82, 21Z- 1 3
pe der asry: see homosexualiry Percira, Asrro jildo , 35 1- Z
Pederneiras, 157 Per eira, Ed ua rdo C arlos, 118
Ped ro 1, xxxvii, 35 n., 64, 68, 99 Pereira, Jos Cle mente, 2 9~
Pedro 11, xlv, 27, Z17, 276-7, 298; Perelra, Jos Silva, 8u
as poinr of chronology, xxii, H , Pereira, Miguel, 359, 3-z
66, ~ t, 90, 95, 1 11 . 115. 1Z 7, Pere ra Passos, Francisco : see P assos ,
z40. z6], ]04, ]09 ; as intellecrual, Francisco Pereira
xxxi, xvi; and E mpire, XXX \j- Pern am b uco, jZ , 55, ~1. 1JO; schools,
xxxix, ]7. 100-1, IAA. 288; on xxiv, I OIl-9, 121 , 1 24 ; ind ustrial-
repuhlicanisr u, xxxvii, Ij -1 8, ization o f, xlviii, I l -~. z~3,
H 5--6; life st vle, xxxvii, 14, 37-8, z67 n.; uprisings in, 49. 501/.
49, 79,24] , 26 1-Z, 28z ; and th e Peru, xxii, 92-3 , 2j Q
Revoludon, xxxix- xl, z::8, z4-::"5. Pesca ne AIII,'IZQnia , A ( V er issim o),
3.341--6; on Negrees, xliii, IZO), tQI, zf~
11.6, I~; re Army, z 1, z8, 49, Pesseguciro, 353
1.75-6, 345-6; and educarion, Pessoa, Epinicio, xvi, xxii, 5, 116,
35 11" 3!!=:9. I.(lj . 1.0 5. 31jl 11,; aoo-cr
popular jry o , ]""43, 84, ! E , Pessoa, J os da Silva, ] 17
1 4~. }5 z, 314; and U .S. 4z, Pestana, Ncsror Raogel , 14~
9 1- 2, 94, 99 ; co u rr life under, pesrs. msccr, ] 84- 5
5 ~ , 6 2-]; re E urope, 57-, ~]-=s ; perrole urn , xviii
on music. 68, l.t , 76--9, 16] ; and Perrpolfs. xl, 156, 189; syrnbol (Jf
Ben jamn Consranr, 17, 18] ; on mona rc hy, 10; royal palace, ] H
lirerat ure, 1 5 ~ , 158, I.J; Pcrr pols , Baroo de, l 8z
polirical philosophy of. 1 6~_, Pharm aceutic al Institu re, 194
359, ]9z=J ; cm rcl igion, 29, 3c,>6. pharmaco logy, l f<rj~, 35~. 319.
H~; caricat ured, ] 52 , 374 jH ,
Pedro 11 A cadem y : sec Im per ial Philadel phia Ceeeenn al Exposition,
Acade my 9.1- ;', 94
Pedro 11 H ospital. 298 physician s: see m edicin e
 lndex xxv

Pierola, N icols, 32 Porto A legre , Cardi nal of, xx

Pimenta, Silv rio, 183 Perro A legre, .\ l anud de, 149, I j ~
Pirnen rel, A nr nio " httins d e Po rro A legre {ciry), r ao
A zeved o, 344 11., 38071. P rto Alonso, 144':"5
Pinella, Clud io, 143 Pr ro Seguro, Viscoun r of, V arn-
Pinheiro, Bordalo, H1 hagen, 157- 8, 16 2
Pin hciro, Chabi, 1J~ pa m : l ee shipping
Pinheiro, Femandes, 149 Po r tugal, 95. 380
Pinheiro, joiio, xv, 337 Po rt ugal, "larcos, com pascl , 68
Pinheir u, Leo poldo Fernandes, 9t!, Po rt ug uesc lang uagc, 9 2, 95, 111.
3'9 !..!4=5, U ~30, l i ='J, J 13-: 14,
Pinheiro , .\ h cid , roe 3Q9; in immig rarion, ! H , ! 36-8,
P inheiro "hchad o, J os Gomes: ice 17 1- 1
.\ 1achado, Jos C omes Pinheiro Port uguesc Lirerar y Lyceum, 12 4=5
Pinho. Prlcles " l. de, 365 71., J66 Posirivism. xxxiii, 31=3, 44- 5, 47,
Pinto , ngela, 136 8 1- S , ~ , 96, 1 rs. 11t1 , u o, '.V ,
P into, .\ hnod de Sousa, 19 an d n. 18:6, 131, 175, 314, 4 5; and social
P into , Soares, his Amazon sru dies, 9; issues, xvi, 80, 1!.1, / 9 1- 1, 112,
pirares, 5 3!!!l, 392=4; and th e Chu rc h, xxi.
Plus ( as pa pal nam e ) , !9; ~, 1 I ~ ; in 1..olleics, xxx i, xlv,
plant ations and planters. 4z::!!, 9, 13-14, 17-1 8, 20-4. 3~9 ; and
1.6J . l ~ ! . I RQ, 108, 130-1, 161, Ar my, : 8, 43; and rhe R ep ublic,
~ ~., 313; life on, O], 135, loS, 48, 18o, 181, H~; and educarion,
344, 3~S; r ubbe r, 195i coffcc, 1_(}l , 113, 19 1-2, ] 1.9i re Barbosa,
I ~, 110, 114=5, 1j =:-9, ~ I.! ; ! 11, !J!4
suga r. 185 Posit icismo 71a R epblica, O
Plate ( River ) , ~ 60 (Costa ) , 4~
play : iee games POSit i't'f1/10 '10 Bral i/ , 0 , 391
Pocker Librar-y, ~5~ Posirivisr Aposrolare. 9 1/.
Pocos, spa, 3 ~ 1 po stcards, 180- 1
Pele s, in Brazil, 60, 196. 105, 117- 8, l'O'l.l:er of W i/I ( Smiles) , 111
157, 2 ~, E 4, 141 Prad o, Am onio da Silva. 86-7, u (),
Polisb PeMan! in El/ rope and 151, 366, 404; supports the R e-
A merice, T be {Tho mas ) , xxv p ublico ;5, 2!:!:, 1 00
Poltica -oerrus ,U arinha, 399""'"401 Prado, Ed uardo da Silva, xlvi, 50,
Potyrcchnic School, 105 ()1=I. 91, 20 1; on social issues, XX\' ,
Pommery, .\ l me, 59 Il- 7, ~ 7/., ]60; on political
Pnmpia, R aul, 11/, 148, 15~ ,J () 1 -3 issues, 48, 154, 114, ] Z~
Pompeu, T oms, 92 Prado farnilv (Sao Paulo ) , 36j
Pope, A lexander, ! 39 Pr aia \'er mclha, 9 11.
pnp ulisrn, xv Precursor do A bo connno 1/0
Por q ue M e Ufano do M eu Pas Brasil, O ( .\ lenucci ), zH
( Ce ISO) , l ZP I' r e1JSiI , La ( Buenos A ires ), ~1 1
Porfir io, Don , 9 Prcsbyre rianism, / 18
Prro, Adolfo Fauscino, 106-2 P rcsidcocv , t he, xiv.-xvi, xlv, '5, 168
"
P(i n o, Costa, 188 p ress, xxiii, xlviii, 17, 16, 18- p , 86 11.,
Po rto, Fausto, n l 91, U~49, 119, 18 2 1. ~-:4 ;
Porto. Leonor , 231 an d polines, xvi, ]6, 44- 8, 5(},
 Index
14i =1', 11l , 3~ ; foreign, 39""" 39 11., 114, 151=-3, 155, ' ] 1, 1915.
45, S0, 99 11., 115; and Portuguese
language, 136-9; and advert ising,
138-,,104, 30]; pe rson al annou nce-
,"
"Q uero casar C011l iI mulber do meu
all1or," 71
ments, 140- 1, 1 45~] ; and labor, Q uert oer Polticar e Socieis ( Paiva),
191, )99; and rhc Chu rch, 188 11., . 68
. .
313 ; caricature m, 35.!-1 " Q uinze Dios de Viagem," 71
Prestes, j lio. 199
Price, \ Villard, ~ 46 11. Ra butau, 3I!>
Problem Naciollal Brasileiro, A r ace, xxxii-xxxiii, 8-! 3 passim, ).4,
(T orres) , l 44-:5, 55-6, 70-4 passim; 80, 89,
professions, 179::8) , lJl , 155 !48, ~ 7..!=4 pasrim, 17!!:::::9, 187-8,
Progris Br sillen, Le ( D 'An- 156, 18] , 198, )18, 331 , 339, 400-1;
t hou ard }, 161 attitudes in U.S., 98, 165; and
Proprito da A gitafiio R epublicana, ot her socia] issucs, l OS, 116,
A , 393 1 ~1I 6; in governmem posi-
Proprico de Liberdade de Cultos, A rions, 16.,-J I, ' ]J , 17fb) ; see
( M endes ), 393 aso A rner indians; mestices;
P rosperi, Fat her, 314 mulatt os; X egroes
prosrirurion , H::61, 65, 81, 141, 164- Rad iguet , M ax, on Pedro 1, 64
6, ]()-] railw ays. xlv, xlviii-odix, 31 11., 94,
Proresranrism , 1l_~] , 1~9"::'90, ]68; 99, 1! 7, 176, 163; groweh of,
and Carholic Church, xx, 197, 119":"10, 111, 14]-8, }41- 1, H 7,
186, 19 1, ! 95-6. 3?2-8, 3!..! , H'?; 37_, 396
and spirir uallsm. 15 11., 16 11.; an d Ramiz Galv jiu, Bacon de, 81
education, 118, ]i i ~l l ; Anglo- Ramos, A rt hur , xxv
Saxon, li9, l H - 5, 194; and soci al Ra mos, Francisco Ferrc ira, 1)4 n.
es ues, 3 '-1, 351 R amos, Silva. 113
Pr ovidencia l nstit ure ( Amazonas), Rangel, Alberto, !91, ~j]-8 , 146,
19 1, 194 3to
Pro'l.'ncia, A , 8 11., ' 3 11. Ravor, H otel ( Rio) , S9
public health, ~ 1 6, 119, 13 1-], '9+, Rawlinson, D r., 381
118 Hl_~ , H7, 35<>=! , 359, 37~, R ebellion in tbe Backlands ( Cun ha),
379, ]81:"4, 39) - 4 xlvii, ' i 1/.
publishing, books, ' 49":"i l R eboucas, A nd r Pinto, 8::1}, Ilj ,
Pugo, Pblio, )99 l)-3' 193, 101
punishmen r of child ren, n ; see airo Rebo ucas, Antonio Perelra: on
education, discipline in mo narchy and race, ~ 2!_; on
Puree, H ubert, van de, 111 11. abolirion, 1 ~ I , 1!l5, 193. 101
Recite, xix, 56, 189, 138, 3] 1;
O uadros, Francisco R aimundo sch ools in, xxv, 7! 11., 111 , 1..1 3-=-4,
Ewerro n, 3Q~ 117- 8, ,.83'::'4, 235; as cultu ral
Q uake rs, 191; and reparr-iared center, xlvl , 7Q, 7..! 71., :z{i, 7, 1 ' 4,
Negroes, 301 110-31, 356; its social problems,
"Quebr a-Quilos," 1411. 59, H ~ ; ciry plann ing, 13) ,
Queiros, "laria V ince ntina de ,8.
Azevedo Pereira de, 75 R ecife, Bishop of: see Oliveira,
Q ueiroz, J os Mar ia Eca de, xlv, Vital Maria Gcncalves de
 lndex
..
xxuu
Redem prorisr o rde r, 31Z- IJ R esenbe Fnancera do Ex-Im prio
R eed , Elise, 1191/. do Brasil (Ca valcanri}, 21 9
R eormas ( Bandeira ) . I Ul R esum o Histrico do AfO'l:im cnto
rcfrigerat ion, ] Pastioi sts 7/0 Brasil ( Lem os ) 18
Reis, Arth ur, xvi Ret'ista Brssileira, 3~~ , ''l>.z n.
Reis, N apolejlo. 321.=3 3 Ret'ista d<l Semana, 358
Religi es no Rio, A s ( Barrero ), R ed sta de Portugal, B n. 35 ~!"
30j =9 3~, 17 n., 6z n., 261 n.
r eligion, xvii, xx-xx . xxxiii, xlvi, R e'l.'sta do Arquivo , I n 11.
6, ~5 n " z6 7/.; and t he Srare, R e'l.'ista Industrial, 9~
xxxviii, l ~~ , 289; and social R eo,'sta Popular, 15~
issues, 60, R8-<). 105; see also Rcvolut ion , 1889, xxxvii, xxxix-xli,
church and clergy ; Protestan- 6-:L6; tee also Rep ub lic, fou nded
tism; Spiritism ; spir it ualism Revolution, Frcnch, 13
"Rel igion of Hurmniry," ~ , Revolurion, of N o vem ber 15, 110,
12, 391.=J, 395 !66, ! 11- 1, IJ ''. q:8
r eligious o rders, 289, ~ 91 , 3 1Z - 1 '', Revo lution , Republican, 8011., 83- '"
H8 88.,lIl2 pastm
Rena n, Erncsr, 1l!Z rh eto ric : see oratory
Renrini, D olo res, 1 ]6 Ribeiro, An tonio J os da Costa,
R epublic, the, xiii, xv-xvi, xxij- xxiv, j7G-Z
xxxviii, 8- IZ , I'', 11, 79:8_1, Ribe iro, Demtr io , 15, -4
1?..l:=7. 173, 262, ] 06. 3' ''; Ribeiro, Elcurrio, 116
fou nded, xxxi, xxxiii, xxxvii, Rib eiro, j e do, xxv, 2E ] ; read er s of,
xl, xlv, 6:::' 0, 15-16, N, 8S- 102 j 111 , 113= 14. 151., 162; in national
m oth er image of, 1.9 :11j and lirerarure, 160, ]~4 j Almanaque
social issues, 269, 316, 38.., ]81c1 , Brasiero Garnier, 2! ]1l'J H5
l 9::9<'; in larcr yews, 3H.=75j R ibeiro, J lio, 1,-6, 1!8, lO I
ree also mo nar ch y, declin e of; Ribeiro, Lapa and Leire, 1 z n.
R evolurion , 1881] Ribeir o, Leo nidio, 384 7/.
"Repu blic, The" ( Guim anies ). Ribas, A . J., 1.5()
19:10 Richer, Siegmond, 6 1
R epblica. A , xliii R iccrdeau, acror , 2 1~
Re pub lican Cl ub, vs. Negre es R igofetto (Verdi ) , 7J
(Monarcbise) , 10 Rio, Joao do. !51 -:-...!.!.J~=9, 319;
Rcpublican },fani festo, xliii, xxxiii, an d lsad o ra D unean , j S; as
80 7/. Z!l , ] 10. 335, H 8 publisher-ed itor, ".8-9; homo-
R epublicanos Paulistat e a A bolieJo, sexu al, l SZ
Os (Santos), n o R o Bra neo, J os "laria ( Bar on )
"re publics,' srudenrs', I I''- I5, do, xvi, xlviii-xlix, 51::.8, 86 7/.,
188 n ,, 231-8 10 ] 7/., 130 n. , Ij l , .lOj , ! !9, 2..J ,
Resende, CS5io Barbosa de, 69, 33 2-8, H j, H 8, 352::"3, 36j, 404;
].l - J, 131'-1 political philosophy of, xxii, 7 7/.,
Resende, F rancisco de Paula Fer- 2 00; and national im age, xlvii,
re ira de, 131'-1 lOO, 202, ~ H-6, ~~ 184. 33 1=9;
Resen de, Gaspar Bar bo sa de, 311)- and Arrny , 1] .48. 4 1- 1; appe ar~
ance and char acrer cao r, 278,
"
R esende, Severinc, 355 3L8 a ,
X);'l.'m Index
R io Branco. J os .\ tari a ( V iscounr ) R odrigues, N elson, xxv
do , xx ii, xxiv, xliii, ~ 3 ~. 18 2, Rodrigues, Nna ( R aim un do ~ i na ) ,
28] .=9 xxv, ~ 1 ! , 131 , 160, 191, 3 3- 4.
R io de j aneiro, xix, XX\'. 91, 159. 6o
!l; "Tem ple of H urnan it y," Rod rigu es, Paula , z 11- 11
xxi, revolurion in. xxxvii, 10; Rodrigues Alves, Francisco de Pa ula,
puhl ic heslrh facili t ies. xl jii-odiv, xxix, IIH , 11)(1-1. 1j O, 345. H Il.
IP- 3. I~I ; rebuilr, xlvii-odv iii, HIl ; presiden cy of, xv, xlvii,
216. 1!'l....l . 1 3. 1S.175. 1.83. l J6, H7, 384, 394
34.(,; E xposirion, xlviii-cdix, 163- R oe nrg cn , \ \' ilhelm K c n rad. 314
4, 1_66-7.; D uvidur, R ua do. 44=1. Reman Carholic C hureh : l ee chu rch
51.. S',J, 11. 79; schoots and in- and clergy
snrutions, 5. ~ . 1.!3, n 8, !9l : 4, R eman E m pire, 9 5-6
A lczar. j i; Itama rar j- Pala ce, R ome ro. Sylvo, xlv, I) {), '49,
$1 !l., S!!: n.; police. 61- : , 80 '!,. 1.5.4-j . 1(j2, ~ OJ .I IO, 3JZdH;
164; m usic al life , 9_8, 1!!; Lyric and social refo rm, UV, JI4,
Thesrre, 11; ,\ 1isericrd ia P i ; in cehnc literaru re,
H ospita l. 11. 12 5. lSJ8 ; as l ji, 159'::: 1, 3to, 364
cult ural center. l..!4. n O-:.I ; Rondon, C ndido ,\ ta riano da Silva,
,\ Ie dical School, n j . I}j ,
194. 198, H<r:60; cornrnerce
in, I S ~. aao; chu rches, ~ 9 3 .
....
XX\', 191, 1!l1=.). 341=3, 346,

Ronden ~ lission, 113

1!!:9; hotels and resta urants. R Ol/d onia ( Roq u ette- Pinto ) , 191 ,
: 39"""40. : (i5:jS ind ust rializa tion, ' 99
1_()1, 16 3. l ~ ; ~ l on roe P alace, Rooscvelr, T heodore, ;!l_1- 3, 3l!1;
165 ; social condit ions in . Ji4 re c thni c Brazil, 16 1
Rio Grande d o sor, j4. 13lE RoU[, E lihu, xlviii, :60
revolurlon in. xl, xlvi; mdustry. Roquen e-Pinro. Edgar. xx v, IJ'}()--I ,
xlviii, 161 , ~ , l ~ 11.; .\ Iilitary ~9 1 . 199'"'"100,
!1!l, 360
School, 11 3; po lit ics, IL8. ar e Rosa, Ferrelra da, 60-1
R io N eg ro, Ba ro ness of, za Rosa e Silva, 36-::] , 100. H 9. 399
R io Par do . 9 tI. Rosas. J uan .\ lanuel de, 37
R io-G randense, ~4 7 R ossi. Lauro , 71
R ios. Samucl, : 45 Rosrand. Edmond, P 4
Risto r-i, singer, 18 Ror hscbild, firm , 154-:5
roads: l ee high wavs Rongb N otes o <l" ol/rlley T IJrOl/gIJ
Robian o, Eug nc de, I{)J rbe Wilderness ( \\' ic kham ).
R obiJ/WII Crui oe ( D efoe }, 370 'H
Rocha, Carl os Cordeiro d a, H rovalises ( r nonarchists ) , 19
Rocha, Llndol fo, 119 rubber, l Z; and slavery, ~5 . !jJ ;
Rocha, .\ I unhoz da, xvii an d nat iona l economv, 119.
R ocha. Pint o da, 81 155, 361 , 394; growt h in in-
Roc ha, T adc u, 3;.6-8 d ustrv, :3 1- 4, l j {)j decline in.
Rod rigues, A . Coclho, 186,395-6 145- 8,15 1
Rodrigues, A lherto de Paula, 371 R u iz, Pepa, 191
Rodrigues. Francisco de Paula, 331 ru ral condit ions: su social con dl-
R odrigues. Jos Car los, 711., u 1/ . rions. ru ral
91, 148, 151 R ussia, xxiii, ~5, , m, 3i!. 39'='
 lndex XXI X

R ussians, in Brazil, 6o- 1, 15z::8, San tos Durnont, A lberto : see

W D umon r. A lberto Santos
Sao Rento, 5 ~ , E9
S, Ed uar do de, %8}, 395 Sao C ristv3o, Im per ial palacc, 37,
Sabbath keeping , 1 ~ s.f, ~ 1=}, I IJ , 113 71., I-I~
Sab ia, Baron d e, 100 ! 7; - j , 198
Sacre d H eart, ordcr, 313 Sao j o o, fo rrress, I I }
Sto j oscp h de Ch amb rv, order Sao Lc opoldo, 31"
of, 3D Sao Lcurenco , V iscount of ( " Ian ns,
Saim-jusr, Louis A ntoine L on. 19 Fr ancisco Concalvcs ), 19lt:.1
Sto Lo uis Exposirion. xlvii Sao L uis ( hu ), 31..
Saim-Simon, Claude H en ri de, I } Sao Lu s ( .\ Ia ranho ), 1 ~ 5 , 11 ~;
Sales, A ntonio, ~"9 in Rcvolurion, 9': !Q
Sales, Eligenio, l j :LH Sao Paulo. xv, xxiv, xl, Zl9, l +f,
Sales, Fm ncls d e, ordcr o f, 193 J9i--<; ed ucarion, xxiv, 9~,
Sales, Francisco, 3511 117- l8; Universiry estahlished,
Sales, .\ l anuel Ferr az de Cam pos , xxiv, 18-\ ; so cial issues, 59,
xv, xlvi- xlvii, 79':80, 86--,-. 3~ 1 ; as cultur al ce nrer, 2..!!,
17!t:9. 130, 1 71 !..!-I, 11 0- 1; imm igrams in, 98,
Salesian order, 1 16, l ! 9. j ~1 1 70- 1--' Law Schoo l, 11 1, ~ },
Salvado r : JeC Bahia 1.J 5 ~ ;
Pol yte ch nic Inst irute,
!~lIIba, j~ ~9=70, 71 , } 16 , }Q-I, .. o~ 11},
- 117- 8; slaverv. in, ~ I. ~;.-
Samhaber, Ernst, 119=3(j economy, 1Z'C] i industry in,
Sampa io, An t nio, 11 1/, 15' , 11$ 1, 163, : 68- 70
Sampaio. Hittencourt , E, I "9, ~i!I Sao Paulo, Ca rdi na l of, xx
Sampaio. T eodoro, I }o- I , 1111, 160 Sao Pa uto Pu rc Coffce Co mpany,
Sama An a N ery, F. J . de, 66 v., ' 55
6711., 6811. lO} 71. Sao Salvado r de .\ 1aro zin nos,
Sane'Anna, A nt onio L pcz de, 37 Co unt of, ~
Santa Cararina, ti7 Sarasare. Pahlo, ~
Sama Claus, 18 1 Sa rdou, Vicroricn. I S?
Sama Cruz, Im perial planration ar, Sarmcn ro, D r., !Q9
xliii Sayo. Bid u, 3'6
Santa Isabel T hesere ( Pe rn am b uco ) , schools: ice education
,,6 Schrocder , (J, H enr v ) & Co., fir m,
Sam a Rosa ( :-O iteri) , p 1 ' 54
Santa T eresa. 54 sccnce. su teehnol ogy
Sama yana. George, xxvi Scorr. Sir " 'a lter, 9 1, IH
Santos, Braslio R odr igues dos, Scrosopp. I 1 ti
J~7 sc ulpt urc, 03
Santos, Jos .\ ta ria dos, 110, 115=1 Sc ahra, j oaquim, l H
Santos, l Jllm ( " Lau r inda" ), !..H Sehas tianism, 3116
Santos. ,\ laria T eod ora dos, 7.J:., !!.. Scltl, 14 1
Sa ntos, U rbano, p upil o f Barre ro, Selv~gl;'m, O ( ,\ lagal naes ), 8671 .,

~! 5 ~9;
Santos (city ), xlvill, 161 Senate . 195, 3~j, } 9; on slavery,
Santos an d Sao Pauto R ailm ad Co., xli v- xlv, !..79
1.95 Senbo ra V iU'!)a (d ance ), j l
xxx lndex

Se n na , E rnesto , ! 49:: q, ~ 4'? n., Simes, Lucilia, I S6

' 43 Simcs, Lucjnda, J 36
Sepr A m d e Rpubliqu e <1 ft Brsij Simonson, Roberr, :u n.
( Lim a ), 389 Singaporc. 24S
Serejo, teac her, 1~1 Singcr Sewing M acbioe Com pany,
Serpa. Joaqu im Jos de, 115
Serra, j oaquim ,\ Iaria, ~49
...
Sisters of Chariry, 3(j 1
S ert es, 0 1 ( Cunh a) , xviii, XX\', Sisters of Sao Vicente de Paulo, J 9~
xlvii, xlix, I j n.,
14 '1., 1;9. 164. slave rv , xliii, 4 1-J, 51 ,55, <-70,
14 8 , 15L1S. 375 !43=4. 11l6-7, 190. J IO,-;]5.
Severino das R amos, Sao ( culr ) , : ..7=8, 30J; abo litiun uf, xiv-x v,
Jl?4-::5 xviii, xxii, xlui-xlv, <- lO, 14 n.
Severo, Au gusto, J 17. 154. 100- 1, 1771., : 8::9, 55, 14,1!!, 110, ~.f-6,
'7' 98::9, 1! 5, 110, l~, 1 ~4-.g, :()4.
S vign , Marie d e, I 16 : 06, : 10, no, 1] 0- 1., ~J ' 3 ol ~ ~
sex, xx, 51. 6j 11Jll; in agri cuhure. xxxviii; of
Shakespeare, Wmam, ~ 3(1 Indians, 49; aod free labor, 9,
shipping. xlviii-xlix, 5, 91:-4. I 89. 190:: 1. 191. 195. :6J .' 1!l, 395 ;
2...!.9::20, IU- J. 176, 347, 194. and ot he r soc ial issues, 100,
396 0 7- 8, 144- 5, 319; ao d rech-
Silva. Amonio Carlos Pacheco e. no lo g y, ' ! 1, l. } , ; and nat in na l
'!1 econnm y , O ] , H R,lZ] , 131,
Silva, A strojildo Pereiro Duarre 24 2,1 53 ; re press, 139:"# ;
da, 1 1Oc:- 1I transirion tu free labor , 195-6,
Silva, Domingos Carlos da, 186-8 15]; in Sao Pau lo. ZZ~ I . ;;4-:1;
Silva, F to r ncio Carlos de A breu e, an d rhe Star e, :54, 335
97. 1~=-4 smallpox, 343:-4. 319. ]84
Silva, Francisco ,\ 1anuel da , 68 Smiles. Sa ruucl, 1 I J
Silva, j ar dim . 1 }2 Smith, C arlcton Spragu e, 9 2 n.
Sil va, J os BoniLicio de Andrad a e, snm ggliog, : 4
xxi-xxii. 157, 181 Snydcr, J oho, 111
Silva, Luciano Pereira da, 158, 197 Soares, J . C. ,\ l aeedo. 14611.
Silva, Ludgero Gonealves da, I '] "Social Aspc crs o f rhc Brazil iao
Si lva. L us A lces de Lima e Silva : Revolution" ( Ortigao ), 31.49
see Caxas, D uke of social condiricns, 6, 2.zfl, 144,
Silva, Pereira da. i.f9 390::t ; rur al, xiv, xviii, 69.
Silva. P iraj da, 359 322-6, 1z=9; in lahoring class,
Silva, Rosa e; tee R osa e Silva 350-1
Silva Paranhos, Jos " la r ia da : social c ustu ms, 70, 75
see Rio Branco, Baron do sociallife, xiv, xix , 15, 116, 148,
Silveira, Ca rlos Ped ro , 1 0 8::-9 E!i and manncrs, French, 55::6;
Silveira, G uar acj-, J08 at COU rt . t. :~j
Sitvera, ,\ lan uel H igi no de , P9 social philosophv, xvi, xx i--xxix, l
Silveira. U r ias A, d a, 311 71., Social-Labor movement, jZ6
378-8 1,J ~.J socialismo Ro 11. z511, JZ 3. JZ9.
Silveira, Xavicr da, !99 B!-~3 . 386. ]i'4~5 , 39l:1:=9; F o u -
Sdvrio, Archbishop, xvii r icrism, 13.- 14. 2S ~ , 314; Carholic,
Sil veyra. Arma ndo , J~5 , } 1}-14 }zz =<}
 l ndex XXXI

Society for Spirlrlsr Brotherhood, Spencer. H erbert, 112. 107, Jl o

'0' Spieler, 189
Sodr, A lci ndro, 63 n. Spinden, Herbert J., 3S'r-OO
Sodr, Lauro, 85, 3~ Spiritism, 1 /-2. 3~
Sodr , N lson \ Vcrncck, 1 1 spiriru alism, xx, 25-6
Soliloquia in England {Sanraya na }, spo rts: see games
xx vr Sral, Anne Louise, atme de, 116
songs, 12- 5 Sreinen, vo n den, 31!
Sorbo nne, rhe, 1 ~4, 398 Seevenson, Adlai. xxii
Sorncabana Railwav, ~ 5S Srevenson, Roberr L.. 5
sou rces, auth ur's, xxxj--xxxiii, j i n, Stickt l/7Id Stones (;\ Ium ford ). 2lJ
Sous la Croix d u Su d ( Orleans- "Stock Exchange cou p," !!3
Brag;mr;a ) , 288 stock market, ! 45. 2.L8, 240, 24:
Socsa, Abelardo de , p O- I Seowe, H , Beecher, IH
Sousa, Anur Robe rto Coclbc de, Sr ree r. J orge, 166
215- 16, : H~j srrccr calls, ~E
Sousa, Aura de, 331 Sud ,\ !cnucc i, 2H=5
Sousa, Cristia no de. : 3fl Sudilmricil, Biogrot{a de un Conti-
S ousa, Cruz e, 16 / neme {Samhaber }, ~29
Sousa, El de, 24 6 71 . :.1-1 segar. [22 . 23 2- 3, 2.35 . 2B . 2S5.,
Sousa, Ingles de, '55, 1 6 1 ~: . !9~ !19. us. 3~5; plan rations, 2~,
248,3l? 3'.7; and national eeonomy .
Sousa, l rineu Evangelista, 31. 18: U I, U oJ-:5,l!Z:::1Q, ~ oJ!!. 2l:l" , l1.!
Sousa, J oaq uim Norberto de. 149, Sugar Loaf ( Rio ) , pi
!58 Sutzbcrgcr, firm , 25 1
Soasa, :\ l arcdi no de, 11:15 Susan a, prosritute, 57"""'9
So usa, ,\ l ilitao de Castro, 3!5 Swcdc n. 284, 391
Sousa, Paulinc Jos Soares de, 299 Swedcs. in Brazil, 257
Sousa, Teixeira d a, 199 Sw iss, in Brazil, 57, ~5 , 134. , RR,
S ousa. \\'ashington Lus Pere ira de, 2u7, 15 7
;'(\'1 Swirzerland , xxiii, 91. sos, 179
Sousa Bandei ra , .\lan uel : see Ban- svphilts. 344, 317> l l:lu
deirs, :\ 1anu el Sousa Syrians, in Hrazil, : 51
So ut h A frica, IIlIl
Somb A m erita, Ooservstions sna T cito , H ilr io, 5911.
lmpressions ( Brvce ), 16171. "I'acitus, p o
Sout hev, Robc rr, 150 T'aine, Hippolj-rc Adolphc, " 4
Somo, Lus Rafael V ieira , ~ J2.::-3 , T apajs. 245
:73=S T aquari, Baroness de. 300
Spain, 131 , 3 ~ rariffs, aaa, 2~
Spantsh, in Brazil, l.p , 193, 199, T arquin ho, Lus, 278
10j. 121l, ~ 31. 2j 6-ll, H~ T arquin o. Lus, 11s-6; 00 social
Span ish Amcrlca, 35-=7, 4~, 34~ ; rcform, 394
compared with Brazil, ..~.li4' 'Taubar Agreemenr. l B
9 1- 2, ! 26, !6 1, 21!! Taun aj-, Visco unt Alfredo d 'Es-
Span ish languagc, 36, 158 cragnollc, xlv, l oJ9, ' 5 1, ' Sol , ' 56,
spas, 35 1, 113. 1110- 1 159. 03. ~ 2 , 2. Ul ~ " 360
spccularion, 145, 218, 14 , 142 T axil. Leo , l IS
XXXIt l ndex

T ily upiril ( R io), z49 tounsts, 10 11.

rech nology, 9<C4. z.11=!!, z86, H~, tcys, 54-6, lJ9, }68
trade: t ee commerce
' "5
T eilhard de Chardin, P ierr e, xxi T ra jano, 118
T eixeir a, Est rada, n n. t ranspo rtation. 213, 341-%; urba n,
T eixeira, j oaq uim Percira, Z34 53, 9h 99 ; see also highways ;
T cles J n ior, Jeronimo J os, 194'::5 railways: shipping
T e filo, A nhal, ~. l1 T r ansvaal. 43
T e f ilo, Rodolfo, 159 T r appist orde r. 3'.2:-'.3, )22-6
'Teologio Morat ( Rodr igues Tr,rd ilta, L J ( "erd i), 73
d'A rajo ), z9 trc asu re hunt, 5-6
T eresa Cristina, Empress, xl, xlv, T r ememh, J22-6
Z4 , 37, ~i, Z9 Z T revelya n, George .\ Iacaulay. ~
T eresina, 115 T'r bsma de Petr polis; 156 11.
T errs M oril ( So usa-Pnto), 19 T ribune ( X ew York ), i ~
text iles, 2u - 3, 2p , z69, }~S-- T rindade, 5-6
Thalherg, Sigismund, ~ T rinidad , 5 n.
rh ea tre , x x, xlviii, 78-<}. 8 1, 85, 9<f., T ropical Diseases Rul1erill, 3t'<:1
1!J::- 16, 12Z , '.49, 1SS. 2J z-s, rropics: see climate
25~ . 2 ~ , 3S ~, 371- % Trovo, Lepes, ~ l , !!.6, l E . 1.55 n.
" T heo ry and Prscrices of Repcbll- ,M
can D crarorshlp" ( Pr ado ), 36 T rooarore; 11 (Verdi ). Z3
Third O rder of Carmo ( R io ), 300, tubercu losis, 344, 347, 379, 31!.1
,,8 T uns, 18.p1., H ~
Thi rd Order o Sa n Francisco T upis. H , 198=9
( R io ) , )00. H R T u rks, in Brazil, 257
Thomas, \\'iII iam J, xxvi T ur oe, H enri, 16: -4
T hnmpson, D r. 118 T wain. ,\ lark, IH It., 163
T ijuca, n. 265 eypboid. 343- 4, 3 ~, 384
T im es, T he ( Lo ndon) , 39":"40, 44,
I.p " lrima Carta de Fradiq ue .\I endes"
T im es, T he N ew Y or k , 4% ( E~a ), 112
l id es o f honor, 265-6, 349 V 1Iele T om ' f Cabin (Sw we ), 154
T ocqueville. Al exls Charles H enri Ungo, Co rali, 3!5
de, xxv Unii o dil Lm-oum, lR7
T olsroy, Leo, 30 1 unio ns: see labor unions. 19 1
T om bs and S hallO'l.!" Grilt 't'S Unired Sutes: polhical in fluence
( Freyre }, xxix in Hrazil, xiv, xxii, 114, C}O- I ,
roorhpicks, 5 ~8 , 1M; cultural relations w it h
T orres. H eloisn A lberto, xxv, 1, 16 1, Brazil, xviii-xix, 1(5 2::3 . 165 ;
3%9, 335. 3~ citizens in Brazil, xix, xxiv, 69,
T or res, Art ur E. .\ 1., 246 11. %B , 237.. 2Sl:l, 39'9; Consrinmon,
T or res, j o o Cami lo de Oliveir a. xxiv, xlvi, 1.Ql5; social and po-
39' litical issucs, xxvi, 85, 164, 192 ,
T orres, Jos Luso and Tavares, ~94. 391. 397; fore ign relations
wirh xlvi-xlvii, xlix, 37, %oB,
'-'"
T or res, H omem, Har n de, 17.'. ' 2 55~ ; r elations with Larin
193, 243 Amer tca, xlviii, 9}, 359; armed


lndex XXXtIJ

Iorces, xlix, 403; racial issues, " era Cruz, C rispin Amaral de, IS' ,
L1 , 170-1, 188, aoa, ' ~4, ' I I . 35'
21S- 16. 221, 330; Brazilians in, Verdi, Gicscppe, 73
I.f 11. , 164, ')Si Braaillan at titudes Ve rger, Pierrc, 331/,
roward , 34, 4' -::3, 89; com pari- Verssimo, J os, 49":"j l), '-. !J, 1-l9,
sons w ith and n ucocc on Braz jl, !.SS , 16 " D 5; et hnic writings,
66, 111, 119, 1.68, 276-8, 336; '- 5.9, I.(jl , ! 9 ~ , ~3, 2 -l~, 360, 16'
technical assstancc to Brazil, Vcrne, j ules, 1 IZ, 1 17, 150-1 ,
92::9, , H -::l, l 16-]. 4~ ; commer- ~H~4, z76-7, 3!5
cial relations wit h Braail, 93-8, Vcrsatltcs Peace Conference, as
246, 251- .2, 34 1; Civil wo. 9 , poinr of c hrono logy, xxxii
221 , ' s8; influence on educa- Yiana, Fcrreira, 200, 239
riun in Brazil , 118, 1.~ 3 , I z6, Viana, joaquim, 345-6
30', 31 6::20; in uence on Brazil- V ian a, O livcira, xxv, 161
ian medici ne, Ijl n., 301, 38'; Viaria Filho, Lu s, xvii, 7 11" B 11.
on Brazilian lirerarure, 153":+ Vicen te .\ Ionsignnr Manuel, 332
158; rechnology in Brazil, U9, V ieh)', ! -ll. 351
, .8, ' 77; life style, ' 1 ~, Victoria (Quee n of England ), ~{i1'
2 ~' ; archirecture, ' 7S-6 ,,6
Unlted Stater of /lrll::J/, T be ( D om- V icto ria Acad emy ( Ri o ) , SI
ville-Fife ), 39 1 Vid" de R uy Barbase, A (Via na ) ,
U niversal Congress of Races. B n.
"l Vid" Parlamentar ( R e bo ucas ),
Umversat L brery ; ISO , 7'
U rban V III, Pope, ' 9<> V ieira, Antonio, xxv
urba nizarion, xiv, U 4 V ieira, j oiio, 124
Ursuline order, 3!J Vie ira, ,\ l encscs, I I
Uruguay , xxii, 1 1 n., 31; immigra- V iei ra, Sevcrlno, 20 1
tion, 2.~, l ; labor movcmenr, Vilabolm, "-lan uel , ~ , n i
3lt', 391=-8 Villa-Lobos, H eiro r, xvii. xxv
Urugua y, Viscou nt of, ~49 Yilleres, H enriq uc Dumonr, !54 n.
Y incc nr de Paulo, ordcr of, 3'-3
Vllngll.Jrd;l ( R io ) , 11! \ ' incent de Paul, SI., 29Z
Va rela, Fag undes, l B , l i~ Virages du Brsi; Les: tee Ad am,
V arga s, G erlio, xv--xvi, xxiii, Paul
XXXI, xvu, 91 V iiom du Br slr see Gare, Fa rher
Va rn hapen: see Pon o Seguro, L. A.
V iscount of V ital , D om F rei ( Bishop of
V aseoneelos, Jos, xxii Oioda ). xxx, !H , , !:l8, ]1 0- 1:,
V ascon celos, i\lax, 352 l '4
Vanean. ,6S--< Vitor, X csro r, ~ 49
Vaugha n, Percy. 2.J() Vir ria, transpo n fac ilities, xlviii
Vaur hier , Lo uis Lger, lj- 14, ~ H ; Y iro r ino, i\lanuel, u(j, !Jo-I , 1Hz ,
re Fouricrism, p 8 37l
Vaux, C1I)tildc de, xxi, ' 1 Volraire, Francois xt aric Aroucr, I tI,
vcncrcal d iseases, 2L I , 3H, 317-8, 29.! , 'n, 3Q9
l 8" voodoo, xx, 33-1), 3! 1
" enelUela, 352 V oy age eu Brril ( Agasste). ~7 n.

XXXI'L' lndex
\ Vallace, A lfred R ussel, 92 \Vo rld W ae 1: as po im o chronol-
\ \'alsh. Rev., 195-6
". .
0gy , Xlll-XIV. XXXI,
. xxxm.
...
W ander tcy, ,\ b.ollel da Roc ha, lI xxxvii, 139. 11 7. 3all, 398 ; Brazil
\ Var Collcge. Brazilian, xxiii-xxiv in, xlix, 105, 357; France in,151
wars o f inde pendence from Spain, 5 ws-tr, Wo rk , 360
W ash ington ( D .C.) , xlix, lIS \ Vrig ht , O n 'i1l e and \\'i lbuf, 31811.
'''atson's, fir m , 266 Wucherer, H err, 121 , 12 5, 131
w ebb, Sidney j e mes, H
\\'erneck, Francisco Pcixoto de Xa xier, A gilbcno, !l1- j
Lacerd a, E!M. 1 U 1/ . X , Y "I I I
wesr Poinr, 91
W hite. 361
\ Vh irman, \Valt , 163
Y..\t.G A., JO I
Y., X., I 11
\ \'h ittier, j ohn G reenleat, 91 , 158
yellow feve r, 6, 4 j. 9 1, 118, 343-4;
\Vick ham, H cnry A lexander, 145-6
erearrncnt and control, xvil, 156.
\ \,leman, J. P., nR- 19
378-<),384,375; cl iminat ion o f,
W ilhelm 11 ( o f G erm any) , H7
161, 16j, }46-7
\Vilson, Mr., 7. 42
Youman, chernisr. 94
Wilson, \ Voodrow , xxii
Young ,\ 1cn's Christia n A ssociat ion ,
witchcraft: Uf voodoo
wor nan: in sociery , dI. 1 ' , ' 11, 303 ; J"'
symbol of rhe Srare, 175. RS
\Vorkcr's C or porarion, )17 Ze uallos, Estanislau, xx ii
working class: see labor Zio n, or der of, 313
JVorld ( X ew York), .p Zola, t m ilc. n i, l B
AnUlropologyJtalin American Studies

&sential lo an understanding DI modem Brazil, Ihis volume continues Gilberto

Freyre's landma'" study 01 Brazilian civilizabon. ti chronieles Brazil's transition trom
monan:hy lo republie, atransilion characterized by Ule introduction 01 anew tonn 01
govemment but no! 01 a new social onler. From Ule firsl decisiva steps _nlUle
abolilion 01 s1avery in Ule early 1870. lo Ule end oIWorid War 1, every Ulread of
Brazil's cuttural labrie is examined. Freyre also describes Ule evolving paradOll 01
racial ease and social rigidily. Ihe two coneepts, " Onler and Progress" IUle molto
emblazoned on Ule Brazilian nag since 1889), ron Ulrough Ulis absoo1ling and colonol
study, exemplitying as Uley do Ule combinabon 01 strong govemment and patriardlal
lamily sInIeture Freyre seas as Ule major lactor in Brazil's emergence as a modem
sociely. TIlis Universily 01 talitomia Press edilion has a new introduction by Ule
author, translaled by Helen taldwell, as well as a torewonl by Ludwig auernass,
JI. , olUle Universily 01 talitomia, Los Angeles.

Gllberio Freyre, bom in Brazil in 1900, has been inlemationally honored and trans-
lated into many languages. AmaRg his many accomplishments as a writer-teacher-
politician-intemational envoy. none has received wider acclaim than this panoramic
trio ct books devoted lo the rise and tall 01 patriardlal society in Brazil. IIls a master-
plece thal gOO5 beyond the Iimitations of place and time. The distinction between
ractl and culture, whch lhe author leamed trom pioneer anUlropologist mOl Boas,
illuminales ils pages, as does Freyre's combinabon 01 imposing scholarship and
unique personal insight.

Published in conjuncbon wiUl Order and Progress:

The Maslers and tne Slaves: AStudy in the Development 01 Brazilian Civilization,
by Gilbel10 Freyre, lranslaled by Samuel Putnam, wiUl atorewonl by David H. P.
Maybury-Lewis

11Ie Mansions and Ihe Shanties: 11Ie Mating 01 Modem Brazjl, by Gilberio Freyre,
lransJaled by Harriel de Onis, wilh atoreword by E. Bradlonl Burns

Universly 01 talifomia Press

Berkeley 94720

ISBN D-52D-D5b82-5