Archaeological Recovery of the JAVA SEA WRECK

Michael Flecker

This publication is intended as an illustrative and descriptive catalogue of the Southeast Asian ceramics held in the Department of Maritime Archaeology’s Collections. It does not attempt to provide an analysis of the ceramics but it does the important task of collating, organizing and publishing facts about the size, shape, weight and color of each ceramic. An explanation for the organization of the catalogue is provided on the last page of this volume’s text prior to the photographic catalogue. This is for reasons of flow. The first part of this catalogue provides context on why the collection came to the Museum and how the wares were used in an Internship as a training tool for a young researcher. The outcome of the training is then displayed in the second half of this catalogue with the photography and information gathered for/from the Department’s database.

The ceramic trade throughout Medieval Southeast Asia was prolific. Terrestrial sites have yielded massive amounts of ceramic material and the archaeological reports of shipwreck cargoes corroborate the versatile and extensive qualities of trade ceramics in the region. The sheer quantity of ceramic artefacts found in shipwreck assemblages, paired with a well-researched framework of the aesthetic, show that there is no doubt that we rely heavily on ceramic data to date wrecks and establish regional trading patterns. This paper will debate that we are too 'ceramo-centric' in our analyses of shipwrecks. While ceramics typically represent the bulk of the recovered material in these instances, many other types of media are present in the assemblage. Yet, these “lesser” materials suffer from a lack of investigation and therefore play virtually no role in the archaeological and historical assessment. This case study focuses on the nonceramic assemblages for six shipwrecks from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries of Southeast Asia (three Chinese-built and three Southeast Asian-styled junks). The typological study of the metallurgical, organic and geological material from these wrecks can complement much of the work surrounding existing trade models as well as reveal new concepts of crew life, belief systems and culture. These facets come together to offer a more holistic narrative as well as stimulating the need within the region for more study regarding the locations where past peoples mined and manufactured raw metals.

Sunken Treasures: Asian Ceramics Exhibition and Catalogue An exhibition of ceramics from shipwrecks found in Pacific seas presented by the Canadian Society for Asian Arts at the Dr. Sun Yat-Sen Classical Chinese garden, Vanccouver, Canada from September 16-November 8, 2018 Cargoes from shipwrecks, filled with silk, tea, spices and prized Chinese and Southeast Asian ceramics, attest to the vigour of trade and the rich cultural history of the Asian region. Trade flourished from the 14th to 19th centuries. Chinese junks and Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish and English galleons were among the many ships actively plying the South China Sea, the Manila to Acapulco route and beyond, forming a ‘Maritime Silk Road’. Ships laden with ceramics, and the especially esteemed blue and white porcelain, tell the story of wares highly valued throughout Asia, the Middle East and eventually Europe. Known for their beauty and utility, Asian ceramics offered a wide variety of forms, glazes and designs popular centuries ago and still popular today. The Sunken Treasures exhibition presents shipwreck ceramics: snapshots in time that expand our knowledge and appreciation of cultural treasures from long ago, retrieved only recently from the bottom of the sea. October 27, 2018 drs Paula Swart gave a lecture “Shipwrecked: Treasures and Monsoon Winds, Ceramics from Ancient Shipwrecks”

ARCHAEOLOGICAL REPORT Archaeological Recovery of the JAVA SEA WRECK PACIFIC SEA RESOURCES ARCHAEOLOGICAL REPORT Java Sea Wreck Pacific Sea Resources MATHERS FLECKER 1997 ARCHAEOLOGICAL REPORT Archaeological Recovery of the Java Sea Wreck Edited by WILLIAM M. MATHERS MICHAEL FLECKER Pacific Sea Resources 1997 Editors: William M. Mathers Michael Flecker Authors: History - John Miksic, Ph.D. Iron - Bennet Bronson, Ph.D. Ceramics - Roxanna Brown Archaeology - Michael Flecker Layout & Design: Catherine Noon Pacific Sea Resources, Inc. 726 Second Street Annapolis, Maryland 21403 U.S.A. Telephone: 410-268-5661 Facsimile: 410-268-9371  1997 Pacific Sea Resources, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic means, including information storage and retrieval devices or systems, without prior written permission from Pacific Sea Resources, Inc., except for brief passages which may be quoted for reviews. THE JAVA SEA WRECK ARCHAEOLOGICAL REPORT TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 Introduction 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1 1 4 Historical Background 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.0 4.0 O b je c tive s Lo c a ting the Wre c k Po litic a l C o nsid e ra tio ns C hina ’ s Po sitio n in the Na n Ha i Tra d e fro m 500 B.C . Thro ug h the Ta ng Dyna sty (A.D. 906) Tra d e Inte ra c tio n During the So ng Dyna sty (A.D. 960-1260) Tra d e Inte ra c tio n During the Yua n Dyna sty (A.D. 1260-1367) Tra d e C o m m o d itie s Mo ne ta ry Syste m 5 5 18 23 27 30 Archaeological Program 34 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 34 36 43 46 50 53 56 Arc ha e o lo g ic a l O b je c tive s Re c o ve ry Ve sse l a nd Diving Syste m Exc a va tio n Te c hniq ue s Pho to g ra p hic Pro c e d ure s Re g istra tio n Syste m C e ra m ic s a nd Artifa c t Ha nd ling Pro c e d ure C o nse rva tio n Site Conditions 58 4.1 4.2 4.3 58 59 60 Site De sc rip tio n O c e a no g ra p hic a nd Me te o ro lo g ic a l C o nd itio ns Enviro nm e nta l Mo nito ring a nd Ma rine Life 5.0 The Wrecking Process 64 6.0 Interpreting the Ship 67 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 67 70 71 72 76 Hull Struc ture Sto w a g e Pa tte rn a nd C a rg o C a p a c ity Wo o d Id e ntific a tio n Id e ntifying the Ship Da ting the Ship 7.0 8.0 Artifacts 77 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 77 80 81 81 83 85 86 87 88 89 91 92 93 94 The Iron Industry and Trade 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 9.0 95 The Histo ry o f Iro n Pro d uc tio n in Asia Iro n-Ma king Te c hno lo g y Histo ric a l a nd Arc ha e o lo g ic a l Pa ra lle ls Ana lysis o f Iro n fro m the Wre c k 95 97 99 101 High-Fired Ceramics of Song Dynasty China: The Java Sea Cargo in Context 103 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 10.0 Iro n Ivo ry Re sin Ba la nc e We ig hts a nd Ba rs Fig urine s a nd Finia ls Tra ys G o ng s C o p p e r Ing o ts Misc e lla ne o us C o p p e r Allo y Artifa c ts G la ssw a re Ro c ks Sha rp e ning Sto ne s O rg a nic Find s Tin Ing o ts Intro d uc tio n C hina ’ s Sup re m a c y So urc e s a nd Pro p e rtie s o f C la y Firing Te m p e ra ture s G la ze s Hig h-Te m p e ra ture G la ze s G la ze C o lo r The Ja va Se a C e ra m ic s C a rg o 103 103 104 105 105 106 106 107 Thirteenth-Century Potting Techniques: as Evidenced by the Java Sea Cargo 110 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 110 110 111 111 111 112 112 112 113 C o lle c ting a nd Pre p a ring the Ma te ria ls Pre p a ring the G la ze Furnishing the Kiln Ma king the Mo ld s The Po tte r’ s Whe e l Finishing the Fo rm De c o ra tio n Firing Illustra ting the Po tting Pro c e ss iv 11.0 Ceramics Inventory 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 11.10 12.0 116 Pa inte d Wa re Bla c k-G la ze d Wa re Mo ld e d White / Q ing b a i Wa re Q ing b a i Wa re C e la d o n a nd O live -G la ze d Wa re De c o ra te d G re e n-G la ze d Wa re Und e c o ra te d G re e n-G la ze d Wa re Bro w n-G la ze d Wa re Ind ia n-Style Ea rthe nw a re Misc e lla ne o us C e ra m ic s Conclusion 116 130 131 137 149 153 160 165 172 178 182 Bibliography 185 Appendices 191 A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K. L. 191 198 203 205 218 223 231 241 244 257 261 265 Artifa c t Da ta b a se Se le c te d Pa g e s fro m Artifa c t Re g istra tio n Re p o rt Artifa c t Distrib utio n Pla n C e ra m ic s Distrib utio n Plo ts List o f Ma rine Sp e c ie s So il Ana lysis Da ta Wo o d Id e ntific a tio n C 14 Da ting o f Re sin Tin Ing o t Ana lysis Iro n Ana lysis Pro je c t Pe rso nne l Ac kno w le d g m e nts v 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Objectives and Results In Ma rc h 1996 Pa c ific Se a Re so urc e s (PSR) le a rne d o f a ship w re c k in the Ja va Se a . The w re c k ha d a c a rg o o f iro n a nd thirte e nth-c e ntury So ng d yna sty C hine se c e ra m ic s. It b e c a m e kno w n a s the Ja va Se a Wre c k. Thro ug h Ind o ne sia n p a rtne r PT Sulung Se g a ra ja ya , PSR w a s a w a rd e d a lic e nse to sa lva g e the Ja va Se a Wre c k in July 1996. During Aug ust a b a rg e , tug , e q uip m e nt a nd p e rso nne l w e re m o b ilize d in Sing a p o re . De p a rture w a s o n 28 Aug ust, a nd a fte r c le a ring in a t Be litung the e xc a va tio n ve sse l w a s a nc ho re d o ve r the w re c k site o n 30 Aug ust 1996. Exc a va tio n to o k tw o m o nths. O n 29 O c to b e r the a nc ho rs w e re re trie ve d a nd the b a rg e a nd find s re turne d to Sing a p o re , a rriving the re o n 4 No ve m b e r. In a c o nse rva tio n la b o ra to ry in Sing a p o re , the c e ra m ic s c a rg o w a s c le a ne d , d e sa lina te d , a nd the n syste m a tic a lly she lve d fo r c a ta lo g uing a nd stud y. This Arc ha e o lo g ic a l Re p o rt d e ta ils the histo ric a l b a c kg ro und a t the tim e o f the lo ss, d e sc rib e s the a rc ha e o lo g ic a l m e tho d s tha t w e re use d to e xc a va te a nd d o c um e nt the w re c k, a nd d isc usse s the site , the ship , a nd the like ly w re c king p ro c e ss. It p re se nts the a rtifa c ts a nd c e ra m ic s in inve nto ry fo rm a nd g o e s o n to stud y the c o nte xt o f the find s in tim e a nd p la c e . The iro n c a rg o , the m o st e xte nsive e ve r d isc o ve re d o n a ship o f this e ra , is d isc usse d in te rm s o f the histo ry a nd te c hno lo g y o f iro n p ro d uc tio n in Asia . The c e ra m ic s p re se nt a w o nd e rful c ro ss se c tio n o f e xp o rt w a re s fro m so uthe rn C hina . O ve r ha lf o f the c e ra m ic s c a rg o c o nsists o f sim p le , utilita ria n b o w ls a nd d ishe s, p ro vinc ia l w a re fo r d a y-to -d a y use . At the o the r e nd o f the sp e c trum a re e xq uisite ly m o ld e d q ing b a i (p a le b lue ) e w e rs w ith d ra g o n ha nd le s a nd ra re C izho u-typ e e w e rs a nd b o w ls, o b vio usly m e a nt fo r the e lite . In b e tw e e n a re d o ze ns o f va rie tie s o f fine b o w ls, d ishe s, va se s, b o ttle s, b o xe s, a nd ja rs, in a ll sha d e s fro m w hite thro ug h g re e n to b lue . No ne o f the ship ’ s struc ture ha s survive d . Ho w e ve r, fro m e vid e nc e g le a ne d fro m the iro n c o nc re tio ns a nd fra g m e nts o f w o o d , it se e m s tha t the ship w a s o f Tha i o rig in. The p rim a ry c a rg o o f iro n c a uld ro ns a nd b a rs w a s lo a d e d in ho ld s the full le ng th o f the ship . Te ns o f tho usa nd s o f c e ra m ic s fro m the kilns o f so uthe rn C hina w e re sto w e d o n to p o f the iro n. The ship the n m a d e its w a y so uth a lo ng the c o a sta l ro ute , p o ssib ly sto p p ing in Vie tna m , Tha ila nd , a nd Sum a tra , w he re it tra d e d fo r ivo ry, e a rthe nw a re ke nd is, a nd a ro m a tic re sins. Ha ving p a sse d thro ug h the tre a c he ro us Ba nka Stra it, it he a d e d o n to w a rd s e a ste rn Ja va w he re the Ma ja p a hit e m p ire w a s ta king sha p e . But fo r re a so ns ne ve r to b e d isc o ve re d , it sa nk in the Ja va Se a , w e ll sho rt o f its fina l d e stina tio n. 1.2 Locating the Wreck The w re c k lie s in the no rthw e st re g io n o f the Ja va Se a . The re is no la nd in sig ht. The re is no b o tto m tra w ling . And ye t fishe rm e n fo und the ship w re c k a nd c a n re turn to it a g a in a nd a g a in. It is tho ug ht to ha ve b e e n first d isc o ve re d in the la te 1980s. It is m o st like ly tha t b ird s g a ve a w a y the p o sitio n tha t ha d re m a ine d a se c re t fo r o ve r se ve n hund re d ye a rs. Bird s fe e d o n sc ho o ls o f fish tha t a re a ttra c te d to the w re c k. O n a n o the rw ise fe a ture le ss sa nd y se a b e d , a w re c k p ro vid e s fo o d a nd she lte r fo r hug e sc ho o ls o f fish a nd la rg e ind ivid ua ls - a p la c e fo r c o ra ls, 1 sp o ng e s, a nd o yste r she lls to thrive . Bird s a re a lw a ys fe e d ing o n sc ho o ls o f fish, b ut m o st o f the sc ho o ls a re p e la g ic a nd the re fo re m o ve a ro und . Fish o ve r a w re c k sta y in m o re o r le ss the sa m e lo c a tio n. Whe n fishe rm e n o b se rve b ird s fe e d ing fo r a lo ng tim e in o ne lo c a tio n, it is a ve ry g o o d sig n tha t a w re c k lie s b e lo w . Ja va Se a Wre c k lo c a tio n ma p . 2 The fishe rm e n a re usua lly m o re inte re ste d in fish tha n the w re c k itse lf. The y ke e p the p o sitio n to the m se lve s, a s it p ro vid e s a c o ntinuo us sup p ly o f re d sna p p e r a nd g ro up e r. The ir a b ility to re lo c a te the site is re m a rka b le , c o nsid e ring the b ird s a re o nly the re o n the ra re o c c a sio ns tha t the sc ho o ls o f fish c o m e to the surfa c e . In the c a se o f the Ja va Se a Wre c k the c lo se st na vig a tio n m a rke r is a n o ffsho re o il-p ro d uc tio n p la tfo rm m o re tha n thirty m ile s a w a y. By ste a m ing fo r, sa y, fo ur ho urs a t 10° fro m the p la tfo rm , the y c o m e to the a re a using o nly a w a tc h a nd a rud im e nta ry c o m p a ss a s instrum e nts. So m e tim e s the y g o stra ig ht to it a nd c o nfirm the lo c a tio n b y c a tc hing re e f fish w he re no rm a lly the re w o uld o nly b e p e la g ic sp e c ie s. O the rw ise , the y d ro p a m a rke r b uo y a nd d o a slo w se a rc h using a le a d b a r o n a ro p e . Whe n the b a r hits a n iro n hull, a b a lla st sto ne , o r a p ie c e o f p o rc e la in, the y c a n fe e l it a nd c o nfirm it b y fre sh m a rks in the le a d . In no tim e the y a re a nc ho re d o ve r the site , p ulling sna p p e r in o ne a fte r the o the r. It is no rm a lly o nly a m a tte r o f tim e b e fo re a ho o k sna g s o n the b o tto m a nd , w he n p ulle d fre e , c o m e s to the surfa c e w ith a lum p o f iro n c o nc re tio n o r a c e ra m ic sha rd . Ma ny o f the fishe rm e n in the so uthe rn p o rtio n o f the Ja va Se a live o n a fe w isla nd s in the Tho usa nd Isla nd G ro up just no rth o f Ja ka rta . Se ve ra l o f the m a re a lso se a c uc um b e r a nd a q ua rium fish d ive rs a nd ha ve sm a ll c o m p re sso rs rig g e d o n the ir b o a ts. The se d ive rs a re a lso o n the lo o ko ut fo r ship w re c ks, w hic h a b o und in the Ind o ne sia n a rc hip e la g o . Wo rld Wa r Tw o tin c a rg o e s, Ming b lue -a nd -w hite , a nd So ng c e la d o ns a re o fte n re c o ve re d b y the se d ive rs a nd d isp o se d o f ve ry q uie tly. As so o n a s the y he a rd tha t a c e ra m ic s sha rd ha d b e e n fishe d up in the m id d le o f the Ja va Se a , the y he a d e d fo r the site to sa lva g e w ha t the y c o uld . As the re is no b o tto m tra w ling in the a re a , the re m ust ha ve b e e n la rg e num b e rs o f inta c t c e ra m ic s o n the w re c k m o und tha t c o uld b e e a sily re c o ve re d w itho ut a ny e xc a va tio n e q uip m e nt, suc h a s a irlifts. It is no w kno w n tha t m uc h o f the surfa c e m a te ria l w a s re m o ve d b y fishe rm e n. As a n a sid e , so m e fishe rm e n ha ve a d m itte d to using e xp lo sive s o n the site to c a tc h fish b e fo re a nd a fte r c e ra m ic s w e re re c o ve re d . The sho c k w a ve s fro m the e xp lo sio n kill the fish a nd just a b o ut e ve ry o the r living o rg a nism in the ne a r vic inity. Ab o ut a third o f the d e a d fish flo a t to the surfa c e , w he re the y a re q uic kly sna tc he d up . The o the r tw o -third s sink to the b o tto m , w he re the y a re le ft o r c o lle c te d b y fishe rm e n w ith p rim itive d iving e q uip m e nt. Entire c o ra l re e f e c o syste m s a re d e stro ye d b y this ve ry sho rt-sig hte d te c hniq ue . The a utho ritie s a re a w a re o f the lo ss o f na tio na l he rita g e c a use d b y lo o ting a nd d yna m iting . Eve ntua lly, the na vy g o t w o rd o f the se a c tivitie s a nd a rre ste d the fishe rm e n c o nc e rne d . Aw a re tha t it w a s to o risky to re turn to the site , the fishe rm e n so ld the p o sitio n o f the w re c k to Jo hn And e rso n, a n Am e ric a n, w ho ha d b e e n c a rrying o ut surve y a nd sa lva g e w o rk in Ind o ne sia fo r se ve ra l ye a rs. Und e r c o ntra c t to the G o ve rnm e nt, And e rso n visite d the lo c a tio n in a fishing b o a t in 1993 a nd re c o ve re d a p p ro xim a te ly 1,000 p ie c e s d uring a p re lim ina ry inve stig a tio n. The sa lva g e c o m p a ny re turne d w ith a b a rg e a nd e xc a va tio n e q uip m e nt in 1994 a nd in le ss tha n a m o nth re c o ve re d a n a d d itio na l 7,000 c e ra m ic ite m s. The b a rg e a lm o st sa nk o n the w re c k a nd w a s to w e d b a c k to Ja ka rta fo r m a jo r re p a irs. Sho rtly the re a fte r the c o m p a ny w e nt into re c e ive rship fo r re a so ns unre la te d to the ship w re c k. In Ma rc h 1996 Pa c ific Se a Re so urc e s c a rrie d o ut a b rie f surve y o f the w re c k site , w hic h sug g e ste d tha t a sig nific a nt a m o unt o f hull struc ture a nd und isturb e d c a rg o re m a ine d . And e rso n the n so ld the rig hts to Pa c ific Se a Re so urc e s a nd a jo int ve nture w a s e sta b lishe d . Unfo rtuna te ly, it w a s o nly a fte r e xc a va tio n w a s und e r w a y tha t And e rso n info rm e d Pa c ific Se a Re so urc e s tha t the w re c k ha d b e e n lo o te d p re vio usly b y e nte rp rising lo c a l inte re sts w ho ha d re c o ve re d a t le a st 4,000 inta c t c e ra m ic p ie c e s, a nd tha t no hull struc ture re m a ine d . 3 1.3 Political Considerations In o rd e r to c a rry o ut ship w re c k e xc a va tio n w o rk in Ind o ne sia , a sa lva g e lic e nse m ust b e a w a rd e d to a lo c a l c o m p a ny, b y the na tio na l ship w re c k c o m m itte e , Pa nitia Na sio na l. Pa c ific Se a Re so urc e s fo rm e d the Ind o ne sia n c o m p a ny, PT Sulung Se g a ra ja ya , thro ug h Ind o ne sia n p a rtne rs to a p p ly fo r a lic e nse . With Pa c ific Se a Re so urc e s’ re c o rd o f the suc c e ssful a rc ha e o lo g ic a l e xc a va tio n o f the Ma nila g a lle o n Nue stra Se no ra d e la C o nc e p c io n in Sa ip a n, Pa nitia Na sio na l re a d ily a c c e p te d the a p p lic a tio n. Be fo re the lic e nse c o uld b e a w a rd e d , ho w e ve r, a p p ro va l ha d to b e o b ta ine d fro m tw e nty-tw o G o ve rnm e nt d e p a rtm e nts. As so o n a s the se a p p ro va ls w e re in ha nd , the lic e nse w a s issue d a nd a d e p o sit o f Rp s. 100,000,000 w a s p a id to Pa nitia Na sio na l. Be fo re w o rk c o uld c o m m e nc e , se c urity c le a ra nc e s ha d to b e o b ta ine d fo r a ll p e rso nne l a nd ve sse ls. Eve n Ind o ne sia n na tio na ls, w ho m a d e up the va st m a jo rity o f the c re w , ha d to b e c le a re d b e fo re the y c o uld w o rk o n a w re c k site in Ind o ne sia n w a te rs. A se c urity o ffic e r re p re se nting Pa nitia Na sio na l w a s p e rm a ne ntly p o ste d o n b o a rd the re c o ve ry ve sse l w hile e xc a va tio n w a s und e r w a y. His ro le w a s to e nsure tha t e xc a va tio n w a s d o ne in a c c o rd a nc e w ith the lic e nse te rm s a nd to g ua rd a g a inst o utsid e inte rfe re nc e , suc h a s p ira c y. Eve ry e ve ning the c e ra m ic s find s fo r the d a y w e re inve nto rie d a nd jo intly sig ne d o ff b y the se c urity o ffic e r a nd Pa c ific Se a Re so urc e s. Whe n the e xc a va tio n w a s c o m p le te d a nd a ll e xp o rt d o c um e nta tio n w a s in o rd e r, the se c urity o ffic e r a c c o m p a nie d the b a rg e a nd c a rg o b a c k to Sing a p o re . 4 2.0 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND b y Dr. Jo hn Miksic 2.1 China's Position in the Nan Hai Trade from 500 B.C. through the Tang Dynasty (A.D. 906) 2.1.1 Introduction In the ye a r A.D. 100, a d ista nt o b se rve r o f the Ea rth w o uld ha ve se e n hum a nkind o n the ve rg e o f a n e xp lo sio n o f c o m m e rc ia l a c tivity. Be twe e n the Me d ite rra ne a n, whe re the Ro ma n Emp ire und e r the C a e sa rs wa s a t its he ig ht, a nd C hina , sta b le a nd p ro sp e ro us und e r the Ha n Dyna sty, the king d o ms o f So uth Asia we re e nc o ura g ing fo re ig n tra d e rs to c o me to the ir sho re s. Ivo ry a nd inc e nse fro m Ind ia w e re use d in Ro m a n p a la c e s. Tra d e rs fro m the G ra e c o -Ro m a n re g io ns e sta b lishe d o utp o sts a lo ng the so uthe rn c o a sts o f Ind ia , w he re Ro m a n c o ins a nd p o tte ry ha ve sinc e b e e n fo und . The British a rc ha e o lo g ist Sir Mo rtim e r Whe e le r, w ho e xc a va te d se ve ra l o f the se site s, c o nc lud e d tha t "it is fa ir to e nvisa g e Ind o -Euro p e a n c o m m e rc e o f the first c e ntury A.D. p re tty c lo se ly in te rm s o f tha t o f the se ve nte e nth c e ntury" (Whe e le r, 1954: 125). The Ro m a ns e sta b lishe d tra d ing c o m p a nie s w ith p o w e rs a nd p ro c e d ure s sim ila r to tho se o f the Dutc h a nd British fa c to ry syste m s use d in Asia o ve r a tho usa nd ye a rs la te r. The Ind ia ns fo rm e d sim ila r g ro up s. The m e m b e rs o f the Ind ia n tra d ing c o rp o ra tio ns w e re "re la te d b y a c o m m o n inte re st in tra d e tha t ha d to p a ss thro ug h a p a rtic ula r c e nte r ...[T]he se tra d e rs w e re g ive n ro ya l c ha rte rs" (Ko sa m b i, 1959: 282). Ind ia n tra d ing g uild s, e ng a g e d in the w ho le sa le c o m m e rc e o f luxury g o o d s, a nd m a inta ine d d ip lo m a tic re la tio ns w ith rule rs o f re g io ns w he re tho se g o o d s o rig ina te d . The C hine se , ho w e ve r, w e re no t ye t p a rty to this c o m m unic a tio n. Ind e e d , the C hine se m a inta ine d a n a ttitud e o f a lo o fne ss a nd o ffic ia l d isinte re st until m uc h la te r, tha t is, until e ve nts d uring the e a rly So ng d yna sty (960-1279) c o nsp ire d to b ring a b o ut a c ha ng e in the p o lic y to w a rd tra d e . It w a s the n tha t C hina fina lly inte g ra te d into the tra d ing syste m o f the Na nha i (the C hine se p hra se d e sig na ting the Ind ia n O c e a n a nd So uth C hina Se a ). But the na ture o f C hina 's p a rtic ip a tio n in this a nc ie nt a nd so p histic a te d m a ritim e tra d e ne tw o rk w a s uniq ue . In o rd e r to und e rsta nd the fa c to rs w hic h sha p e d the tra d e o f the So uth C hina Se a in the thirte e nth c e ntury, it is ne c e ssa ry to und e rsta nd the tra d itio na l C hine se p e rsp e c tive o n tra d e in g e ne ra l, a nd o n m a ritim e c o m m e rc e in p a rtic ula r. 2.1.2 Trade in the Indian Ocean, A.D. 100 Two ma jo r Me d ite rra ne a n so urc e s e na b le us to c o nstruc t a n o utline o f the e a rly ma ritime tra d e syste m o f Asia . O ne is a G e o g ra p hy writte n b y the Ale xa nd ria n G re e k a stro no me r, C la ud ius Pto le ma e us (Pto le my), a ro und the ye a r A.D. 100. The se c o nd is a n a no nymo us wo rk e ntitle d Pe rip lus Ma ra e Erythra e nsis, "Sa ilo r's G uid e to the Ind ia n O c e a n," writte n a ro und the sa me time . The se te xts d e sc rib e the c o mme rc ia l institutio ns o f the Ind ia n O c e a n a nd sho w tha t c o mme rc ia l p ra c tic e s a lo ng the tra d e ro ute s the re ha d a lre a d y b e e n sta nd a rd ize d . The ma in c o mmo d itie s kno wn to b e ship p e d o ve r the se ro ute s we re hig h in va lue a nd lo w in b ulk. The y inc lud e d suc h ite ms a s sp ic e s, va rio us kind s o f inc e nse , g o ld a nd silve r, sp e c ia l te xtile s inc lud ing silk, a nd ite ms tha t a re no w ma inly c o nsid e re d o d d itie s b ut c o mma nd e d hig h p ric e s in tho se d a ys ฀ suc h ite ms a s rhino c e ro s ho rn a nd king fishe r fe a the rs. 5 The re we re two b a sic se c to rs in the tra d e ne two rk: tho se in the Ind ia n O c e a n, la nd s "a b o ve the wind ," a nd tho se in the So uth C hina Se a a nd Stra its o f Ma la c c a , la nd s "b e lo w the wind ." The tra ffic a lo ng the se ro ute s wa s g o ve rne d b y the re g ime n o f the se a so na l wind s o r mo nso o ns. It wa s no t p o ssib le to sa il fro m o ne e nd o f the ro ute , suc h a s the Pe rsia n G ulf/ Re d Se a a re a , to the o the r e nd , in C hina , in o ne vo ya g e . The no rma l p ra c tic e wa s fo r Ind ia n ship s to sa il within the Ind ia n O c e a n a s fa r e a st a s the Stra its o f Ma la c c a . Fro m the re , the vo ya g e to C hina wa s und e rta ke n in So uthe a st Asia n ship s. Ac c o rd ing to the no rma l rhythm o f the wind s, ship s wo uld sa il fro m C hina to the Stra its o f Ma la c c a a re a in Ja nua ry a nd Fe b rua ry. The vo ya g e fro m So uthe a st Asia to C hina c o uld b e und e rta ke n b e twe e n June a nd Aug ust. Sa ilo rs le ft Ind ia fo r the Stra its b e twe e n Ap ril a nd Aug ust with the so uthwe st mo nso o n. It wa s te c hnic a lly p o ssib le to sa il to Ind ia o n the sa me wind , b ut mo st ship s o nly d e p a rte d fro m the Stra its fo r Ind ia in De c e mb e r o r in Ja nua ry. So just a s the ship s fro m C hina wo uld b e re turning to Suma tra o r Ja va with the ir c a rg o e s o f silks a nd me ta l, the o the r ship s wo uld b e le a ving tho se isla nd s o n the ir wa y to Ind ia . Me rc ha nts fro m the two le g s o f the ne two rk wo uld no t me e t unle ss the y re ma ine d in the Stra its fo r ne a rly a ye a r. Ship s d id no t usua lly sta y o ve r, b ut tra d e rs c o uld . The y c ha ng e d fro m ship to ship in re la ys. The third le g o f the tria ng le invo lve d wha t is no w e a ste rn Ind o ne sia , the so urc e s o f so me o f the ra re st sp ic e s, sp e c ific a lly c lo ve s a nd nutme g . The ship s fro m the Mo luc c a s a nd Sula we si usua lly le ft b e twe e n Ma y o r June a nd O c to b e r, a rriving in the Stra its o r no rth Ja va a b o ut two mo nths la te r. Until the So ng d yna sty, ship p ing in the So uth C hina Se a wa s a mo no p o ly he ld b y So uthe a st Asia ns, o f who m the p e o p le o f wha t is no w Ind o ne sia fo rme d the ma jo rity. The p e o p le o f Ja va a nd Suma tra we re the a nc ie nt sa ilo rs o f the wo rld p a r e xc e lle nc e . The ir re la tive s se ttle d the la nd s fro m Ha wa ii to Ma d a g a sc a r, o ff the we st c o a st o f Afric a . Hug e ship s kno wn a s ko la ndia p ho nta c a me fro m the e a ste rn se a s; the se se e m to ha ve b e e n no n-Ind ia n, a nd we re a lmo st c e rta inly fro m Ja va o r Suma tra . Ind ia n ship s b y c o ntra st se e m to ha ve b e e n la rg e ly c o a sta l ve sse ls. 2.1.3 Emporia: The Treaty Ports The G ra e c o -Ro ma n te xts c ite d he re use a p re c ise wo rd to d e sig na te a n inte rna tio na l tra d ing p o rt in the Ind ia n O c e a n: e mp o rio n, whic h o f c o urse ha s c o me d o wn to us in mo d e rn Eng lish a s e mp o rium . The Pe rip lus me ntio ns 27 e mp o ria in the Ind ia n O c e a n, d ivid e d into thre e c la sse s: "d e sig na te d ," "la wful," a nd "a utho rize d " (Mille r, 1969: 19, Sc ho ff, 1912: 51, n. 1; Wa rming to n, 1928:53). The d istinc tio ns b e twe e n the se c a te g o rie s a re unc le a r, b ut the g e ne ra l te rm me a ns "a le g a l ma rt whe re fo re ig n tra d e is a llo we d a nd ta xe d ." Pto le my, d e sc rib ing the Ind ia se a s a nd no nRo ma n b ut we ll-kno wn te rrito ry, inte nd s e mp o rio n to me a n a n a utho rize d c o a sta l ma rt in the O rie nt whe re no n-Ro ma n d ue s we re le vie d b y no n-Ro ma n a utho ritie s (Wa rming to n, 1928: 107). Ship s c a lling a t o the r p o rts mig ht b e e sc o rte d a wa y und e r a rme d g ua rd . Emp o ria e xiste d fro m the Re d Se a to So uthe a st Asia . G ra e c o -Ro ma n tra d e rs re sid e d a s fa r e a st a s so uth Ind ia . So me Ta mil king s e ve n p o sse sse d b o d yg ua rd s fro m "Ya va na " (fro m "Io nia ," a n o ld na me fo r p a rt o f G re e c e ). Ro me e xp o rte d g la ss a nd wine to Ind ia , a nd g ra in wa s ship p e d fro m the Ro ma n c o lo ny o f Eg yp t, b ut mo st o f the sp ic e s a nd silks ha d to b e p urc ha se d with g o ld a nd o the r me ta llic mo ne y. 6 As p re vio usly me ntio ne d , Ro ma n c o ins a re fo und in ma ny site s o f this first p e rio d o f la rg e sc a le Asia n tra d e in Ind ia . It is inte re sting to no te tha t Ro ma n e mp e ro rs a s e a rly a s Ve sp a sia n, A.D. 78, c o mp la ine d tha t the tra d e in luxury g o o d s wa s d ra ining c urre nc y o ut o f the e mp ire . The sa me p ro b le m a ro se ma ny c e nturie s la te r, whe n the British, in o rd e r to fina nc e the ir imp o rts o f te a a nd p o rc e la in, fo rc e d the C hine se to a c c e p t o p ium in lie u o f me ta ls. A fe w Ro ma n a rtifa c ts ha ve e ve n turne d up in site s in So uthe a st Asia , e sp e c ia lly a t O c -e o in so uthe rn Vie tna m, a p p a re ntly the ma jo r tra d ing c e nte r in the So uth C hina Se a fro m the se c o nd thro ug h the fifth c e nturie s. The Ro ma n tra d ing sta tio ns in so uth Ind ia survive d a t the mo st fo r a b o ut 200 ye a rs. The n the y fa d e o ut o f histo ry, a s the e mp ire b e g a n its lo ng , slo w d e c line . Eve n a fte r Ro me fe ll, ho we ve r, the na me "Rum" c o ntinue d to shine with a b rig ht luste r in Asia . The Byza ntine Emp ire wa s a lso kno wn b y this na me , a nd c o ins fro m fifth-c e ntury Byza ntium a re c o mmo n d isc o ve rie s a t site s o f this p e rio d in Sri La nka (Wo lte rs, 1967: 80). Euro p e fo rg o t c o mp le te ly a b o ut its e a rlie r invo lve me nt with Asia fo r a tho usa nd ye a rs a nd sa nk b a c k into the d a rkne ss o f the Mid d le Ag e s, whe n a ll tha t re ma ine d o f the e a rly lo ng -d ista nc e tra d e we re a fe w le g e nd s o f fa b ulo us we a lth in the d ista nt Ea st. The sto ry ha s a n inte re sting p o stsc rip t. In 1410, a Byza ntine -e ra c o p y o f Pto le my's G e o g ra p hy wa s d isc o ve re d in a lib ra ry in Flo re nc e a nd wa s tra nsla te d into La tin. This tra nsla tio n wa s stud ie d a t the Ac a d e my a t Sa g re s e sta b lishe d b y Princ e He nry the Na vig a to r. The info rma tio n it c o nta ine d , a ltho ug h mo re tha n a tho usa nd ye a rs o ld , p ro vid e d a vita l stimulus to the p la nning o f the e xp lo ra tio ns o f the so uth c o a st o f Afric a whic h c ulmina te d in the Po rtug ue se d isc o ve ry o f the C a p e o f G o o d Ho p e a nd the ro ute to Ind ia . This e p iso d e is o ne o f the mo st intrig uing e xa mp le s o f the use to whic h a nc ie nt c la ssic a l lite ra ture wa s p ut up o n its re d isc o ve ry d uring the Re na issa nc e , a nd the c le a r c o nne c tio n b e twe e n the b e g inning s o f Euro p e a n c o mme rc ia l e xp a nsio n into Asia (a nd a c c id e nta lly into Ame ric a ) a nd the b irth o f Euro p e a n huma nistic stud ie s. 2.1.4 While Europe Slept The p e rio d tha t c o nc e rns us he re is tha t b e twe e n the fa ll o f Ro me a nd the a rriva l in the Fa r Ea st o f the ir d ista nt d e sc e nd a nts, the Po rtug ue se . During this tho usa nd -ye a r p ha se o f d e ve lo p me nt, o nly no w a ttra c ting histo ria ns' a tte ntio n, the Asia n ma ritime tra d e fa re d e xtre me ly we ll witho ut Euro p e a n invo lve me nt o r, ind e e d , a wa re ne ss. Ve ry fe w Asia n re c o rd s o f this lo ng inte rim survive , a nd tho se tha t d o te nd to b e writte n in a rc ha ic o r e xtinc t la ng ua g e s a nd d e a l ma inly with ritua l a nd p o litic s. The p rinc ip a l e xc e p tio n is Ma rc o Po lo , who tra ve le d the e ntire le ng th o f the Asia n ma ritime tra d e ro ute d uring his re turn fro m Yua n-d yna sty C hina to Ita ly in 129293. Po lo 's d e sc rip tio ns o f this wo rld se e me d so unb e lie va b le to his c o nte mp o ra rie s tha t fo r c e nturie s his ta le s we re tho ug ht to b e ima g ina ry. O nly in the e a rly twe ntie th c e ntury whe n a rc ha e o lo g ic a l d isc o ve rie s b e g in to c o rro b o ra te his re p o rts d id histo ria ns b e g in to ta ke his a c c o unt se rio usly. Altho ug h o ne a utho r ha s re c e ntly c ha lle ng e d the c urre nt vie w tha t Po lo wa s re c o unting a true sto ry, the va st we ig ht o f e vid e nc e sug g e sts tha t he wa s in fa c t a tte mp ting to d o no mo re tha n re c o rd wha t he ha d a c tua lly se e n a nd d o ne . The ve ry e a rlie st re p o rts fro m the G ra e c o -Ro ma ns d e p ic t a syste m who se fra me wo rk c o ntinue d to e xist rig ht up to the twe ntie th c e ntury. This syste m wa s hig hly e ffic ie nt, g ive n the te c hno lo g y a nd c o mmunic a tio ns o f the time , in d istrib uting g o o d s o ve r a n e no rmo us stre tc h o f c o a stline . The ma in e le me nts o f the syste m inc lud e d the d e sig na tio n o f c e rta in p o rts a s o p e n to fo re ig n tra d e rs a nd o the rs a s c lo se d , the Ro ma n e mp o ria . This c ha ra c te ristic wa s o b vio usly 7 d e sig ne d to e nsure tha t the b e ne fits o f the tra d e wo uld a c c rue to c e rta in p e o p le , na me ly the rule rs o f the re g io ns c o nc e rne d . In tra d itio na l king d o ms the mo re d ista nt p a rts o f the re a lm c o uld no t b e truste d to se nd the c usto ms d utie s c o lle c te d fro m fo re ig n me rc ha nts to the c e ntra l tre a sury. Furthe rmo re , the we a lth a c c umula te d b y me rc ha nts c o uld we ll b e use d to mo unt a c ha lle ng e to the e sta b lishe d ruling c liq ue . Fo r the se re a so ns, the ma in p o rts whe re fo re ig n tra d e wa s a llo we d we re tho se mo st c lo se ly sup e rvise d b y the p rinc ip a l rule r, who mig ht re sid e inla nd , in the c e nte r o f the mo re fe rtile a g ric ultura l zo ne s o f the king d o m. In the p o rt zo ne s, the fo re ig n me rc ha nts usua lly ha d the ir o wn q ua rte rs. The se wo uld c o rre sp o nd to the fo re ig n q ua rte rs o f the tre a ty p o rts o f nine te e nth-c e ntury C hina . Within the se q ua rte rs the fo re ig n c o mmunitie s e njo ye d mo re o r le ss c o mp le te a uto no my, a s lo ng a s the y d id no t inte rfe re with the re st o f the c itize ns o f the king d o m. This a rra ng e me nt suite d b o th p a rtie s: the fo re ig ne rs we re a llo we d to fo llo w the ir o wn c usto ms a nd re lig io n, a nd the lo c a l a d ministra tio n d id no t ha ve to wo rry a b o ut trying to c o ntro l mo tle y g ro up s o f p e o p le with d iffe re nt la ng ua g e s a nd le g a l syste ms. The tra d ing syste m itse lf is d iffic ult to d e fine , b ut in e sse nc e the re se e m to ha ve b e e n two se p a ra te se ts o f e xc ha ng e p ra c tic e s fo r d iffe re nt c a te g o rie s o f me rc ha nd ise . The "ra re a nd p re c io us" ite ms (in the sto c k C hine se p hra se ) we re c o ve te d b y the we a lthy a s sta tus symb o ls, a nd the rule rs o fte n limite d a c c e ss to the m. So me we re c la ime d a s mo no p o lie s o f the rule r himse lf; in o the r c a se s, he c la ime d a d uty o f up to 30%, a nd the re st o f the luxury g o o d s c o uld o nly b e so ld to a d e sig na te d g ro up o f b uye rs. The p o sse ssio n o f suc h luxury g o o d s o b vio usly ha d p o litic a l symb o lism, a nd the rule rs d id a ll the y c o uld to c o ntro l the ir d istrib utio n. This c a te g o ry o f me rc ha nd ise wa s usua lly no t b o ug ht a nd so ld in the usua l fa shio n, b y a p ro c e ss o f ha g g ling until a b a rg a in wa s struc k b e twe e n b uye r a nd se lle r. Inste a d , a c usto ma ry o r d ip lo ma tic p ro c e d ure wa s use d to ne g o tia te a se t o f "e q uiva le nc ie s" b e twe e n the ite ms b ro ug ht b y the fo re ig n me rc ha nts a nd tho se re turne d b y the lo c a l inha b ita nts. The id e o lo g y o f e xc ha ng e wa s mo re o f a g e ne ra lize d tha n a sp e c ific re c ip ro c ity, in a nthro p o lo g ic a l te rms. It wa s no t se e mly to p e rc e ive this kind o f e xc ha ng e a s tra d e . In mo st insta nc e s the fo re ig n ite ms we re p re se nte d to the lo c a l rule r in the g uise o f trib ute o r g ifts, a nd the lo c a l rule r re c ip ro c a te d b y g iving p re se nts. The na ture o f the g ifts re turne d b y the rule rs wa s, ho we ve r, fixe d b y c usto m; a c e rta in a mo unt o f fo re ig n p ro d uc e wo uld e lic it a sp e c ific q ua ntity o f "g ifts." Thus the a p p e a ra nc e o f tra d e (a nd the use o f mo ne y) we re a vo id e d . The se c o nd c a te g o ry o f e xc ha ng e invo lve d mo re utilita ria n ite ms. The se a re e ve n le ss we ll d o c ume nte d tha n the luxury ite ms, b ut stra y re fe re nc e s to the tra nsp o rt o f b ulk ne c e ssitie s suc h a s ric e a nd sa lt a re fo und in the e a rlie st so urc e s. It se e ms tha t the se fo und the ir wa y into ma rke ts whe re mo ne y wa s use d . Ma ny fo rms o f c urre nc y we re use d in Asia n ma rke ts, a nd c o ins in so me a re a s we re tre a te d a s just a no the r fo rm o f me ta l whic h mig ht b e me lte d d o wn a nd re c a st into o the r o b je c ts. In g e ne ra l, ho we ve r, ma rke tp la c e s in Asia we re mo ne tize d a t a ve ry e a rly p e rio d . Ind o ne sia n insc rip tio ns sho w tha t we ig hts a nd me a sure s ha d b e c o me sta nd a rd ize d b e twe e n A.D. 850 a nd 900. The se we ig hts we re he a vily influe nc e d b y Ind ia n units a nd ling uistic te rmino lo g y, b ut the re we re so me ind ig e no us e le me nts in b o th units a nd na me s. By the ye a r 900, silve r a nd g o ld c o ins we re minte d in multip le d e no mina tio ns in Ja va . It is wo rth no ting tha t the Ja va ne se c o ins lo o k no thing like tho se ma d e in Ind ia . The Ja va ne se wo rd wli (mo d e rn Ind o ne sia b e li, "b uy") first a p p e a rs in a n insc rip tio n d a te d 878. The wo rd p ira k, a na lo g o us to mo d e rn p e ra k, "silve r," wa s a syno nym fo r mo ne y. Ind ia n influe nc e in the fo rm o f the Sa nskrit 8 wo rd wya ya , mo d e rn Ind o ne sia n b ia ya , "e xp e nse s," a lso wa s c urre nt in 878. It se e ms tha t in a d d itio n to p re c io us me ta l, o the r c urre nc y in the fo rm o f iro n b a rs wa s use d until the e a rly te nth c e ntury (Wic ks, 254-259). An inte g ra l fig ure in the o rg a niza tio n o f a nc ie nt tra d e wa s the o ffic ia l who a c te d a s the inte rme d ia ry b e twe e n the fo re ig n me rc ha nt c o mmunitie s a nd the lo c a l rule r. This o ffic ia l ha d d iffe re nt d e sig na tio ns in e a c h a re a , b ut his d utie s a nd p rivile g e s we re re ma rka b ly simila r in a ll time s a nd p la c e s. In the So uthe a st Asia n re a lm he wa s c a lle d the sha hb a nd a r (fro m Pe rsia n "Lo rd o f the Ha rb o r"). In mo d e rn p a rla nc e this te rm is use d to tra nsla te the Eng lish "ha rb o rma ste r," b ut this g ive s o nly a p a le re fle c tio n o f his a c tivitie s. In ma ny c a se s he wa s c ho se n fro m the fo re ig n c o mmunity, a nd to e nsure his lo ya lty he wa s fre q ue ntly b e tro the d to a me mb e r o f the lo c a l ro ya lty. He sup e rvise d the c o lle c tio n o f c usto ms d utie s a nd the wa re ho using o f the imp o rte d g o o d s. He a lso a c te d a s the ma na g e r fo r the lo c a l rule r's o wn c o mme rc ia l a c tivitie s; ma ny Asia n rule rs the mse lve s inve ste d in ship s a nd c a rg o e s. The y se ttle d d isp ute s b e twe e n the fo re ig n me rc ha nts a nd rule rs, a nd c o uld a c t o n the ir o wn initia tive to ma ke tre a tie s with fo re ig ne rs. Suc h p e o p le o b vio usly ha d nume ro us o p p o rtunitie s to e nric h the mse lve s. A g o o d d e sc rip tio n o f the syste m is g ive n b y To me Pire s, o ne o f the first Euro p e a ns with a n intima te kno wle d g e o f its wo rking . He re sid e d in Ma la c c a fro m 1512 to 1515 a nd d e sc rib e s the sha hb a nd a rs the re , o f whic h the re we re fo ur, e a c h with jurisd ic tio n o ve r me rc ha nts fro m d iffe re nt a re a s: "The y a re the me n who re c e ive the c a p ta ins o f the junks.... The se me n p re se nt the m to the Be mda ra (the ro ya l tre a sure r), a llo t the m wa re ho use s, d isp a tc h the ir me rc ha nd ise , p ro vid e the m with lo d g ing if the y ha ve d o c ume nts, a nd g ive o rd e rs fo r the e le p ha nts..."(C o rte sa o , 1944: II, 265). The se c ha ra c te ristic s o f the e a rly p o rts o f tra d e in Asia we re a lre a d y in e xiste nc e whe n the ve il o f histo ry lifts d uring a sho rt p e rio d a ro und two tho usa nd ye a rs a g o . O ne c a n e ve n tra c e the ir o rig ins furthe r b a c k in time ; the o ld e st d o c ume nts o n tra d e , fro m Me so p o ta mia , a lre a d y ind ic a te the e xiste nc e o ve r 4,000 ye a rs a g o o f o ffic ia ls in c ha rg e o f lo ng -d ista nc e tra d e , o ffic ia lly d e sig na te d tra d ing p o rts, trib uta ry tra d e in luxury ite ms, a nd fo re ig n q ua rte rs. This is no t to sug g e st tha t the se tra its o we the ir e xiste nc e to Me so p o ta mia n influe nc e ; ra the r the y simp ly re fle c t a lo g ic a l a p p ro a c h to the simila rity o f c o nd itio ns p re va iling in the se d iffe re nt time s a nd p la c e s. 2.1.5 Early Chinese Trade The C hine se we re no t a mo ng the o rig ina l me mb e rs o f the Ind ia n O c e a n tra d ing ne two rk. Whe n the G ra e c o -Ro ma ns first e nte re d the Asia n wo rld , the C hine se we re still la rg e ly c o nfine d to the Ye llo w Rive r a re a o f no rthe rn C hina . The ma in ro ute to C hina a t this time wa s still o ve rla nd , via the Silk Ro ute . Fo r ma ny c e nturie s C hina 's no rthe rn fro ntie r ha d b e e n a zo ne o f c o nsta nt c o nte ntio n b e twe e n the se ttle d a g ra ria n wa y o f life a nd the no ma d ic a d a p ta tio n o f the ste p p e s b e yo nd . The no ma d s we re a lwa ys a milita ry thre a t to the C hine se . O ne o f the ta c tic s tha t the C hine se use d to c o unte ra c t the no ma d s' milita ry sup e rio rity wa s to e nc o ura g e e xc ha ng e s o f p re stig io us g o o d s a c ro ss the fro ntie r. The C hine se p ro d uc e d nume ro us ma nufa c ture d ite ms tha t the no ma d s d e sire d ; b y d a ng ling e xo tic a nd ra re c o mmo d itie s in fro nt o f the no rthe rn b a rb a ria ns, it wa s so me time s p o ssib le to b rib e the m into ma inta ining p e a c e ful re la tio ns. Do me stic a lly, the imp e ria l d ig nity c o uld b e ma inta ine d b y c a sting the g ifts to the no ma d s in the fo rm o f a rule r-va ssa l re la tio nship . The no ma d e lite re c e ive d imp e ria l g ifts in re turn fo r the ir trib ute , re c o g nitio n o f p o litic a l a uto no my in the ir o wn te rrito ry, a nd p e rmissio n to c o nd uc t limite d p riva te tra d e with the C hine se . 9 This g a ve the p e o p le o f the ste p p e s a c c e ss to C hine se silk, te a , a nd p o rc e la in. o b ta ine d ja d e a nd , imp o rta ntly fo r the ir milita ry p o sitio n, g o o d ho rse s. The C hine se The e a rlie st e vid e nc e fo r fo re ig n tra d e b e twe e n C hine se a nd no n-C hine se g ro up s d a te s fro m the fifth c e ntury B.C . It invo lve d e xc ha ng e s b e twe e n the Ha n p e o p le living in Sha nd ung a nd the p e o p le o c c up ying wha t is no w so uthe rn C hina , kno wn a s the Yüe h. The c a rrie rs o f the tra d e we re Yüe h p e o p le living a ro und mo uth o f Ya ng zi. C hina so uth o f the Ya ng zi b e c a me Sinic ize d o nly a fte r the fa ll o f the Ha n, whe n ma ny p e o p le fro m the no rth mig ra te d so uth. Be twe e n 500 a nd 221 B.C ., the la te Zho u Dyna sty, d e ma nd inc re a se d a mo ng the (no rthe rn) C hine se fo r so uthe rn luxurie s like ivo ry, p e a rls, to rto ise she ll, king fishe r fe a the rs, rhino c e ro s ho rns, sc e nte d wo o d s, a nd sp ic e s; "this d e ma nd ma y ha ve b e e n the stro ng e st sing le mo tive fo r the so uthwa rd e xp a nsio n o f C hine se p o litic a l p o we r" (Wa ng , 1958: 5). Q in Sihua ng , the "first e mp e ro r," wa s the first rule r to e xte nd no rthe rn C hine se c o ntro l to p a rts o f the so uth c o a st, b o rd e ring o n the So uth C hina Se a . At this time the e ntire so uth c o a st wa s still p o p ula te d b y Yüe h p e o p le . "The fe w p re histo ric site s a lo ng the c o a st whic h ha ve so fa r b e e n e xa mine d me re ly sug g e st tha t the p e o p le we re q uite d iffe re nt fro m the C hine se a nd ha d a d iffe re nt c ultura l p a tte rn" (Wa ng , 1958: 7). The Yüe h, unlike the no rthe rn C hine se , we re e xp e rt sa ilo rs a nd a lre a d y fre q ue ntly tra d e d with o the r re g io ns. O ne king d o m, Na n Yüe h, with its c a p ita l ne a r mo d e rn G ua ng zho u, wa s d e sc rib e d in the first c e ntury B.C . b y the c o nte mp o ra ry a utho r Su-ma C h'ie n a s "the c o lle c ting c e nte r o f rhino c e ro s ho rns, e le p ha nt tusks, to rto ise -she lls, p e a rls, fruits a nd c lo th (o f he mp a nd o the r fib ro us p la nts)" (Wa ng , 1958: 8). Lo Yüe h, a no the r king d o m lo c a te d in the Re d Rive r b a sin ne a r mo d e rn Ha no i, wa s c a p ture d in 214 B.C ., b ut no t until C hine se tro o p s ha d b e e n d e fe a te d se ve ra l time s a nd re info rc e me nts ha d b e e n se nt, c o nsisting o f "c rimina ls, b a nishe d me n, so c ia l p a ra site s a nd me rc ha nts" (Wa ng , 1958: 10). This inte re sting se t o f a sso c ia tio ns fo r me rc ha nts sho ws the lo w e ste e m in whic h the y we re he ld . Who we re the se e a rly me rc ha nts e xile d to the so uthe rn c o lo nie s? No info rma tio n e xists. Ac c o rd ing to C o nfuc ia nism, me rc ha nts we re the lo we st rung o n the so c ia l to te m p o le . The d o c ume nta tio n o f C hine se e c o no mic histo ry is the re fo re e xtre me ly p o o r. Be c a use C o nfuc ia n sc ho la rs mo no p o lize d the b ure a uc ra c y, o wing to a n e d uc a tio n syste m p re d ic a ting a c c e ss to hig h o ffic e o n me mo riza tio n o f the C o nfuc ia n c la ssic s, C hine se histo ry wa s writte n b y o ffic ia ls who c o nsid e re d tra d e a d e g ra d ing sub je c t, no t wo rthy o f no tic e . Ho we ve r, ind ire c t re fe re nc e s, usua lly c o mp la ints fro m ministe rs, sho w tha t b y 178 B.C . C hine se p e o p le we re b e c o ming inte re ste d in ma king p ro fit fro m the luxury g o o d s tra d e . A rising c la ss o f me rc ha nts e nc o ura g e d p o we rful no b le s to inve st in tra d e in sa lt, me ta ls, a nd luxury g o o d s. Me a nwhile ministe rs p ra ise d rule rs who "d e sp ise d g o ld a nd ja d e " a nd wa nte d the e mp e ro r to ma ke e ve ryo ne re turn to fa rming . The re la tio nship b e twe e n the g o ve rning e lite o f C hina a nd the me rc a ntile c la sse s ha s b e e n ma rke d b y susp ic io n a nd ho stility fo r o ve r two tho usa nd ye a rs. O ne o f the ma in c ha ra c te ristic s o f C hine se histo ry ha s b e e n the te nsio n b e twe e n the c ulture o f the no rth, the o rig ina l c e nte r o f C hine se c ulture , ma rke d b y milita rism, a uste rity, iso la tio nism, a nd c e ntra lize d rule , a nd the c ulture o f the o rig ina lly no n-Ha n C hine se so uth, ma rke d b y a sp irit o f fre e e nte rp rise , c o mme rc ia lism, so c ia l mo b ility, a nd o utwa rd -lo o king ne ss. Fo ur milita ry c o mma nd e rie s we re se t up to a d ministe r the ne wly c o nq ue re d te rrito ry, c o rre sp o nd ing to the re g io ns o f Fuzho u, Na nha i (G ua ng zho u), G uilin, a nd Xia ng (Ha no i). "Ve ry little is kno wn o f the se c o mma nd e rie s" (Wa ng , 1958: 10) o the r tha n tha t the y ha d a g o ve rno r a nd milita ry sta ff. 10 The c o mma nd e ry o f Na n-ha i so o n sp lit o ff a nd b e c a me a "minia ture e mp ire ," Na n Yüe h, whic h rule d the c o a st fro m so uthe rn Fujia n to Vie tna m until 111 B.C ., whe n the Ha n re to o k the a re a . In 196 B.C . the c hie f wa s ma d e a fe ud a l lo rd b y the Ha n e mp ire , a nd a re g ula r tra d e with the Ha n d e ve lo p e d , ma inly b a se d o n the a c q uisitio n o f iro n in e xc ha ng e fo r p e a rls, to rto ise she ll, ivo ry, a nd rhino c e ro s ho rn—c o mmo d itie s tha t we re imp o rte d fro m the So uth Se a s. Ha n Wud i, a n e ne rg e tic e mp e ro r who d ie d in 87 B.C ., a llo we d tra d e , b ut a fte r his d e a th the ministe rs ha d the ir wa y a nd tra d e wa s re stric te d . The c o urt d e b a te o n the mo ra lity o f tra d e is p re se rve d in a c o lle c tio n o f e ssa ys e ntitle d "Disc o urse s o n Sa lt a nd Iro n." In 77 B.C . a Yüe h na tive who ha d b e c o me he a d o f a c o mma nd e ry wa s e xe c ute d fo r ha ving e a rne d mo re tha n o ne millio n c a sh in ille g a l tra d e . The "ra re a nd p re c io us o b je c ts" fro m b e yo nd C hina p la ye d a n imp o rta nt p a rt in the le g itimiza tio n o f the ruling d yna sty. As C hine se c iviliza tio n d e ve lo p e d , so d id the se a rc h fo r mo re unusua l a nd e xo tic ite ms fro m a b ro a d , until so me thing re se mb ling a c ult o f imp o rte d ra ritie s e vo lve d . The imp e ria l c o urt fo rmula te d a p o lic y o f se nd ing missio ns a b ro a d in se a rc h o f ra re a nd p re c io us g o o d s. This d uty o fte n wa s a ssig ne d to e unuc hs. An e a rly te xt re fe rs to "c hie f inte rp re te rs a tta c he d to the Ye llo w G a te [e unuc hs se rving in the p a la c e ] who g o to se a with the me n who a nswe r the ir a p p e a l [fo r a c re w] to b uy b rig ht p e a rls, p i-liu-li (o p a q ue g la ss), ra re sto ne s a nd stra ng e thing s, ta king with the m g o ld a nd va rio us fine silks to o ffe r in e xc ha ng e .... The me rc ha nt ship s o f the b a rb a ria ns a re use d to tra nsfe r the m [the C hine se ] to the ir d e stina tio n" (Wa ng , 1958: 1920). The se e missa rie s e mb a rke d fro m p o rts in we ste rn G ua ng d o ng , whe re fe w C hine se live d ; the y ha d a lre a d y b e e n a c tive a s c e nte rs fo r the p e a rl tra d e . The e unuc hs ma y ha ve b e e n b a rb a ria ns the mse lve s. In the la te r Ha n Dyna sty, in the se c o nd c e ntury, b a rb a ria ns b e g a n se nd ing the ir o wn se a b o rne missio ns to C hina . O ne sup p o se d ly fro m Da q in (Ro me ) c a me in the ye a r 166, b ut wa s re je c te d b y the C hine se a s sp urio us. The e nvo ys b ro ug ht e le p ha nt tusks, rhino c e ro s ho rn, a nd to rto ise she ll a s trib ute ; the se we re So uth Se a s p ro d uc e , no t Ro ma n. This re c o rd is, ho we ve r, use ful a s the o nly a c c o unt o f wha t a ny missio ns b ro ug ht to C hina a t this time . The Ha n c o lla p se d in 220 a nd wa s suc c e e d e d b y a p e rio d kno wn in g e ne ra l a s the Thre e King d o ms, c e le b ra te d in C hine se lite ra ture . O ne o f the se thre e king d o ms, Wu, he ld the so uthe rn c o a st; the o the r two , We i a nd Shu, he ld the no rth a nd we st. The We i the re fo re ha d to d e a l with the Wu in o rd e r to o b ta in so uthe rn luxurie s. In 236 the We i se nt e nvo ys to Wu to o b ta in p e a rls, king fishe r fe a the rs, a nd to rto ise she ll in e xc ha ng e fo r ho rse s. The Wu ke p t se nd ing missio ns into the So uth Se a s in se a rc h o f the se ite ms. Two o f the se e nvo ys, Ka ng Ta i a nd Q u Ying , ma d e a sp e c ia l missio n to the So uth Se a s in 245–250. The y b o th wro te b o o ks, lo ng lo st, a b o ut the ir missio n; so me q uo ta tio ns fro m Ka ng Ta i ha ve b e e n p re se rve d in o the r te xts. He me ntio ne d Ja va / Suma tra , whic h he a p p a re ntly visite d , a s we ll a s Ba ng ka , Be litung , a nd Bo rne o ฀ in a ll, te n p la c e s o n the Ma la y Pe ninsula a nd in the So uthe a st Asia n a rc hip e la g o . During the Thre e King d o ms p e rio d C hine se ship s we re a p p a re ntly still inc a p a b le o f sa iling in the o p e n se a ; the e missa rie s tra ve le d in fo re ig n ship s. 2.1.6 The Tribute Missions The king d o m o f Wu wa s c o nq ue re d b y Q in, A.D. 280. Mo re me n we re se nt to se a to a c q uire the sta nd a rd So uth Se a s luxurie s, a nd fo re ig n trib ute missio ns to C hina a c c e le ra te d . In the sho rt p e rio d o f 284–287 Funa n, Linyi (C ha mp a ), a nd twe nty o the r c o untrie s c a me to p re se nt trib ute . An ima g e o f the we a lth whic h this c o mme rc e g e ne ra te d fo und its wa y into the lite ra ture o f the 11 p e rio d . The G o ve rno r o f Q ing Zho u, o n the ro ute b e twe e n so uth C hina a nd Lo ya ng , the no rthe rn c a p ita l, wa s fa mo us fo r fla unting his we a lth, inc lud ing c o ra l tre e s, ivo ry, p e a rls, a nd sc e nte d wo o d s. O ne a c c o unt sa ys tha t he ha d "p o wd e re d g ha ru-wo o d s a s fine a s d ust sp rinkle d o ve r a n ivo ry b e d , a nd a ske d tho se tha t he sp e c ia lly lo ve d to ste p o n it" (Wa ng , 1958: 35). Tra d e ro ute s a nd trib uta ry king d o ms o f So uthe a st Asia in the fifth to se ve nth c e nturie s A.D. During the Wu a nd Q in d yna stie s, 226-405, C hina re c e ive d missio ns fro m the fo llo wing c o untrie s: Funa n (7 missio ns), C ha mp a (6), Da q in (the Ea ste rn Ro ma n Emp ire ) (1), Sri La nka (1), a nd Ta ng ming (? ) (1) (Wa ng , 1958: 120). Sho rtly the re a fte r, b e fo re the b e g inning o f the ne xt ma jo r histo ric a l p ha se , the fa mo us C hine se Bud d hist mo nk Fa xie n re turne d to C hina fro m Ind ia b y se a ra the r tha n b y the mo re c o mmo n o ve rla nd ro ute . In 414 he c a lle d a t Ye h-p o -ti, a la rg e tra d ing p o rt so me whe re ne a r the so uth e nd o f the Stra its o f Ma la c c a (q uite p o ssib ly in no rthwe st Ja va ). Fro m the re he sa ile d d ire c tly to G ua ng zho u with o ve r two hund re d o the r p e o p le . During a ll his 12 ye a rs in Ind ia he sa w no C hine se , no r we re the re a ny a mo ng the me rc ha nts o n the ship ta king him to C hina . This is the first re c o rd o f a sa iling c o nne c tio n b e twe e n Ind ia a nd C hina ; a ll ind ic a tio ns a re tha t C hine se me rc ha nts we re no t p a rtic ip a nts in this tra d e . The ne xt p e rio d o f imp o rta nt trib uta ry a c tivity o c c urre d d uring the So uthe rn Dyna stie s, 420– 589, whe n a la rg e missio n visite d C hina "to e nsure sa fe a nd p ro fita b le tra d ing fo r the fo re ig n me rc ha nts a nd tra d ing e nvo ys" (Wa ng , 1958: 38). In a ll, 99 fo re ig n trib ute missio ns visite d C hina b e twe e n 420 a nd 589 (Wa ng , 1958: 51), a g re a t inc re a se o ve r the p re vio us p e rio d . The flo w o f trib ute to C hina wa s no t c o nsiste nt, ho we ve r; ra the r it c a me in sp urts. The p a tte rn o f trib ute e xhib its two p e a ks, o ne d uring the ye a rs 420–460, the o the r in the p e rio d 502–540. The So uthe a st Asia n c o untrie s a c tive in this trib uta ry tra d e inc lud e the fo llo wing : Ho lo d a n, in Ja va , se nt 6 b e twe e n 430 a nd 440. Po hua ng , Tula ng b a wa ng , so uthe a st Suma tra : 7 b e twe e n 445 a nd 464. G a nto li, p ro b a b ly so uth Suma tra , 455–564, 5. Po li (Ba li? ): 3, 470–524. Po li's p ro d uc ts we re d o mina te d b y tho se o b ta ine d fro m the se a : to rto ise she lls, she ll-fish, p urp le c o wrie s, a nd c o ra ls. Pa np a n, so me whe re o n Ma la y Pe ninsula , 455–589, 12. La ng ka suka , Ma la y Pe ninsula , 515–56, 3; C ha mp a , 420–589, 25. The re is a re c o rd o f the typ e s o f c o mmo d itie s b ro ug ht b y this mo st a c tive trib uta ry. The se inc lud e me ta ls: g o ld , silve r, a nd c o p p e r (the re we re sa id to b e lo ts o f g o ld a nd silve r a rtic le s p ro d uc e d the re ); a lso to rto ise she ll, c o wrie s, g ha ru wo o d , g ra ss ma ts, c o tto n c lo th, rhino c e ro s ho rn, a nd ivo ry. O n the who le , this list re p re se nts the c o mmo n ite ms so ug ht b y the e a rly C hine se no b ility. Funa n, 430–589, 17. Tra d e g o o d s fro m Funa n inc lud e d so me ite ms fo r re lig io us ritua ls like g ha ru wo o d (inc e nse ), ivo ry a nd sa nd a lwo o d stup a s a nd sta tue s, a nd g la ss ve sse ls use d fo r te mp le ritua ls. The ite ms me a nt fo r use b y the no b ility (a s o p p o se d to the te mp le s) c o nsiste d o f g o ld a nd silve r a rtic le s, c o wrie o rna me nts, sc e nte d wo o d s, ivo ry, p e a c o c k fe a the rs, to rto ise she lls, re -e xp o rts o f ite ms like g e ms, c o ra l, o p a q ue g la ss, c o tto n, a nd sto ra x. C hine se "g ifts" to the se a re a s list o nly silk a nd b ro c a d e . Altho ug h the So uthe rn Dyna stie s we re a n a c tive p e rio d o f c o mmunic a tio n with the So uth Se a s, the re c o rd s o f this time still e xhib it no re fe re nc e s to C hine se ship s g o ing o ve rse a s. The re a re , ho we ve r, ra re p ie c e s o f e vid e nc e whic h e na b le us to re a d b e twe e n the line s a nd to c o nc lud e tha t c e rta in C hine se we re e xhib iting a "mo d e rn" a ttitud e to wa rd the b e ne fits o f e ng a g ing in fo re ig n tra d e . In the 479–502 p e rio d , the re is a re fe re nc e to a c e rta in Zha ng Q ing -zhe n who "c a lc ula te d c a re fully the silks a nd b ro c a d e s whic h he use d to tra d e with the 'K'un-lun p 'o '" (Wa ng , 1958: 60). The p hra se "K'un-lun p 'o " re fe rs to the ship s o f the p e o p le who live d in the So uth Se a s. Ap p a re ntly the re wa s a me rc a ntile c la ss in so uth C hina , b ut o the r tha n the ir b a re e xiste nc e , no o the r info rma tio n re g a rd ing the m survive s. Two o the r re fe re nc e s a re e ve n mo re ind ire c t, b ut b e tra y so me thing o f the true na ture o f the tra d ing a c tivity a nd its imp o rta nc e fo r a t le a st so me se c to rs o f C hine se so c ie ty. In o ne re fe re nc e to the Liu Sung Dyna sty, o ne o f the so uthe rn d yna stie s, the fo llo wing no te a p p e a rs: "Whe n the two Ha n d yna stie s ha d se nt e xp e d itio ns the se [o ve rla nd ] ro ute s ha d b e e n fo und to b e p a rtic ula rly d iffic ult a nd me rc ha nd ise , o n whic h [C hina ] d e p e nd e d , ha d c o me fro m To ng king ; it ha d sa ile d o n the wa ve s o f the se a .... Pre c io us thing s c o me fro m the mo unta in a nd the se a b y this wa y. The re a re a rtic le s suc h a s rhino c e ro s' ho rn a nd king fishe r fe a the rs a nd ra ritie s suc h a s se rp e nt p e a rls a nd a sb e sto s; the re a re tho usa nd s o f va rie tie s, a ll o f whic h the rule rs e a g e rly c o ve te d . 13 The re fo re ship s c a me in a c o ntinuo us stre a m, a nd me rc ha nts a nd e nvo ys jo stle d with e a c h o the r" (in Wo lte rs, 1967: 77). The histo ry o f the d yna sty tha t suc c e e d e d the Liu Sung a nd rule d fro m 479 to 502 a lso re fe rs to the a c tive ma ritime tra d e o f tha t time : "O f a ll the p re c io us thing s in the wo rld no ne a re b e tte r tha n tho se o f the so uthe rn b a rb a ria ns. The y a re hid d e n in the mo unta ins a nd in the se a s. The y a re innume ra b le . Me rc ha nt ship s a rrive fro m a fa r a nd b ring the se thing s to the so uthe rn p ro vinc e s. Thus it is tha t To ng king a nd Kua ng tung a re ric h a nd we ll sto c ke d . The g o o d s a re sto re d in the imp e ria l tre a sury." Ve ry little info rma tio n re g a rd ing the a d ministra tio n o f the tra d e o f this p e rio d survive s. A missio n fro m the Ja va ne se king d o m o f Ho lo ta n in 430 wa s p a rtly inte nd e d to a c q ua int the C hine se e mp e ro r with the d iffic ultie s tha t the Ja va ne se me rc ha nts so me time s e xp e rie nc e d with c o rrup t p o rt o ffic ia ls (Wo lte rs, 1967: 165). This ind ic a te s tha t the c o lle c tio n o f d utie s wa s no t a lwa ys p ro p e rly sup e rvise d b y the c e ntra l g o ve rnme nt. The So uthe rn Dyna stie s c a me to a n e nd with the re unific a tio n o f C hina b y the Sui Dyna sty in 581. The e mp e ro r in 605 mo ve d his c a p ita l a nd o rd e re d the p ro vinc e s to d e live r suc h so uthe rn luxurie s a s rhino c e ro s ho rns, e le p ha nt tusks, furs a nd fe a the rs, to a d o rn his ne w c o urt (Wa ng , 1958: 63). The sho rt-live d Sui re c o rd e d the fo llo wing missio ns: C ha mp a (2); Da nd a n (2); Pa np a n (1), Re d Ea rth La nd (3), C a mb o d ia (1), Jia lo shi(? ) (1) (Wa ng , 1958: 122). 2.1.7 Trade During the Tang Dynasty Afte r the e sta b lishme nt o f the Ta ng Dyna sty in 618, the so uthe rn o c e a n tra d e e xp a nd e d . In a d d itio n to luxurie s fo r the c o urt a nd g o o d s o f a re lig io us na ture , ite ms use d fo r me d ic ina l p urp o se s a nd c o nd ime nts fo r fo o d fo rme d a n inc re a sing p o rtio n o f the imp o rts fro m the So uth Se a s (if the so urc e s a re a true re fle c tio n o f the situa tio n). Ya ng zho u, a t the junc tio n o f the Ya ng si a nd the G ra nd C a na l, b e c a me the ma in c e nte r o f tra d e . A ro a d b uilt in 728 c o nne c te d G ua ng zho u with Ya ng zho u. A so urc e sa ys tha t "the va rio us c o untrie s fro m a c ro ss the se a ma y no w d a ily tra nsp o rt the ir me rc ha nd ise , so tha t the we a lth o f tusks, hid e s, fe a the rs a nd ha irs, a nd tha t o f fish, sa lt, c la ms a nd o yste rs c a n...me e t the ne e d s o f the tre a sury a nd ...sa tisfy the d e ma nd s o f the Q ia ng -Hua i re g io n" (Wa ng , 1958: 79). Thro ug h the e ig hth a nd into the e a rly ninth c e ntury, tra d e c o ntinue d to e xp a nd und e r the e ne rg e tic Ta ng rule rs. G ua ng zho u in p a rtic ula r b e ne fite d fro m this e xp a nsio n. As a so urc e fro m 841 sa ys, "G ua ng zho u e njo ye d the p ro fits o f the b a rb a ria n ship s whe re a ll the va lua b le g o o d s we re g a the re d .... O f a ll tho se who se rve d a t G ua ng zho u, no t o ne re turne d witho ut b e ing fully la d e n [with the we a lth the y a c q uire d ]" (Wa ng , 1958: 83). The missio ns whic h visite d C hina mo re tha n o nc e d uring the 278 ye a rs o f the Ta ng Dyna sty a re a s fo llo ws: C ha mp a (26), Ho ling , Ja va (8), Sri Vija ya (6), Shih-tse (4), C a mb o d ia (3), Q ulo mi (2), Ja mb i (2), Do ho lo (2), Ka nq ifo (Ind ia ) (2), Mo la (Ind ia ) (2) (Wa ng , 1958: 122–123). Eve n d uring the Ta ng , the re a re still no re fe re nc e s to p riva te C hine se tra d e rs vo ya g ing o ve rse a s. The o nly d e sc rip tio ns we p o sse ss a re the inc id e nta l re fe re nc e s in c o urt re c o rd s, whic h te nd to o ve rlo o k c o mme rc ia l ma tte rs c o mp le te ly, a nd the re c o rd o f a no the r Bud d hist mo nka d ve nture r, Yijing . He vo ya g e d fro m C hina to Srivija ya , so uth Suma tra , in 671, in a ship b e lo ng ing to the rule r o f Srivija ya . He re ma ine d in so uth Suma tra fo r 6 mo nths, stud ying Sa nskrit a t a la rg e mo na ste ry the re ; his e xp e rie nc e wa s p o sitive e no ug h tha t he re c o mme nd e d it to o the r future 14 Bud d hist tra ve le rs. He the n to o k ship in a no the r Srivija ya n ve sse l a nd sa ile d to Ind ia via Ma la yu (Ja mb i) a nd Ke d a h. Afte r re sid ing in Ind ia fo r 18 ye a rs, Yijing re turne d to Srivija ya , no ting tha t in the inte rim it ha d a b so rb e d b o th Ma la yu a nd Ke d a h. He inte nd e d to re ma in in Srivija ya fo r so me time , b ut o ne d a y, while he wa s a b o a rd a ship in the ha rb o r in o rd e r to se nd a re q ue st to C hina fo r mo re p a p e r a nd ink, the ship une xp e c te d ly we ig he d a nc ho r a nd sa ile d stra ig ht to C hina , le a ving him no o p tio n b ut to g o a lo ng a nd b uy his o wn sup p lie s. Ne ve rthe le ss he so d e sire d to sp e nd mo re time in Suma tra tha t he re turne d the re fo r so me mo re ye a rs b e fo re fina lly re turning fo r g o o d to C hina in 695. Yijing 's a c c o unt is use ful b e c a use it me ntio ns o the r Bud d hists who ma d e the p ilg rima g e to the Bud d hist ho ly la nd , inc lud ing a mo nk who sa ile d in a me rc ha nt ve sse l "he a vily lo a d e d with g o o d s" fro m G ua ng zho u o r Ha no i to Ho ling . The ship the n we nt to Ma la yu, b ut a fte r p a ssing it sa nk in a sto rm b e c a use it wa s o ve rlo a d e d ; the mo nk d ro wne d . No d o ub t this inc id e nta l re p o rt re p re se nts the tip o f the ic e b e rg ; vo ya g ing b e twe e n So uth Suma tra a nd C hina b y Ind o ne sia n ship s c a rrying a wid e va rie ty o f g o o d s fro m b o th So uthe a st Asia a nd the sho re s o f the Ind ia n O c e a n wa s p ro b a b ly a c o mmo n a c tivity d uring the Ta ng p e rio d . The re p o rt o f Yijing is o f utmo st imp o rta nc e to the stud y o f e a rly Ta ng ma ritime tra d e , b e c a use it is the o nly d e sc rip tio n o f the se a ro ute s use d b e fo re 750. He d e sc rib e s d ire c t vo ya g e s in Ind o ne sia n ship s fro m G ua ng zho u to Pa le mb a ng o r (le ss o fte n) Ja va . Fro m the re the sta nd a rd p o rts o f c a ll we re Ma la ya (Ja mb i) a nd Ke d a h. Re turn vo ya g e s fo llo we d the sa me ro ute in re ve rse . In the la te se ve nth o r e a rly e ig hth c e ntury, Srivija ya "se nt se ve ra l missio ns to the c o urt to sub mit c o mp la ints a b o ut b o rd e r o ffic ia ls se izing [the ir g o o d s] a nd a n e d ic t wa s issue d o rd e ring [the o ffic ia ls a t] G ua ng zho u to a p p e a se the m [b y ma king inq uirie s]" (Wa ng , 1958: 97, q uo ting the Ta ng shu). "This is the o nly me ntio n in Ta ng re c o rd s o f a ny missio n fro m the Na nha i suc c e ssfully ind uc ing the c e ntra l g o ve rnme nt to a c t o n b e ha lf o f the me rc ha nts a t C a nto n. This is e vid e nc e tha t Srivija ya wa s the d o mina nt tra d ing p o we r a nd ha d a lre a d y e a rne d the re sp e c t o f the C hine se " (Wa ng , 1958: 98-99). Srivija ya ns we re le a d e rs o f the fo re ig n me rc ha nt c o mmunity a t G ua ng zho u until 742. In 684 the g o ve rno r o f G ua ng zho u wa s kille d in ma nne r whic h sug g e sts tha t the murd e re r wa s a n Ind o ne sia n d istre sse d b y o ffic ia ls' misd e e d s (Mille r, 1969: 186). So me suc h inc id e nt ma y ha ve b e e n re sp o nsib le fo r the re ma rk o f To me Pire s o ve r 800 ye a rs la te r e xp la ining why fo re ig ne rs we re no t a llo we d to g o to G ua ng zho u: "The y sa y tha t the C hine se ma d e this la w a b o ut no t b e ing a b le to g o to C a nto n fo r fe a r o f the Ja va ne se a nd Ma la ys" (C o rte sa o , 1944: I, 122). In 714 we first le a rn o f the e xiste nc e o f a C hine se o ffic ia l c a lle d the Sup e rinte nd e nt o f Ship p ing Tra d e (a lte rna tive ly c a lle d Sup e rinte nd e nt o f Ba rb a ria n Ship p ing ). This is the first sig n tha t a n o ffic ia l like the sha hb a nd a r o f the Ind ia n O c e a n wa s a p p o inte d in C hina . The o ffic e wa s ra the r ind e p e nd e nt o f the p ro vinc ia l a utho ritie s, b e ing a d ministe re d d ire c tly fro m the c e ntra l g o ve rnme nt, a nd wa s d o mina te d b y e unuc hs. A re c o rd fro m the e a rly ninth c e ntury g ive s so me ind ic a tio n o f this o ffic ia l's d utie s: Whe n [the la d e n Na nha i ship s] a rrive , a re p o rt is se nt to the C o urt a nd a nno unc e me nts a re ma d e in a ll the c itie s. The c a p ta ins who c o mma nd the m [o r c hie f me rc ha nts] a re ma d e to re g iste r with the Sup e rinte nd e nt o f the Ship p ing Tra d e the ir na me s a nd the ir c a rg o . [The Sup e rinte nd e nt] c o lle c ts the d utie s o n the g o o d s a nd se e s tha t the re a re no [p ro hib ite d ] p re c io us a nd ra re g o o d s [o f whic h the g o ve rnme nt ha d a mo no p o ly]. The re we re so me fo re ig n me rc ha nts who we re imp riso ne d fo r trying to d e c e ive [him]" (Wa ng , 1958: 101). Ano the r so urc e sa ys tha t 15 he a d o f the o ffic e "d e a lt with the tra nsla tio n o f la ng ua g e s, the o ffe ring o f va lua b le g ifts, a nd e ve ry ye a r c o nd uc te d the se nd ing o f trib ute s (e ithe r se nd ing tho se d ue fro m the p ro vinc e itse lf o r a rra ng ing fo r fo re ig n trib ute missio ns to g o to the c a p ita l). Afte r the la st ship o f the se a so n a rrive d , 30% o f the no n-mo no p o lize d g o o d s wo uld b e ta ke n a s d uty, a nd the re st wo uld b e g ive n b a c k to the e nvo ys to d isp o se o f the mse lve s (Hirth a nd Ro c khill, 1911: 15). Pro vinc ia l a utho ritie s c o ntinue d to ha ve so me d utie s to o in re g a rd to the sup e rvisio n o f ma ritime tra d e . A g o ve rno r o f Ling na n in 820 wa s c ite d fo r ha lting smug g ling : "Whe n the fo re ig n ship s a rrive a nd a re d o c king , the y a re c ha rg e d a lo we ring -a nc ho r-ta x. The re is a n e xa mina tio n o f the me rc ha nd ise . Rhino c e ro s (ho rns) a nd p e a rls we re so nume ro us tha t b rib e s we re o ffe re d to the se rva nts a nd re ta ine rs; the G o ve rno r sto p p e d this" (Wa ng , 1958: 101). The sa me re c o rd sa ys, "Fa r a c ro ss the se a in the So uth, the re we re tho se who d ie d in the c o untrie s the re . The o ffic ia ls he ld the ir g o o d s. And if the ir wive s o r the ir so ns d id no t c o me within thre e mo nths to c la im the m, the se wo uld b e c o nfisc a te d . The g o ve rno r [sto p p ing this p ra c tic e ] sa id 'The se a jo urne y b a c k a nd fo rth is c a lc ula te d in ye a rs; why fix the time in mo nths? If a nyo ne ha s p ro o f, no ma tte r whe the r he c o me s e a rly o r la te , le t him ha ve a ll" (Wa ng , 1958: 101-102). In the ninth c e ntury a no the r p o rt o f tra d e wa s o p e ne d to fo re ig ne rs: Q ua nzho u (a lso c a lle d Za itun, a n ind ic a tio n o f the la rg e numb e r o f Muslim tra d e rs who fre q ue nte d it). In the time o f the suc c e e d ing So ng Dyna sty (960–1279), simila r p ra c tic e s a p p a re ntly e xiste d : C o nc e rning fo re ig n ship s a nd me rc ha nts, the Sup e rinte nd e nt e xa mine s the b o a ts e nte ring the ha rb o ur fo r 'p ro hib ite d g o o d s,' ta ke s into the g o d o wns a ll the le g a l imp o rts, c o lle c ts the ta xe s d ue o n the se g o o d s, b uys o n b e ha lf o f the g o ve rnme nt tho se g o o d s o f whic h it ha s the mo no p o ly, a nd e xa mine s the b o a ts le a ving the ha rb o ur fo r 'p ro hib ite d g o o d s'. He furthe r p ro te c ts the fo re ig n me rc ha nts while the y a re a t the p o rt. C o nc e rning C hine se ship s a nd me rc ha nts, the Sup e rinte nd e nt e xa mine s the c a rg o o f the ship s whe n the y le a ve fo r the Na nha i a nd whe n the y re turn, a nd c o lle c ts the ta xe s d ue o n the ir g o o d s. In 878 this p e rio d o f p ro sp e rity c a me to a n e nd . G ua ng zho u wa s p illa g e d d uring the Hua ng Zha o re b e llio n, fo re ig n me rc ha nts we re murd e re d , a nd a ll tra d e the re e nd e d fo r a c e ntury. Fo re ig n me rc ha nts the n e sta b lishe d a re nd e zvo us a t a p la c e kno wn to the Ara b s a s Ka la h (whic h a p p e a rs in the Ara b ia n Nig hts a s a p la c e visite d b y Sinb a d ). Arc ha e o lo g ic a l site s a t b o th Ta kua p a , o n the we st c o a st o f So uth Tha ila nd , a nd La e m Pho , o n the e a st c o a st, c o nta in a b und a nt e vid e nc e o f tra d e with the Ne a r Ea st a nd C hina a t this time a nd ma y c o rre sp o nd to this to p o nym. Wa ng , (1958: 113) d ivid e s e a rly ma ritime tra d e with C hina into thre e p ha se s: Pha se O ne : 200 B.C .–A.D. 300. Pre c io us thing s d e sire d b y c o urts. Pha se two : A.D. 300–600. Ho ly thing s. Pha se thre e : A.D. 600–900. Drug s a nd sp ic e s. The b rie f Five Dyna stie s p e rio d (907–959) sa w little c o mme rc ia l a c tivity. O nly fo ur missio ns to C hina a re re c o rd e d : thre e fro m Ja nzhe ng a nd o ne fro m Srivija ya . The fo und a tio n o f the So ng 16 Dyna sty in 960 ushe re d in a ne w a nd e ve n mo re p ro sp e ro us p e rio d o f tra d e , whe n ma ny mo re p a rtie s b e c a me invo lve d , inc lud ing fo r the first time C hine se me rc ha nts vo ya g ing into the Na nha i. 2.1.8 Early Southeast Asian Ships The o ld e st kno wn b o a t ye t d isc o ve re d in So uthe a st Asia ha s b e e n c a rb o n d a te d to A.D. 260–430 (Ma ng uin, 1993: 236). It wa s d isc o ve re d in Po ntia n, o n the e a st c o a st o f the Ma la y Pe ninsula . This d a te a g re e s with tha t e stima te d in 1926 b y I.H.N. Eva ns b a se d o n c e ra mic s fo und o n the site with the b o a t, whic h a re simila r to tho se d isc o ve re d a t the c o nte mp o ra ry p o rt o f O c -e o in so uth Vie tna m. The o rig in o f the b o a t c a nno t b e d e te rmine d , b ut its la she d -lug d e sig n ma rks it a s So uthe a st Asia n ra the r tha n C hine se . It se e ms to ha ve b e e n a tra d ing ve sse l, a s its c a rg o sug g e sts. The ship is e stima te d to ha ve b e e n a b o ut 12 me te rs lo ng . Fe w o the r e a rly b o a ts ha ve b e e n d isc o ve re d in So uthe a st Asia . O ne o the r, whic h ha s no t b e e n sc ie ntific a lly d a te d b ut whic h re se mb le s the b o a t fro m Po ntia n, wa s d isc o ve re d ne a r Khua n Luk Pa d , in so uth Tha ila nd , a site o f A.D. 1–500 tha t ha s b e e n syste ma tic a lly lo o te d b e c a use o f the hug e q ua ntity o f e a rly tra d e b e a d s d isc o ve re d the re . Two imp o rta nt find s, a ltho ug h fo und in d isturb e d c o nd itio n, we re b o th ma d e ne a r Pa le mb a ng , Sa mb ire jo , c a rb o n d a te d to A.D. 610–775; a nd Ko la m Pinisi, Pa le mb a ng , A.D. 434–631. The Sa mb ire jo ship is e stima te d to ha ve b e e n 26 me te rs lo ng . Fro m a la te r p e rio d , p ro b a b ly the la te So ng , is a fra g me nta ry ve sse l fro m Pa ya Pa sir, ne a r Ko ta C ina , no rthe a st Suma tra . This to o wa s a re la tive ly la rg e ve sse l like the Sa mb ire jo ship . Fina lly, the o nly o the r imp o rta nt ve sse l o f the p re Ming p e rio d to b e d isc o ve re d a nd stud ie d wa s fo und a t Butua n, Mind a na o , so uth Philip p ine s, a nd d a te d to the p e rio d A.D. 1270–1410; its o rig ina l le ng th is e stima te d to ha ve b e e n 20 me te rs (Ma ng uin, 1993). The se ship s c a n o nly b e p a rtia lly re c o nstruc te d , so no d e ta ile d c o mp a riso ns a re p o ssib le . But so me b a sic c o nstruc tio n te c hniq ue s c a n b e d isc e rne d . O ne o f the mo st imp o rta nt tra its o f the se e a rly So uthe a st Asia n ship s is tha t no iro n wa s e ve r use d in the ir c o nstruc tio n. Inste a d the ir p la nks we re la she d to g e the r with ve g e ta b le fib e rs. The use o f o utrig g e rs wo uld se e m to ha ve b e e n a no the r imp o rta nt e a rly c ha ra c te ristic ; la rg e se a g o ing ship s o f this typ e a re d e p ic te d o n the Ja va ne se mo nume nt o f Bo ro b ud ur, c a rve d a ro und 800. Dr. Ma ng uin (1993: 264) d o e s no t think the la rg e st ship s wo uld ha ve use d the m. The use o f q ua rte r rud d e rs suc h a s the se re lie fs ind ic a te is hig hly p ro b a b le , b ut so me e a rly C hine se ship s ma y ha ve use d the m to o . A fo urth-c e ntury C hine se te xt o n me d ic ina l p la nts re fe rs to fo re ig n ship s c a lle d b o , a na lo g o us to the K'un-lun p o o f o the r write rs. The wo rd p o wo uld se e m to b e a tra nslite ra tio n o f the Ma la y p e ra hu, "b o a t." The se ship s we re o ve r 50 me te rs lo ng , c a rrie d fo ur ma sts, a nd ha d a c a p a c ity o f 600–700 p e o p le a nd a b o ut 600 to ns o f c a rg o (Li, 1979: 90). C hine se influe nc e , suc h a s the use o f iro n na ils, se e ms to ha ve b e c o me c o mmo n in So uthe a st Asia in the fo urte e nth thro ug h the sixte e nth c e nturie s. The ship wre c k a t Bukit Ja ka s, Binta n Isla nd , Ria u, Ind o ne sia , c a rb o n d a te d to b e twe e n 1400 a nd 1460, is a n e a rly e xa mp le o f the hyb rid C hine se -So uthe a st Asia n va ria nts tha t b e c a me sta nd a rd in the p e rio d a fte r the C hine se b e g a n to p a rtic ip a te a s ship p e rs in So uthe a st Asia n ma ritime c o mme rc e . It is sig nific a nt tha t this influe nc e o nly a p p e a rs a fte r the e nd o f the So ng Dyna sty; it is a no the r stro ng p ie c e o f e vid e nc e sup p o rting the infe re nc e tha t C hine se ship p e rs d id no t p a rtic ip a te in the tra d e until a fte r the ye a r 1000. 17 2.2 Trade Interaction During the Song Dynasty (A.D. 960 - 1260) 2.2.1 Introduction In 960 the So ng Dyna sty re unifie d C hina a fte r a p e rio d o f c ivil w a r, a nd c o m m e rc e in the p o rts w he re fo re ig n tra d e w a s a llo w e d q uic kly re c o ve re d . A d e c a d e la te r the De p a rtm e nt o f Fo re ig n Tra d e a t G ua ng zho u w a s re o rg a nize d a s c o m m e rc e w a s e xp a nd ing a t a ra p id p a c e . The So ng he lp e d to stim ula te this re c o ve ry b y se nd ing fo ur m issio ns a b ro a d in 987. The se m issio ns "c o nsiste d o f e ig ht c o urt o ffic ia ls, w ho c a rrie d w ith the m im p e ria l e d ic ts, g o ld , a nd c lo th, to va rio us b a rb a ria n c o untrie s in the So uth Se a s to ind uc e the im p o rt tra d e o f a ro m a tic s, rhino c e ro s ho rns, p e a rls, a nd Ba ro o s c a m p ho r (so -c a lle d a fte r Ba rus, no rth Sum a tra , so urc e o f the hig he st q ua lity c a m p ho r)" (Ma , 1971: 33). The No rthe rn So ng o p e ne d ne w p o rts, e q uiva le nt to the “ tre a ty p o rts” p e rsisting into the nine te e nth c e ntury. The first a lte rna tive p o rt to G ua ng zho u w a s Q ua nzho u, in 1087. O the r O ffic e s o f the Ma ritim e Tra d e Sup e rinte nd e nc y (Shih-p o Si) w e re lo c a te d a t Ha ng zho u a nd Ning b o . La te r, O ffic e s o f the Ma ritim e Tra d e Bure a u (Shih-p o Wu) w e re lo c a te d a t Suzho u, We nzho u, a nd Jia ng -yin C hun. Altho ug h little q ua ntita tive d a ta e xists to m a ke a firm jud g m e nt, e no ug h a ne c d o ta l info rm a tio n ha s b e e n p re se rve d to sup p o rt the c o nc lusio n tha t "b y the So ng p e rio d , the sc a le o f m a ritim e tra d e ha d b e c o m e so la rg e tha t it m a y b e d e e m e d the first p e rio d o f g re a t o c e a nic tra d e in the histo ry o f the w o rld " (Ma , 1971: 23). Po rt c itie s o f So ng d yna sty C hina . 18 It w a s still a c rim ina l o ffe nse fo r ind ivid ua l C hine se to e ng a g e in d ire c t tra d e w ith fo re ig ne rs, ho w e ve r, a nd the syste m o f ho a rd ing a ll fo re ig n inc e nse a nd o the r luxury g o o d s in g o ve rnm e nt w a re ho use s w a s still m a inta ine d . Thus fo r the p e rio d b e tw e e n 960 a nd 1126, kno w n a s the No rthe rn So ng , fo re ig n c o m m e rc e w a s c o ntinuing to e xp a nd , b ut still w ithin the m o ld c a st b y the C o nfuc ia nists a tho usa nd ye a rs e a rlie r. Me rc ha nts w ho ind uc e d fo re ig ne rs to b ring c a rg o e s tha t yie ld e d d utie s o f o ve r 50,000 string s o f c a sh w e re o ffe re d o ffic ia l ra nk. In 1115 the C hine se g o ve rnm e nt e sta b lishe d a ho te l a t Q ua nzho u fo r fo re ig ne rs, w hic h c o st the g o ve rnm e nt 300 string s a ye a r. In 1132 a no the r ho te l w a s fo und e d a t G ua ng zho u. A w e lfa re se rvic e w a s se t up fo r ship w re c ke d se a m e n, w ith a n a llo w a nc e o f 50 c a sh a nd 2 p e c ks o f ric e a d a y. As e a rly a s the la te Ta ng Dyna sty, the g o ve rnm e nt ha d b e g un to inve st in m a ritim e tra d e infra struc ture b y d e ve lo p ing a ha rb o r ne a r Fuzho u. The G ua ng zho u ha rb o r w a s d re d g e d a t g o ve rnm e nt e xp e nse in the e a rly e le ve nth c e ntury (Whe a tle y, 1959: 26-27). 2.2.2 The Song Government Trade Monopoly Im p o rts via m a ritim e tra d e in the No rthe rn So ng still c o nsiste d o f tw o m a in c a te g o rie s: the le ss e xp e nsive , c o nsisting o f te xtile s (m o stly c o tto n), sp ic e s, a nd d rug s, a nd the m uc h m o re va lua b le : je w e ls, ivo ry, rhino c e ro s ho rn, e b o ny, a m b e r, c o ra l, a ro m a tic p ro d uc ts a nd p e rfum e s. The sa le o f the luxury g o o d s w a s still a g o ve rnm e nt m o no p o ly; o nly lic e nse d d e a le rs c o uld b uy the m a t g o ve rnm e nt w a re ho use s in Q ua nzho u, a nd to a le sse r e xte nt a t G ua ng zho u, in fixe d q ua ntitie s a nd a t fixe d p ric e s. Lic e nse d g o o d s w e re a c q uire d b y the g o ve rnm e nt a s im p o rt d uty (a ll d utie s w e re p a id in kind , no t in c a sh) o r thro ug h p urc ha se b y the sup e rinte nd e nt o f m e rc ha nt ship p ing . Fo r this p urp o se he w a s a llo c a te d a b o ut 100,000 string s o f c a sh a ye a r in the la te e le ve nth c e ntury, a nd 300,000 string s in the e a rly tw e lfth c e ntury. Inte re sting ly, the c a p ita l fo r this a c tivity w a s o b ta ine d b y ta xing p rie sts' d ip lo m a s. The re turns o n this inve stm e nt w e re sub sta ntia l; the Q ua nzho u o ffic e b e tw e e n 1128 a nd 1134 m a d e a p ro fit o f 980,000 string s (Ro c khill,1914: 421, n. 1.) The g o ve rnm e nt a tte m p te d to e nfo rc e a n im p e ria l m o no p o ly o ve r the im p o rt a nd p o sse ssio n o f e ig ht ite m s: to rto ise she ll, e le p ha nt tusk, rhino c e ro s ho rn, a sp e c ia l kind o f ste e l use d fo r w e a p o ns, skin o f a liza rd use d fo r m a king d rum s, c o ra l, a g a te , a nd fra nkinc e nse (Ma , 1971: 37-38). Ne ve rthe le ss, ind ire c t re fe re nc e s sug g e st tha t the re a lity d id no t c o rre sp o nd ve ry c lo se ly to the id e a l w hic h the la w s so ug ht to im p o se . Ag a in, the re c o rd s tha t w e re p re se rve d o b vio usly sho w a ve ry ina c c ura te p ic ture o f w ha t w a s a c tua lly g o ing o n. 2.2.3 The Currency Drain Alre a d y in 1074 a n o ffic ia l na m e d C ha ng Fa ng -p 'ing m e ntio ne d se a g o ing junks tha t w e re le a ving C hina o n the ir re turn vo ya g e w ith full c a rg o e s o f c a sh, so tha t "the c urre nc y w a s d ra ine d o ff like the w a te rs o f the se a into the w e i-lu" [lite ra lly, re a r g a te ] (Ro c khill, 1914: 422). By the m id -tw e lfth c e ntury, illic it tra d e in e xp e nsive m e rc ha nd ise w a s so g re a t tha t C hine se sm ug g le rs w e re p a ying fo r a ll g o o d s w ith g o ld , silve r, iro n, a nd e sp e c ia lly c o p p e r c a sh, a nd this d ra in w a s c a using the C hine se g o ve rnm e nt se rio us c o nc e rn. By 1159 o nly o ne -te nth o f the m o ne y inte nd e d to b e c o ine d w a s a c tua lly c a st. This d isc re p a nc y w a s g e ne ra lly a ttrib ute d b y o ffic ia l a c c o unts o f the tim e to ille g a l fo re ig n se a tra d e . 19 In 1194 the g o ve rno r o f a m ilita ry d istric t in Fujia n re fuse d to a llo w p e o p le und e r his jurisd ic tio n to g o a b ro a d to tra d e w ith fo re ig n p e o p le "w ho se m a ny ship s c o m ing fro m a b ro a d la d e n w ith a ro m a tic s, rhino c e ro s ho rns, ivo ry a nd king -fishe rs' fe a the rs w e re a lre a d y d ra ining a ll the c o p p e r c a sh o ut o f the la nd ." Sum p tua ry la w s w e re p a sse d re p e a te d ly (in 1107, 1157, 1201, a nd 1214) a g a inst use o f king fishe r fe a the rs a nd g o ld fo r o rna m e nts, b ut to no a va il. In 1248, a "C e nso r, C h'e n C h'iu-lu, a ttrib ute d the d ra in o f c a sh o ut o f C hina to the e xtra va g a nc e o f its p e o p le in p urc ha sing suc h luxurie s a s p e rfum e s, ivo ry, a nd rhino c e ro s ho rns, a nd to the se a -tra d e g e ne ra lly" (Ro c khill, 1914: 423). Thus se a tra d e w a s a d o ub le -e d g e d sw o rd ; ra the r tha n p ro vid ing a d d itio na l re so urc e s fo r the sta te c o ffe rs, it se e m s to ha ve ha d the o p p o site e ffe c t. This d id no t, ho w e ve r, p re ve nt the rule rs fro m d re a m ing tha t m a ritim e tra d e m ig ht p ro vid e a so lutio n to the ir se rio us fina nc ia l p ro b le m s. 2.2.4 The Southern Song Dynasty: Trade for Revenue The a nc ie nt stric ture s o n fo re ig n tra d e m a inta ine d b y the C hine se g o ve rnm e nt b e g a n to w e a ke n w he n, in 1126, the So ng rule rs w e re d e fe a te d b y the Khita n no m a d s. Whe n the no rthe rn he a rtla nd o f C hina w a s lo st to the inva d e rs, the C hine se c o urt e sc a p e d a nd m o ve d so uth, to Ha ng zho u. The p o rt o f Q ua nzho u, the ne a re st to Ha ng zho u, e ve ntua lly surp a sse d G ua ng zho u a s the la rg e st e ntre p o t in C hina . No t o nly w a s the c o urt no w c ut o ff fro m the o ve rla nd ro ute to the w e st, a nd c o nve rse ly ne a re r to the c e nte rs o f m a ritim e tra d e w ith the So uth Se a s; no w the p o te ntia l c a p a c ity o f m a ritim e c o m m e rc e to a ug m e nt the c o ffe rs o f the king d o m —in o rd e r to d e fe nd the re m na nts o f the So ng la nd s a g a inst the no rthe rn inva d e rs—b e c a m e a m a tte r o f sig nific a nt m o m e nt to the e m p ire . Thus o ffic ia l tra d e e xp a nd e d , p a rtly b y d e sig n, in o rd e r to se c ure a d d itio na l re ve nue . The Em p e ro r G a o -zo ng in 1137 issue d a n e d ic t o n the sub je c t, sta ting , "The p ro fits fro m m a ritim e c o m m e rc e a re ve ry g re a t. If p ro p e rly m a na g e d , the y c a n b ring a m illio n (string s o f c a sh). Is this no t b e tte r tha n ta xing the p e o p le ? " (Ma , 1971: 34). In fa c t G a o -zo ng 's p ro je c tio ns w e re b a se d o n a va ila b le sta tistic s; in 1128 m a ritim e tra d e ha d a lre a d y yie ld e d c usto m s d utie s o f 2 m illio n string s o f c a sh, w hic h w a s 20% o f the g o ve rnm e nt's e ntire re ve nue . With the e sta b lishm e nt o f the So uthe rn So ng Dyna sty, the re c a m e a re vo lutio na ry d e ve lo p m e nt: fo r the first tim e in histo ry, p riva te C hine se w e re a llo w e d , e ve n e nc o ura g e d , to g o o ve rse a s to tra d e . The e ntire struc ture o f the m a ritim e tra d e syste m o f the So uth Se a s und e rw e nt fund a m e nta l c ha ng e s a s a re sult o f this ne w p o lic y. Sta tus a s a n o ffic ia l trib ute -b e a ring c o untry w a s no lo ng e r a p re re q uisite fo r c o nd uc ting c o m m e rc ia l re la tio ns w ith C hina . Tra d e w a s fre e d fro m its link to d ip lo m a c y. The trib ute syste m w hic h ha d re g ula te d c o nta c ts b e tw e e n So uthe a st Asia ns a nd C hine se d e c line d sig nific a ntly in im p o rta nc e . Eve n the o ste nsib ly a lo o f a ttitud e o f the no b ility to w a rd tra d e , b e hind w hic h o fte n la y a ve ry d iffe re nt c o d e o f c o nd uc t, e ro d e d sig nific a ntly. "In the la te So uthe rn So ng p e rio d , the re la tive s o f the So ng ro ya l fa m ily w e re vying w ith p riva te e nte rp rise s in Q ua nzho u.... The y use d the ir p o litic a l sta tus to to y w ith the m a ritim e tra d e rule s to e a rn m uc h p ro fit fro m m a ritim e tra d e . He nc e the y w e re ve ry unp o p ula r w ith the m e rc ha nt c o m m unity" (Kw e e , 1997: n 35). The d e c line o f the trib ute syste m p ro b a b ly c o ntrib ute d sig nific a ntly to p o litic a l c ha ng e s in the So uth Se a s. In p a rtic ula r, the a d ve nt o f C hine se m e rc ha nts a nd ship p e rs in So uthe a st 20 Asia n w a te rs b ro ke d o w n b a rrie rs tha t ha d fo ste re d the p ro sp e rity o f a fe w c e ntra lize d tra d ing p o rts. The e m p ire o f Srivija ya , b a se d in so uth Sum a tra , ha d re c e ive d a se ve re b lo w fro m the C o la inva sio n o f 1025; the a p p e a ra nc e o f C hine se ship s in So uthe a st Asia n w a te rs p ro b a b ly so und e d the o ld tha lla so c ra c y's d e a th kne ll. The up surg e in C hine se ship p ing a c tivity d id no t, o f c o urse , m e a n tha t So uthe a st Asia n so c ie ty suffe re d e c o no m ic a lly a s a w ho le ; in fa c t the c o nve rse is a lm o st c e rta inly true . Num e ro us ne w p o rt site s, m a rke d b y a b und a nt sha rd s o f So ng c e ra m ic s, d a te fro m this tim e , sug g e sting tha t p ro sp e rity p ro b a b ly inc re a se d fo r the So uthe a st Asia ns a s c o m m e rc e g re w . Mo re o ve r, the ne w w e a lth w a s p ro b a b ly m o re w id e ly d istrib ute d . Ne w p o rts g a ve tra d e rs d ire c t a c c e ss to C hine se m e rc ha nts, b yp a ssing the Srivija ya n rule rs w ho w o uld ha ve ra ke d o ff m o st o f the g o o d s in d ue s a nd fe e s. The c o m p le xity o f m a ritim e tra d e in the e a rly So uthe rn So ng is w e ll ind ic a te d b y a n e no rm o usly va rie d inve nto ry, d a te d 1141, w hic h inc lud e d 339 typ e s o f im p o rts. The m o st im p o rta nt in te rm s o f va lue a s w e ll a s vo lum e w e re still a ro m a tic s a nd d rug s: fra nkinc e nse , a m b e rg ris, liq uid sto ra x (a kind o f re sin), g a rd e nia flo w e rs, p uc uk , m yrrh, c lo ve s, nutm e g , a nd sa nd a lw o o d . The se w e re no t trivia l c o m m o d itie s; the y w e re c o m m o nly use d fo r a w id e ra ng e o f p urp o se s. In a d d itio n to the ir re lig io us use s, va rio us kind s o f a ro m a tic s w e re ne e d e d in the ho use ho ld to p e rfum e c lo the s a nd b a thw a te r a nd se rve a s w a ll d e c o ra tio ns a nd in the p re p a ra tio n o f fo o d . O ne o f fo ur im p e ria l w a re ho use s w a s use d so le ly to sto re inc e nse a nd a ro m a tic s. By la te So ng tim e s, tra d e rs ha d to file o ffic ia l fo rm s sp e c ifying d e stina tio ns a nd ne e d e d g ua ra nto rs "w ho a ssum e d full re sp o nsib ility in c a se the tra d e rs vio la te d the tra d e la w s." C re w m e m b e rs o f tra d ing ship s usua lly e ng a g e d in sm a ll-sc a le m a ritim e tra d ing . The y w e re o rg a nize d into 5-m e m b e r units, a nd ha d so m e so rt o f "p a p e rs" issue d fo r the m (Kw e e , 1997: 16). So m e C hine se ha d p ro b a b ly b e e n re sid ing in So uthe a st Asia b e fo re 1126, b ut it is unlike ly tha t a ny a c c ura te a c c o unting o f the m w ill e ve r b e m a d e . Sinc e it w a s p o te ntia lly a c a p ita l o ffe nse to d iso b e y the la w s a g a inst p riva te o ve rse a s tra d e , tho se w ho flo ute d the la w w o uld try to e nsure tha t the ir a c ts w o uld no t b e re c o rd e d . O ne o f the e a rlie st p ie c e s o f e vid e nc e tha t C hine se w e re living o ve rse a s fo r lo ng p e rio d s a p p e a rs in 1150, w he n a C hine se a nd so m e "d a rk na tive s" w e re ship w re c ke d , a p p a re ntly w hile trying to sne a k b a c k into C hina . The C hine se ha d live d in Ind o ne sia fo r a lo ng tim e a nd ha d a n Ind o ne sia n w ife (Hirth, 1917: 76). As m ig ht b e e xp e c te d fro m the c la nd e stine na ture o f the e a rly tra d e a nd the inte nsity o f the sm ug g ling p ra c tic e d e ve n a fte r p riva te tra d e w a s no lo ng e r a n o ffe nse , little d o c um e nta ry info rm a tio n e xists to illum ina te the c o nd itio ns und e r w hic h e a rly C hine se ship p ing w a s c o nd uc te d . 2.2.5 Chinese Ships of the Song Dynasty O f the fe w d e ta ils tha t c a n b e a d d uc e d , o ne is tha t ship c a p ta ins w e re g ive n a q u-q i ,o r "ve rm illio n p a ss", o n w hic h w a s w ritte n his na m e a nd tha t o f his first m a te , the num b e r o f p a sse ng e rs, a nd the size a nd typ e o f his ship . Ship s ha d a b o ut te n o a rs, e a c h w o rke d b y fo ur m e n, a s w e ll a s sa ils. The sa ilo rs w e re a rm e d a g a inst p ira te s, w ith b o w s a nd a rro w s. Ship s ha d tw o a nc ho rs a t the b o w s. The re w e re no c a b ins; e a c h p a sse ng e r w a s a llo tte d a c e rta in a m o unt o f d e c k sp a c e . Zhu Yu o f the So ng p e rio d d e sc rib e d m e rc ha nt ship s a t G ua ng zho u: 21 The ship s w e re se ve ra l hund re d fe e t lo ng , a nd w id e . Me rc ha nts d ivid e d sp a c e in the ship s fo r sto w ing g o o d s, e a c h g e tting se ve ra l sq ua re fe e t o f flo o r sp a c e , w hile the y sle p t a b o ve . Mo st o f the g o o d s w e re c e ra m ic ve sse ls, o ne p la c e d w ithin a no the r a c c o rd ing to size w ith little sp a c e b e tw e e n...." (Q uo te d in Li Zhiya n a nd C he ng We n, 1989: 102). The m a in ve sse ls to w e d b e hind the m a sm a ll b o a t use d w he n la nd ing . In the e a rly tw e lfth c e ntury the m a g ne tic c o m p a ss b e g a n to b e use d , b ut te xts d e sc rib e a no the r m e tho d o f na vig a tio n w hic h m a d e use o f a ho o k o n a lo ng ro p e to b ring up m ud fro m the se a b o tto m , w hic h c a p ta ins use d to sm e ll a nd insp e c t to d e te rm ine the ir p o sitio n (Wa ng , 1958). Ma ritim e a rc ha e o lo g y is just b e g inning to c o ntrib ute ne w insig hts into the p hysic a l c o nd itio ns o f the e a rly C hine se m a ritim e tra d e a c tivity. In Ma y–July 1995, a n e xp e d itio n b a se d o n p re lim ina ry w o rk in 1990 inve stig a te d a ship w re c k just no rth o f Fuzho u, in the Ding ha i a re a . The m a jo rity o f a rtifa c ts re c o ve re d (69%) w e re p o rc e la ins. The re w e re a lso tw o c o nc re tio ns o f iro n. Re m a ins o f ship tim b e rs still e xiste d ; m o re e xc a va tio ns a re p la nne d , w hic h m a y she d m uc h m o re lig ht o n the sub je c t. A ship w re c k a t Ning b o , c o nte m p o ra ne o us w ith Ba i Jia o , ha s a lso b e e n d isc o ve re d . Ano the r ship d a ting fro m the So ng d yna sty w a s fo und a t Q ua nzho u a nd e xc a va te d in 1974. It ha d a d e e p v-sha p e d b o tto m , a true ke e l, a nd a ste rn rud d e r. The Q ua nzho u ship w a s 34.6 m e te rs lo ng , 9.82 m e te rs w id e , a nd d isp la c e d 374.4 to ns, m a king it a s la rg e a s a ny m e rc ha nt ve sse l the n kno w n in the We st. 2.2.6 Southeast Asian Markets As ha s b e e n no te d e a rlie r, so m e So uthe a st Asia n so c ie tie s ha d a lre a d y b e c o m e a c c usto m e d to the use o f c urre nc y b e fo re the e nd o f the first m ille nnium . O f the se so c ie tie s, the m o st c o m p re he nsive d a ta ind ic a ting a hig hly m o ne tize d e c o no m y c o m e s fro m Ja va . Ta xe s in Ja va w e re e xp re sse d a s m o ne y, no t a s a p ro p o rtio n o f the ha rve st a s w a s still c urre nt p ra c tic e in Ind ia , fo r e xa m p le . Irrig a te d ric e la nd , o rc ha rd s, a nd ho use s w e re p riva te ly o w ne d a nd c o uld b e so ld , a ltho ug h rig hts to la nd no t und e r c o ntinuo us c ultiva tio n w e re still ve ste d in the villa g e a s a c o rp o ra te b o d y. Mo st villa g e s ha d p e rio d ic m a rke ts. Ma rke t o ffic ia ls a re m e ntio ne d in the o ld e st Ja va ne se insc rip tio ns fro m the e ig hth c e ntury (C hristie , 1992). The insc rip tio ns a lso d e sc rib e tw o le ve ls o f e c o no m ic a c tivity: o ne le ve l w a s p a rt-tim e (p ro b a b ly); a c tivitie s in this c a te g o ry inc lud e d d ye -m a king , d ye ing , w e a ving , so m e p o tte ry m a king , sug a r m a king , a nd b a m b o o m a t m a king . The se o c c up a tio ns w e re p ro b a b ly c o nd uc te d a s sid e line s w he n the a g ric ultura l c yc le o r lo c a l re so urc e s m a d e the m fe a sib le . The se c o nd le ve l o f a c tivitie s c o nc e rne d sp e c ia lize d tra d e rs a nd c ra ftsm e n, w ho c o uld c ho o se w he re to live fo r e c o no m ic re a so ns; the y w e re m o b ile . The se p e o p le w e re te rm e d m a sa m wya wa ha ra , "tho se w ho c a rry o n c o m m e rc e ." So m e w e re m id d le m e n so m e ho w c o nne c te d to a n inte rna tio na l ne tw o rk, d e a ling in im p o rte d p ro d uc e , inc lud ing tin a nd o the r m e ta ls, b ut the y a lso so ld ric e . This sug g e sts tha t the re w a s a re la tive ly la rg e num b e r o f p e o p le w ho b o ug ht fo o d o n the m a rke t. Ho w d id the lo ng -d ista nc e m a ritim e tra d e ne tw o rk inte ra c t w ith the lo c a l d istrib utio n syste m ? Sa d ly, the Ja va ne se so urc e s a re no m o re he lp ful in a nsw e ring suc h q ue stio ns tha n the C hine se . O nc e m o re w e m ust turn to a rc ha e o lo g y, a nd o nc e m o re w e find tha t ve ry little d a ta 22 ha s b e e n c o lle c te d . The o nly im p o rta nt c la ss o f C hine se a rtifa c t fo r w hic h d istrib utio na l d a ta ha s b e e n c o lle c te d in Ja va is p o rc e la in, a nd o nly o ne re g io na l stud y ha s so fa r b e e n c o nd uc te d : in no rth-c e ntra l Ja va . In a stud y c o nd uc te d b y a Dutc h sc ho la r in the 1940s, So ng p o tte ry w a s fo und a t o ve r 20 site s in Re m b a ng , a nd in m o re tha n a hund re d site s in the ne ig hb o ring re g e nc ie s o f Se m a ra ng , G ro b o g a n, De m a k, Je p a ra , Pa ti, Kud us, a nd Blo ra . The d istrib utio n p a tte rn se e m s to b e c o rre la te d w ith se ttle m e nt a re a s a nd tra nsp o rt ro ute s. The d a ta ind ic a te s tha t, b y the e le ve nth c e ntury, p o tte ry in the a re a o f no rth-c e ntra l Ja va surve ye d b y O rso y d e Fline s (2,500 sq ua re kilo m e te rs) w a s d istrib ute d b y so m e so rt o f inte g ra te d m a rke ting syste m . The no rth-c e ntra l p a tte rn c o ntra sts w ith the p a tte rn so fa r d e te c te d in a ha p ha za rd fa shio n fo r the Ta ng d yna sty c e ra m ic s fo und in so uth-c e ntra l Ja va ; m o st o f the find s o f C hine se p o rc e la in the re a re a sso c ia te d w ith te m p le site s. The re a re , ho w e ve r, se ve ra l d iffe re nt va ria b le s tha t m ig ht a c c o unt fo r this, inc lud ing d iffe re nt func tio ns fo r the p o tte ry, le sse r im p o rta nc e a tta c he d to c e ra m ic s in the Ta ng , d iffe re nt g e o g ra p hic a l a re a s, a nd d iffe re nt se ttle m e nt p a tte rns, a nd so o n. So m uc h m o re info rm a tio n o n the d istrib utio n o f C hine se im p o rts in So uthe a st Asia n site s m ust b e c o lle c te d b e fo re the p o ssib le e ffe c ts o f c ha ng ing C hine se invo lve m e nt in m a ritim e tra d e o n the So uthe a st Asia n so c ie ty a nd e c o no m y c a n b e o b se rve d a nd d ise nta ng le d fro m o the r sub syste m s e vo lving a t the sa m e tim e . 2.3 Trade Interaction During the Yuan Dynasty (A.D. 1260-1367) 2.3.1 Introduction Altho ug h a fug itive So ng c o urt m a na g e d to survive fo r a no the r 19 ye a rs, until 1279, fo r a ll p ra c tic a l p urp o se s the Yua n Dyna sty b e g a n in 1260, w he n the Mo ng o ls la rg e ly c o m p le te d the c o nq ue st o f C hina . If C hine se e c o no m ic histo ry c a n b e sa id to b e ne g le c te d , the e c o no m ic histo ry o f the Yua n ha s b e e n p o sitive ly ig no re d . O nly o ne Eng lish-la ng ua g e stud y ha s b e e n d e vo te d to the fo re ig n tra d e o f the Yua n, a nd tha t w o rk, Sc hurm a nn's Ec o no m ic Struc ture o f the Yua n Dyna sty (1956), c o nta ins o nly o ne c ha p te r o n m a ritim e tra d e . Yua n tra d e ha s a lso b e e n la rg e ly ne g le c te d in C hine se -la ng ua g e so urc e s. A 1955 stud y b y Fa ng Ha o is still the m a in w o rk, tho ug h its c o nc lusio ns a re no w o utd a te d (Kw e e , 1997). C hine se so urc e s te nd to c o nfla te the So ng a nd Yua n, so tha t d e ta ils a b o ut the Yua n a re o fte n o b sc ure o r c o ntra d ic to ry. Fa ng Ha o , stud ying Sino -We ste rn inte ra c tio n in g e ne ra l, a rg ue d tha t fo re ig n tra d e d uring the Yua n w a s stunte d b y m o no p o lizing a c ts o f the Yua n g o ve rnm e nt, tha t b ig m e rc ha nts w e re sup p re sse d , b ut tha t ne ve rthe le ss tra d e inc re a se d c o m p a re d to the So ng ! C he n G a o -hua ha s sug g e ste d tha t Yua n fo re ig n tra d e w a s c o nd uc te d m a inly b y se a ra the r tha n o ve rla nd (Kw e e , 1997: 2, n. 3), a vie w tha t c o ntra d ic ts Re id 's g e ne ra liza tio n (1993:10). He m a ke s the a sse rtio n, b rie fly tre a te d , tha t the m a ritim e tra d e re a c he d a p e a k in Yua n; so d o e s Sc hurm a nn, a lso w itho ut sub sta ntia tio n. Li Do ng hua (1984) a rg ue d tha t m a ritim e tra d e in Q ua nzho u d uring the Yua n w a s m o re p ro sp e ro us tha n in the So ng , b ut, o nc e a g a in, o ffe re d no e vid e nc e (Kw e e , 1997: 2, n. 4). Ho w e ve r, a ne c d o te s ind ic a ting the w e a lth o f Q ua nzho u a re p le ntiful. We kno w , fo r insta nc e , tha t the so n-in-la w o f the sup e rinte nd e nt o f tra d e a t Q ua nzho u, w ho d ie d in 1293, ha d 80 se a g o ing ship s a nd 130 p ikuls o f p e a rls (Whe a tle y, 1959: 29). Suc h ind ire c t e vid e nc e d o e s sup p o rt the id e a tha t the tra d e e xp a nsio n c ha ra c te ristic o f So ng tim e s c o ntinue d to a c c e le ra te d uring the Yua n Dyna sty. Mo re o ve r, Yua n so urc e s sho w 23 c le a re r d istinc tio ns a m o ng va rio us m a ritim e te rrito rie s. Suc h te rm s a s Ea st a nd We st Se a s ( Do ng xi-ya ng ), Big g e r Ea st Se a ( Da -d o ng -ya ng ), Little Ea st Se a ( Xia o -d o ng -ya ng ), a nd Little We st Se a ( Xia o -xi-ya ng ) first a p p e a re d . The se a re o b vio us sig ns o f inc re a sing C hine se fa m ilia rity w ith the m a ritim e w o rld . O the r so urc e s o f ind ire c t e vid e nc e m ust suffic e to e stim a te the na ture o f the e xp a nsio n o f Yua n tra d e , no sta tistic s ha ving survive d . Sc hurm a nn (1956: viii; c ite d in Kw e e , 1997: 5-6, n. 13) o b se rve s tha t "no t a ll the im p o rta nt e c o no m ic institutio ns o f the Yua n a re c o ve re d [in the shihuo -zhi se c tio n o f the Yua n shih ]...no thing o n te na nc y, p riva te c o m m e rc e , sto re s, p a w nsho p s, a nd m a nufa c turing . No ne o f the se institutio ns d ire c tly c o nc e rne d the g o ve rnm e nt, a ltho ug h the y a re im p o rta nt in the e c o no m ic histo ry o f C hina ; o nly tho se o f d ire c t inte re st to the g o ve rnm e nt suc h a s ta xe s, la nd surve y, m a ritim e g ra in tra nsp o rt, a nd m o no p o ly ta xe s a re tre a te d ." O ne te xt, the Da -d e -na n-ha i-zhi, sta te s tha t the re w e re "m a ny tre a sure s" in the Yua n Dyna sty, m a ny tim e s m o re tha n p re vio us d yna stie s (Kw e e , 1997: 3, n. 7). Ac c o rd ing to C he n G a o -hua (1991), the re w e re m o re tha n 160 typ e s o f m a ritim e g o o d s in the So uthe rn So ng , b ut m o re tha n 220 typ e s in the Yua n (Kw e e , 1997: 4, n. 9). The num b e r o f fo re ig n p o litie s tra d ing w ith C hina , a s w e ll a s the va rie ty o f p ro d uc e in C hina , inc re a se d d uring the Yua n. By wa y o f inte re st, a ra re insta nc e o f the use o f ma ritime tra d e a s a p o e tic the me o c c urs in the wo rk o f Sung Pe n in the e a rly fo urte e nth c e ntury. "The fo re ig n ship s ha ve sa ile d a wa y fro m the ir a nc ho ra g e . Ye a r a fte r ye a r the y c o me a s if the se a s we re a lwa ys tra nq uil...In the sixth mo nth whe n the so uth wind b lo ws the y c o me , a nd we g re e t the m with wine a nd music . Is it no t a jo yful o c c a sio n? " (Whe a tle y, 1959:3). 2.3.2 Yuan Government Interests in Maritime Trade The Yua n e sta b lishe d the ir first m a ritim e tra d e o ffic e in 1277 a t Q ua nzho u, the m o st p ro sp e ro us p o rt o f the la te So ng . "Eve ry ye a r, a n invita tio n w a s to b e e xte nd e d to fo re ig n tra d e rs to tra d e in C hina " ( Yua n shih, jua n 94; Kw e e , 1997). Thre e m o re w e re e sta b lishe d sho rtly the re a fte r: a t Ning p o (King -yua n), Sha ng ha i, a nd Ka nfu (ne a r Ha ng c ho u, Po lo 's G a nfu). By 1293 the re w e re se ve n. "So m uc h e m p ha sis w a s p la c e d o n re ve nue fro m m a ritim e tra d e tha t e ve n m o nks, w ho w e re o fte n g ra nte d p rivile g e s, w e re no t e xe m p te d fro m ta xe s." The Yua n, b e ing Mo ng o ls, la c ke d the a nc ie nt C o nfuc ia n p re jud ic e a g a inst tra d e . Thus it is no t surp rising tha t the y lib e ra lize d the syste m e ve n furthe r tha n the So ng e m p e ro rs ha d d o ne . O ffic ia l ve ne ra tio n o f Ma -zu, G o d d e ss o f the Se a , inc re a se d . In 1278 "o ffic ia ls m e m o ria lize d the thro ne 's c a lling a tte ntio n to the im p o rta nc e o f e nc o ura g ing tra d e re la tio ns w ith the p e o p le s o f the so uth-e a ste rn [o r so uthe rn a nd e a ste rn] isla nd s, a ll o f w ho m , the w rite rs d e c la re d , w e re fille d w ith the m o st lo ya l d e vo tio n to C hina " (Ro c khill, 1914: 429). In 1279 a n e nvo y w a s se nt to Ja va . In 1282 a n e nvo y fro m Ja va c a m e to C hina w ith a shrine o f g o ld a s trib ute . The Yua n in 1284 a c tua lly institute d a p o lic y o f g o ve rnm e nt inve stm e nt in m a ritim e tra d e . The p re fe c ts o f Ha ng zho u a nd Q ua nzho u c ho se c e rta in p e rso ns to g o a b ro a d to c o nd uc t tra d e , p ro vid ing the m w ith ship s a nd c a p ita l. Ne t p ro fit w a s d istrib ute d a c c o rd ing to a fo rm ula o f 70% fo r the g o ve rnm e nt, 30% fo r the tra d e r. Se a g o e rs a nd fa m ilie s w e re e xe m p te d fro m c o rvé e . This p o lic y w a s re se nte d b y b ig m e rc ha nts; its m a in o b je c tive se e m s no t to ha ve b e e n to stim ula te tra d e b ut to p re ve nt a fe w la rg e m e rc a ntile fa m ilie s fro m b e c o m ing d a ng e ro usly p o w e rful b y m a king it p o ssib le fo r m o re sm a ll o p e ra to rs to c o m p e te w ith the m . This ne w fo rm o f g o ve rnm e nt invo lve m e nt in m a ritim e tra d e m a y re fle c t the tra d itio na l sym b io tic re la tio nship b e tw e e n the 24 o rto g h a nd the Mo ng o lia ns in the ir o rig ina l ho m e la nd in the ste p p e s. O rto g h ("p a rtne rs" in Turkic ) w e re c o m m e rc ia l g ro up s, c o nsisting la rg e ly o f c e ntra l Asia tic Muslim m e rc ha nts, w ho b e c a m e a le a d ing c la ss und e r the Yua n; e xte nsive g o ve rnm e nt fund s w e re lo a ne d to the m fo r c o m m e rc e a nd usury (Kw e e , 1997: n. 41). Und e r the Yua n g o ve rnm e nt, m o re Muslim to m b sto ne s w e re e re c te d in Q ua ng zho u tha n d uring the So ng . The g o ve rnm e nt e ve n w e nt so fa r a s to fo rb id the use o f p riva te c a p ita l in fo re ig n tra d e (Ro c khill, 1914: 425). Ho w e ve r, "The e ffo rts o f the g o ve rnm e nt to p re ve nt p riva te tra d ing m ust ha ve fa ile d sig na lly, fo r in 1303 w e le a rn tha t the p ro hib itio n a g a inst p riva te se a -tra d ing w a s re p e a le d ..." (Ro c khill, 1914). By the n the Yua n g o ve rnm e nt ha d institute d a m a ritim e tra d e ta x, in 1292 (Kw e e , 1997: 15, n. 46), a nd b y 1295 sm ug g ling to a vo id the ta x a nd to e xp o rt fo rb id d e n g o o d s suc h a s b ro nze c o ina g e w a s so ra m p a nt tha t o ffic ia ls w e re se nt o ut to se a to e xa m ine ship s. In the la te Yua n p e rio d the p e nd ulum o f o ffic ia l a ttitud e s to w a rd c o m m e rc e sw ung b a c k a nd fo rth. The o ffic e s o f m a ritim e tra d e w e re c lo se d in 1294, b ut re o p e ne d la te r the sa m e ye a r; c lo se d in 1303, re o p e ne d in 1308; c lo se d in 1311, re o p e ne d in 1314; c lo se d in 1320, re o p e ne d in 1322. The re a so ns fo r the se c lo sure s a re ne ve r g ive n in the so urc e s. Sc ho la rs ha ve sug g e ste d tha t p o litic a l re a so ns, suc h a s the fe a r tha t ric h m e rc ha nts m ig ht turn a g a inst the sta te , w e re re sp o nsib le , b ut it is a lso p o ssib le tha t the se a c tio ns w e re m e a nt to p e na lize p riva te tra d e rs w ho vio la te d tra d ing la w s. The re a re re fe re nc e s to "22 rule s o f Yua n tra d e ." In a n inte re sting the o ry, C he n G a o -hua ha s a rg ue d tha t the p ro hib itio ns m a y no t ha ve b e e n a ll tha t sig nific a nt, fo r the re is e vid e nc e to sug g e st tha t fo re ig n tra d e rs still c a m e to Sha ng ha i w he n the o ffic e o f m a ritim e tra d e the re w a s c lo se d . 2.3.3 The End of Tributary Trade In 1326 the Ta i-d ing e m p e ro r re no unc e d trib uta ry tra d e . "In 1329 the p re se nting fo r tra nsm issio n to C o urt o f e xp e nsive a nd use le ss o b je c ts, a ll o f w hic h ha d to b e p a id fo r a t re g ula te d p ric e s a nd w hic h w e re no w he ld to b e b ut a c a nke r d e vo uring the ric he s o f the sta te w a s stric tly fo rb id d e n." The Yua n w e re m o re e xp a nsio nist tha n the tra d itio na l C hine se e m p ire s ha d b e e n. The y fo ug ht num e ro us b a ttle s o n the So uthe a st Asia n m a inla nd , w ith Vie tna m , C ha m p a , C a m b o d ia , a nd Burm a , o fte n to a tte m p t to fo rc e the So uthe a st Asia ns to a c c e p t a m o re fo rm a l d e g re e o f sub m issio n to the ir o ve rlo rd ship tha n the C hine se ha d e ve r re q uire d in the c o nte xt o f the "trib uta ry tra d e ." In 1292 the e m p e ro r, Khub la i Kha n, d e c id e d to se nd a la rg e e xp e d itio n to Ja va to a ve ng e a m utila tio n o f his e nvo y. The na va l e xp e d itio n w a s p la c e d und e r the g o ve rno r o f Fujia n, using ship s re q uisitio ne d fro m p riva te tra d e rs, the re b e ing no fo rm a l C hine se na vy. In 1293 the fle e t sa ile d fro m Q ua nzho u, b ut the e xp e d itio n b e c a m e e m b ro ile d in a c o nfuse d p o litic a l situa tio n in Ja va , w a s ultim a te ly b e tra ye d b y a n e rstw hile Ja va ne se a lly, a nd sa ile d b a c k the sa m e ye a r. Khub la i Kha n d ie d in 1293, a nd re la tio ns w ith Ja va so o n re turne d to no rm a l; Ja va ne se m issio ns a rrive d a t c o urt in 1298 a nd a g a in in 1300. 2.3.4 Chinese Trade in the Moluccas O ne o f the m o re inte re sting q ue stio ns a b o ut So uthe a st Asia n c o m m e rc e in the Yua n p e rio d c o nc e rns the b re a d th o f the a re a o ve r w hic h C hine se sa ilo rs a c tua lly ra ng e d . O ne o f the 25 p rize s o f the m a ritim e tra d e —o ne w hic h a ttra c te d suc h e a rly e xp lo re rs a s C o lum b us—w a s a c c e ss to the m a c e a nd c lo ve s o f the Sp ic e Isla nd s, the Mo luc c a s. So me a utho rs ha ve a rg ue d tha t the C hine se a c tua lly re a c he d the Mo luc c a s a s e a rly a s the Yua n Dyna sty, w hile o the rs ha ve re je c te d this id e a . The Yua n d yna sty a utho r Wa ng Da yua n (Ro c khill, 1914: 259–60) a nd e a rly Po rtug ue se so urc e s sa y tha t C hine se tra d e rs o nc e visite d Te rna te a nd Tid o re to b uy c lo ve s. Ba rro s he ld tha t the Mo luc c a ns live d like sa va g e s until C hine se junks b e g a n to a rrive to b uy the ir c lo ve s, p ro vid ing in e xc ha ng e the C hine se c a sh tha t b e c a m e the ir m a jo r c urre nc y. Eve ntua lly "the Ja va ne se a lso re sp o nd e d to the ir c o m m e rc e , a nd the C hine se sto p p e d c o m ing " [Jo a o d e Ba rro s, Da Asia , 1563, De c . 3, livro 1, 576–79]. O the r Po rtug ue se , Sp a nish, a nd Dutc h so urc e s re p o rt sim ila r sto rie s c irc ula ting a m o ng the Te rna ta ns. G a lva o , o ne o f the e a rlie st a nd m o st c a re ful o f the se , c o nc e d e s tha t the Te rna ta ns d iffe re d a s to w he the r the first junks a rriving fo r c lo ve s w e re C hine se , Ma la y, o r Ja va ne se . "Mo st o f the m inc line to w a rd s the vie w tha t it w a s the C hine se , a nd tha t se e m s to b e the truth" (G a lva o , A Tre a tise o n the Mo luc c a s [c . 1544] in Re id , 1996, n. 20). But b y the e a rly fifte e nth-c e ntury Ming p e rio d , the re is no ind ic a tio n o f d ire c t C hine se sa iling to the Mo luc c a s. Wha t ha p p e ne d ? Re id (1996) sug g e sts tha t Ma ja p a hit inc o rp o ra te d the C hine se sa ilo rs, b y the n la rg e ly re sid e nt in So uthe a st Asia a nd in the p ro c e ss o f b e c o m ing a b so rb e d into the lo c a l p o p ula tio ns, into the Ja va ne se ship p ing ind ustry. "'C hine se ' m e rc ha nts m a y no lo ng e r ha ve b e e n re p o rte d a s m a king the vo ya g e b e tw e e n Ja va a nd Ma luku b e c a use the y c e a se d to b e id e ntifie d a s suc h. The c o nfusio n o f Te rna ta ns a s to w he the r the e a rly tra d e rs w e re C hine se , Ma la ys, o r Ja va ne se w a s p ro b a b ly justifie d ." This is p la usib le , b ut no t c o m p le te ly c o nvinc ing . The e a rly fifte e nthc e ntury Ming vo ya g e s und e r Zhe ng He w e re Muslim -le d , so it se e m s like ly tha t so m e kno w le d g e o f this a nc e stry w o uld ha ve b e e n c o m m unic a te d to the m . It a lso c re a te s the im p lic a tio n tha t the Ja va ne se w e re le ss a w a re tha n C hine se o f the ro ute s to e a ste rn Ind o ne sia . Ano the r p o ssib ility is tha t the e a rly Ming p ro hib itio n a g a inst fo re ig n tra d e se ve re d the C hina -Mo luc c a s c o nne c tio n. 2.3.5 Chinese Communities in Southeast Asia O ur first w ritte n c o nfirm a tio n tha t so m e p e rm a ne nt c o m m unitie s o f C hine se in So uthe a st Asia ha d fo rm e d c o m e s fro m the a utho r Wa ng Da yua n, a tra d e r w ho sp e nt a num b e r o f ye a rs in So uthe a st Asia in the la te Yua n p e rio d . He m e ntio ns tw o suc h c o m m unitie s b ut d o e s so in suc h a n o ffha nd m a nne r a s to sug g e st tha t the y w e re so c o m m o n tha t the y d id no t d e se rve sp e c ia l a tte ntio n. In o ne c a se , he re p o rts tha t so m e C hine se fro m the Yua n d yna sty fle e t, o n its w a y to a tta c k Ja va , w e re ship w re c ke d , fe ll ill, a nd ha d b e e n le ft b e hind o n G o ula n Sha n (p o ssib ly the isla nd o f G e la m , o ff so uthw e st Bo rne o ). In his d a y, 40 ye a rs la te r, so m e m e n (o r the ir d e sc e nd a nts; "o ve r 100") "live m ixe d up w ith the na tive fa m ilie s" (Ro c khill, 1914: 261). A se c o nd re fe re nc e to o ve rse a s C hine se a p p e a rs in the c o nte xt o f his d e sc rip tio n o f the Lo ng ya m e n, a t "Dra g o n's To o th Stra it," the w e ste rn e ntra nc e to Ke p p e l Ha rb o r, Sing a p o re . Tha t lo c a tio n w a s kno w n a s a p a rtic ula rly d a ng e ro us p ira te la ir. Fro m his a c c o unt so m e C hine se live d the re , a ltho ug h it w o uld se e m m o re like ly tha t the y w e re re sid e nt a t Pa nc ur, his na m e fo r the se ttle m e nt o n the Sing a p o re Rive r, a b o ut 8 kilo m e te rs a w a y. By the e a rly fifte e nth c e ntury, se ve ra l o the r c o m m unitie s e xiste d in Sum a tra a nd Ja va ; it is like ly tha t the ir ro o ts g o b a c k a t le a st to the e nd o f the Yua n, fo r the insta lla tio n o f the Ming Dyna sty in 1368 w a s a c c o m p a nie d b y a to ta l b a n o n C hine se e m ig ra tio n. 26 2.4 Trade Commodities 2.4.1 Historical Sources The re a re fe w so urc e s w hic h c o nta in usa b le info rm a tio n o n C hina / So uthe a st Asia tra d e o f this p e rio d , la rg e ly d ue to the o ffic ia l p re jud ic e a g a inst c o m m e rc e e ve n d uring the re la tive ly fre e a tm o sp he re o f the So ng a nd Yua n Dyna sty. The Ling Wa i Da i Da , "Info rm a tio n o n Wha t is Be yo nd the Pa sse s,” b y Zho u Q ufe i (1178), ha s b e e n lo st b ut w a s q uo te d b y la te r so urc e s. The o ld e st w e ll-p re se rve d te xt w a s w ritte n b y the ha rb o rm a ste r o f G ua ng zho u, Zha o Rug ua , Zhu Fa n Zhi, "Re c o rd s o f Fo re ig n Pe o p le s,” in 1225. He d id no t le a ve C hina , b ut a c c um ula te d his info rm a tio n b y inte rvie w ing sa ilo rs. The m o st inte re sting te xt is the Da o Yi Zhi Lue [DYZL], the "De sc rip tio n o f the Ba rb a ria ns o f the Isle s" w ritte n b y Wa ng Da yua n, c o g no m e n Hua n-c ha ng , a na tive o f Na nc ha ng in Jia ng si, in 1349. This is the first in-d e p th a c c o unt o f So uthe a st Asia n tra d e w ritte n b y a n e ye w itne ss. Ano the r im p o rta nt C hine se re fe re nc e w o rk o n So uthe a st Asia n c o m m e rc e w a s w ritte n b y Ma G ua n, e ntitle d Ying -Ya i She ng -La n [YYSL], "A C o m p re he nsive Surve y o f the Sho re s o f the O c e a n," p ro b a b ly w ritte n b e tw e e n 1425-1432, b y a n o the rw ise unkno w n C hine se Muslim w ho kne w fo re ig n la ng ua g e s a nd w e nt a s inte rp re te r a nd re c o rd e r w ith the 1413 e xp e d itio n o f Zhe ng He . The Xing C ha She ng La n [ [XC SL] o r "De sc rip tio n o f the Sta rry Ra ft," w a s w ritte n b y Fe i Xin in 1436; he m a d e se ve ra l vo ya g e s w ith Zhe ng He , in a n unkno w n c a p a c ity. Be fo re the So uthe rn So ng , a ro m a tic w o o d s a nd re sins w e re the m o st so ug ht-a fte r Na nha i p ro d uc ts. During the So uthe rn So ng a nd Yua n, d e m a nd e xp a nd e d to inc lud e b ulk c o m m o d itie s suc h a s p e p p e r a nd a w id e ra ng e o f o the r c o m m o d itie s liste d in the te xts re fe re nc e d a b o ve . The lists c a nno t b e ta ke n a s c o m p re he nsive , ho w e ve r. In Wa ng , fo r e xa m p le , the e q uiva le nt o f “ e t c e te ra ” a p p e a rs a t the e nd o f the lists o f tra d e g o o d s. So m e p o rts, e .g ., Hua -m ie n, a sso c ia te d w ith the Ba ta k a re a o f no rth Sum a tra , a re id e ntifie d a s sto p s fo r p ro visio ning o nly, no t a s tra d ing p o rts. He re the ship s w o uld p urc ha se c a ttle , she e p , fo w ls, d uc ks, b e te l nuts, sug a rc a ne , sirih le a ve s, a nd c o tto n. The ship p e rs w o uld b a rte r iro n b a rs, b lue c o tto n c lo th, c o a rse b o w ls, a nd Q uzho ufu p o rc e la in. The C hine se a utho rs so m e tim e s w e re m ista ke n a b o ut w hic h p ro d uc ts w e re lo c a l a nd w hic h w e re re -e xp o rts. Zha o , fo r e xa m p le , kne w tha t Srivija ya w a s a g re a t so urc e o f Ara b p ro d uc ts suc h a s p e a rls, fra nkinc e nse , ro se w a te r, g a rd e nia flo w e rs, m yrrh, a lo e s, a sa -o e tid a , e tc . (Hirth a nd Ro c khill, 1911: 61). In o the r c a se s e rro rs d ue to the ina b ility to d isting uish b e tw e e n e xp o rts a nd re -e xp o rts ha ve c re p t in. 2.4.2 Commodities Traded Within Southeast Asia Fo llo w ing is a list o f c o m m o d itie s tra d e d b e tw e e n va rio us p o rts in So uthe a st Asia a s no te d in the a b o ve -m e ntio ne d so urc e s. So m e a re C hine se p ro d uc ts, w hile o the rs a re g o o d s c a rrie d b y tra d e rs fro m o utsid e the re g io n. G la ss b e a d s Ta ffe ta s Silk Bro c a d e s Silve r Tin Sa lt Music a l instrum e nts C o ra l b e a d s Da m a sk Sa tin Muslin Me rc ury Be te l nuts Sp irits Wo o d e n c o m b s 27 C o tto n C hintz Pa to la c lo th G o ld Bo ra x C o w rie she lls La c q ue rw a re Pe p p e r Ro se w a te r Alum Rhino c e ro s ho rns To rto ise she ll Sa p a n w o o d Sa nd a l w o o d King fishe rs’ fe a the rs Ra tta n Pe a rls C lo ve s Ma ts C a m p ho r Brim sto ne Hid e s Iro n G ha ru w o o d C a la m b a c w o o d Dra g o n’ s b lo o d Be e sw a x C o c o nuts Ma c e G yp sum Sulp hur Ivo ry La ka w o o d Ro se w o o d C a rd a m o n G e ms Am b e rg ris Nutm e g Pa nd a nus 2.4.3 Commodities on the Java Sea Wreck The tw o m a in c o m m o d itie s, iro n a nd c e ra m ic s, a re tre a te d in Se c tio ns 8.0 a nd 9.0, re sp e c tive ly. 2.4.3.1 Ivory So urc e s o f ivo ry a nd ro ute s fo r the ivo ry tra d e d uring the So ng d yna sty. Wild e le p ha nts w e re still fo und in so uth Fujia n until A.D. 1050, a nd in Yunna n until A.D. 1388 (Ara sa ra tna m , 1991). Ho w e ve r, ivo ry w a s im p o rte d to C hina fro m a t le a st a s e a rly a s the te nth c e ntury a s a m a jo r ite m o f trib uta ry tra d e . No rthe rn Vie tna m se nt la rg e q ua ntitie s o n ne a rly e ve ry m issio n. In the ye a r 980, “ 100 tusks o f ivo ry” w e re se nt; in 1164, “ 30 p ie c e s o f ivo ry tusks” ; a nd in 1177, “ 70 ivo ry tusks.” In 1173, 11 d o m e stic e le p ha nts w e re se nt to C hina a s trib ute . C ha m p a (c e ntra l Vie tna m ) se nt 168 ivo ry tusks in 1155. The Srivija ya e m p ire o f so uthe rn Sum a tra se nt 87 tusks w e ig hing 4,065 ka tis in 1156, a nd a furthe r 60 tusks in 1178. Ivo ry w a s se nt fro m a s fa r a s Afric a via Ara b tra d e rs. The Ab b a sid d yna sty o f Ara b ia se nt “ 209 p ie c e s o f b ig ivo ry tusks” in 1131 (Wo ng , 1979). Ivo ry, a c c o rd ing to Zha o , c a m e fro m Anna m , Re d Rive r, C a m b o d ia , the e a st c o a st o f the Ma la y Pe ninsula , Sum a tra , a nd Ja va (the la tte r lie s o utsid e the e le p ha nt's ra ng e a nd in re a lity m ust ha ve re -e xp o rte d ivo ry). 28 Whilst the p rim a ry c a rg o o n the Ja va Se a Wre c k w a s iro n a nd c e ra m ic s fro m C hina , the ivo ry c a rg o stro ng ly sug g e sts tha t the ship sto p p e d a t a p o rt, o r p o rts, a lo ng the ro ute fro m C hina to Ja va fo r se c o nd a ry tra d e . The ivo ry m a y ha ve c o m e fro m Vie tna m , Tha ila nd o r Sum a tra . 2.4.3.2 Resin Da m a r is the Ma la y na m e fo r a w id e ra ng e o f re sins. The re sin re c o ve re d fro m the Ja va Se a Wre c k ha s no t b e e n id e ntifie d . The re a re , in fa c t, o ve r a tho usa nd sp e c ie s o f re sinp ro d uc ing p la nts in So uthe a st Asia , so id e ntific a tio n is p ro b le m a tic . The m o st c o m m o nly tra d e d re sin w a s Styra x b e nzo in , w hic h is ta p p e d fro m a sp e c ie s o f tre e tha t o c c urs in Sum a tra , Ma la ysia a nd w e ste rn Ja va , b ut it w a s o nly c ultiva te d in Sum a tra . Ib n Ba ttuta m e ntio ns it a s a p ro d uc t o f Sum a tra in the fo urte e nth c e ntury. Whe a tly (1959: 55-59) m e ntio ns tha t b e nzo in w a s b e ing tra d e d no rth to C hina b y the e ig hth o r ninth c e nturie s A.D. Zha o sa ys it w a s im p o rte d fro m C a m b o d ia , a nd ship p e d to C hina in p o rc e la in [sto ne w a re ? ] ve sse ls. Wa ng surp rising ly d o e s no t m e ntio n it a t a ll. The YYSL lists it o nly a s a p ro d uc t o f Ma la c c a . Thro ug ho ut Asia , re sin w a s b urnt a s a n o ffe ring , o r a s a w a y o f c a lling c e rta in sp irits to the a id o f a he a le r. In Ma la y c ulture it w a s im p o rta nt fo r ric e p la nting a nd re a p ing ritua ls in w hic h the sup p lic a nt is trying to c o a x the ric e sp irit to sta y a nd a llo w a n a b und a nt ha rve st. The p re se nc e o f re sin a s a n ite m o f c a rg o o n the Ja va Se a Wre c k is ve ry c le a r e vid e nc e o f se c o nd a ry tra d e d uring the vo ya g e fro m C hina . And a p o rt in Sum a tra is the m o st p ro b a b le c a nd id a te , p o ssib ly the sa m e p o rt a t w hic h the ivo ry w a s lo a d e d . 2.4.3.3 Glass This m a te ria l w a s m e ntio ne d a s a n im p o rt to C hina in A.D. 80 in the Ha n Shu; c o lle c te d b y "c hie f inte rp re te rs a tta c he d to the Ye llo w G a te [e unuc hs se rving in the p a la c e ] w ho g o to se a w ith the m e n w ho a nsw e r the ir a p p e a l [fo r a c re w ] to b uy b rig ht p e a rls, p i-liu-li [o p a q ue g la ss], ra re sto ne s a nd stra ng e thing s, ta king w ith the m g o ld a nd va rio us fine silks to o ffe r in e xc ha ng e ." (Wa ng , p . 19). Zha o fo und Ara b g la ssw a re b e tte r tha n C hine se g la ss b e c a use it w a s he a t re sista nt, le ss b rittle , a nd so m e tim e s d e c o ra te d w ith e ng ra ving s. He sa ys (p . 227) "Liu-li [g la ss] c o m e s fro m se ve ra l o f the c o untrie s o f the Ta -shï. The m e tho d fo llo w e d in m e lting it is the sa m e a s tha t o f C hina , tha t is to sa y, it is m a d e b y b urning o xid e o f le a d , nitra te o f p o ta sh, a nd g yp sum . To the se m a te ria ls the Ta -shï a d d so uthe rn b o ra x, w hic h c a use s the g la ss to b e e la stic w itho ut b e ing b rittle , a nd ind iffe re nt to te m p e ra ture , so tha t o ne m a y p ut it in w a te r fo r a lo ng tim e w itho ut sp o iling it. It is, the re fo re , m o re va lua b le tha n the C hine se p ro d uc t." A se ve nth-c e ntury so urc e sa ys tha t Funa n ship s b ro ug ht g la ss m irro rs to C hina (Hirth a nd Ro c khill, 1911: 228). Id risi the Ara b m e ntio ns the m a nufa c ture o f g la ss in C hina , a t Kha nfu, Ha ng zho u. A trib uta ry m issio n to C hina in 1156 b ro ug ht We st Asia n c e ra m ic s, 4 g la ss ve sse ls o f Ara b ia n sug a r, a nd 16 g la ss ve sse ls o f Ara b ia n d a te s. In 1178, 4 g la ss ve sse ls o f fo re ig n sug a r, 3 g la ss ve sse ls o f fo re ig n d a te s, a nd 4 g la ss ve sse ls o f g a rd e nia flo w e rs w e re b ro ug ht (Ho C huim e i, 1994). X-ra y flo re sc e nc e a na lysis o f the fe w g la ss o b je c ts fo und o n the Ja va Se a ship w re c k ind ic a te tha t the y c a m e fro m tw o o rig ins. A d im p le d g la ss b a se o f a ve sse l, sim ila r to a 29 Euro p e a n o nio n b o ttle , is c le a rly o f C hine se m a nufa c ture (se e Se c tio n 7.10). The re is o nly o ne re fe re nc e in Zha o to C hine se g la ss e xp o rts: b e a d s a nd b o ttle s w e re se nt to Bo rne o . In the DYZL, o nly g la ss b e a d s a re liste d a s ha ving b e e n e xp o rte d . A la rg e q ua ntity o f C hine se g la ss fra g m e nts o f b o ttle s a nd o the r c o nta ine rs ha s b e e n fo und in a fo urte e nth-c e ntury site in Sing a p o re . A ve ry fe w inta c t e xa m p le s o f the sa m e p e rio d ha ve b e e n re c o ve re d fro m b uria l site s in Ria u. It se e m s tha t o the r tha n b e a d s, ho w e ve r, C hine se g la ss w a s no t a c o m m o n e xp o rt d uring the So ng -Yua n e ra . In a re c e nt stud y b y a C hine se sc ho la r (An, 1996), the a utho r o nly d isc usse s the tra d e o f g la ss into C hina , a nd d o e s no t m e ntio n a ny e xp o rts. Ana lysis o f a fra g m e nt o f c rum b ly g re e n a nd ye llo w g la ss fro m the w re c k ind ic a te s tha t it is a lm o st c e rta inly no t o f C hine se o rig in (se e Se c tio n 7.10). While the re is no firm e vid e nc e o f g la ss m a nufa c turing fro m p rim a ry m a te ria ls a nyw he re in So uthe a st Asia d uring the p re -m o d e rn p e rio d , it is stro ng ly susp e c te d tha t the Ja va ne se in the la te first m ille nnium A.D. e ng a g e d in this a c tivity. If this fra g m e nt w a s no t fro m Ind ia o r the Mid d le Ea st, it m a y ha ve b e e n m a d e in Ja va . 2.5 The Monetary System 2.5.1 The Monetization of China The e c o no m y o f C hina b e g a n to b e m o ne tize d a fte r the An Lu-sha n Re b e llio n in A.D. 755. Fo r m a king b ro nze , C hina ha d to im p o rt tin, b ut d o m e stic d e p o sits o f c o p p e r w e re re la tive ly num e ro us. O f C hina 's c o p p e r p ro d uc ing d istric ts, five o r six w e re lo c a te d in the Khita n (no rthe rn) a re a , 26 in the so uthe rn So ng a re a . The Khita n a nd Xixia king d o m s use d So ng c o ins ra the r tha n m inting the ir o w n. During the no rthe rn So ng p e rio d the re w e re o ve r 100 C hine se c o p p e r m ine s in p ro d uc tio n. A g ra d ua l shift o f c o p p e r m ining c e nte rs fro m Fujia n a nd G ua ng d o ng to Huna n c a n b e o b se rve d ; this is p ro b a b ly d ue to the e xha ustio n o f the e a rlie r m ine s (C h'e n, 1965: 615). In C hina , c o p p e r w a s use d fo r tw o c o m p e ting p urp o se s: to c a st c e re m o nia l a nd ho use ho ld g o o d s; a nd a s m o ne y. The g o ve rnm e nt trie d to re stric t the p riva te use o f c o p p e r; a n e d ic t o f A.D. 960 b y the la st e m p e ro r o f La te r Zho u sta te d tha t "a p a rt fro m c e re m o nia l o b je c ts a nd w e a p o ns a nd suc h a rtic le s a s b e lls, c ym b a ls, a nd ha nd b e lls use d in te m p le s, o the r c o p p e r w a re a nd sta tue tte s m ust b e surre nd e re d to lo c a l o ffic ia ls w ithin 50 d a ys a t a n e stim a te d p ric e . Tho se w ho fa il to o b e y w ill b e p unishe d b y d e a th if the a m o unt o f c o p p e r se c re tly ke p t a t ho m e e xc e e d s five c a ttie s." The sa m e p ro c la m a tio n w a s re p e a te d in 969 a nd a g a in in 977. "Be c a use o f the a c ute sho rta g e o f the m e ta l, in the 976–83 p e rio d p e o p le w e re d ig g ing up c o p p e r a rtic le s fro m a nc ie nt to m b s o r d e stro ying Bud d hist sta tue s in o rd e r to o b ta in c o p p e r fo r illic it m inting " (C h'e n, 1965: 617), a nd a n e d ic t issue d in 991 "fo rb id d ing p e o p le fro m m e lting d o w n c o ins fo r m a nufa c turing p urp o se s" a c kno w le d g e s the p ro b le m . Afte r a p e rio d o f re la tive b a la nc e b e tw e e n sup p ly a nd d e m a nd fo r c o p p e r, the p ro b le m a ro se a g a in in the m id -tw e lfth c e ntury. To se t a n e xa m p le , the e m p e ro r in 1154 g a ve the m int 1,500 b ro nze a rtic le s fro m his p a la c e c o lle c tio n to m e lt d o w n. In a d d itio n, 2,000,000 c a ttie s o f b ro nze ite m s w e re p ro c ure d fro m the p e o p le . Bra ss a nd b ro nze ite m s use d in te m p le s ha d to b e re g iste re d a nd w e re sub je c t to ta x (C h'e n, 1965: 618). The issue o f c o ins in C hina c a n b e p lo tte d fo r so m e ye a rs. The fo llo w ing ta b le (fro m C h'e n, 1965: 619, ta b le 3) g ive s so m e d a ta fo r the num b e rs o f c o ins m inte d in p a rtic ula r p e rio d s. 30 Ta ng Dyna sty: 742–56: 804–05: 820–21: 834–5: No rthe rn So ng : 327,000 135,000 150,000 100,000 995-8: 1000-1: 1007-08: 1016-17: 1021-2: 1023-32: 1041-9: 1049-54: 1064-8: 1073-4: 1080-1: 1106-7: 1124-5: So uthe rn So ng : 800,000 1,350,000 1,830,000 1,250,000 1,050,000 1,000,000 3,000,000 1,400,000 1,700,000 6,000,000 5,949,234 2,890,000 3,000,000 1131: 1132-3: 1155: 1156: 1157: 80,000 100,000 140,000 220,000 230,000 "The So uthe rn So ng suffe re d a lm o st c o ntinuo us infla tio n. The sm a llne ss o f the fig ure s is d ue to the e xc lusio n o f 'b ig c o ins', iro n c o ins, a nd p a p e r no te s. In a p e rio d o f se rio us c o p p e r sho rta g e the sta nd a rd c a sh c o uld ha ve b e e n issue d o nly in sm a ll q ua ntitie s" (C h'e n, 1965: 619620). A p ro c e ss o f d e b a se m e nt c a n a lso b e d e te c te d in So ng c o ins (C h'e n, 1965): C o p p e r c o nte nt o f So ng c a sh: 976: 1019: 1035: 1135: p o st-1135: 65.5% 64.5% 60% 60% 54% An a llo y kno w n a s d a n-tung , e sse ntia lly a c o p p e r sulp ha te so lutio n, w a s a lso use d to c o p p e r-p la te iro n c o ins. Fo r So uthe a st Asia ns b e fo re the tw e lfth c e ntury, C hine se c o ins re p re se nte d no m o re tha n a c o nve nie nt so urc e o f b ro nze . As e a rly a s 1074 a n o ffic ia l c o m p la ine d tha t c a rtlo a d s o f c o ins w e re c ro ssing C hina 's fro ntie rs. The So ng trie d to p ush the e xp o rt o f silk a s a w a y o f o ffse tting the unfa vo ra b le b a la nc e o f tra d e . Be tw e e n 1160 a nd 1265 the e xp o rt o f c a sh w a s fo rb id d e n te n tim e s, Ja va b e ing sp e c ific a lly m e ntio ne d o nc e . In a d d itio n to re p e a te d injunc tio ns a g a inst the e xp o rt o f c o ins, in 1293 p riva te tra d e in g o ld , silve r, iro nw a re , m ilita ry e q uip m e nt, a nd so o n w a s fo rb id d e n. In 1296 the e xp o rt o f g o ld a nd silve r w a s a g a in fo rb id d e n. Ano the r instruc tive se t o f q ua ntita tive d a ta c o nc e rns the e d ic ts tha t so ug ht to ste m the he m o rrha g e o f c o ina g e fro m C hina . The list sho w s tha t d uring the So ng Dyna sty the m a in so urc e s o f the le a k shifte d fro m the no rth to the so uth b o rd e r. Lo c a tio ns c ite d in injunc tio ns a g a inst c o in e xp o rts issue d d uring the So ng Dyna sty (C h'e n, 1965: 621): Ye a r/ Pro hib ite d a re a 960 - no rth o f G re a t Wa ll, so uthe rn b a rb a ria n re g io ns 970 - a ll b a rb a ria n re g io ns 1041 - o utsid e the e m p ire 1085 - o utsid e the e m p ire 1091 - o utsid e the e m p ire 31 1165 1178 1182 1198 1212 1216 1234 1244 1250 1252 1253 - o utsid e the e m p ire o utsid e the e m p ire G ua ng zho u, Q ua nzho u, Ming zho u, Suzho u a ll se a p o rts a ll Ya ng zi p o rts o nly iro n c o ins a llo w e d in fro ntie r a re a a ll se a p o rts a ll se a p o rts a ll se a p o rts a ll se a p o rts a ll se a p o rts The So uthe rn So ng b e g a n issuing p a p e r m o ne y in 1121, b ut b e c a use it w a s no t se c ure d b y m e ta llic re se rve s it b e c a m e g re a tly d e p re c ia te d . Khub la i Kha n a lso b e g a n to issue p a p e r m o ne y in 1260. This p a p e r m o ne y m a d e its w a y to suc h d ista nt p la c e s a s Wutie h in Ind ia , a c c o rd ing to Wa ng Da yua n. 2.5.2 The Monetization of Indonesia The e c o no m y o f Ja va b e g a n to b e m o ne tize d a ro und the sa m e tim e a s tha t o f C hina . Silve r c o ins w ith a d e sig n b a se d o n the sa nd a lw o o d flo w e r m o tif o rig ina te d in c e ntra l Ja va , p e rha p s a ro und A.D. 800, a nd sp re a d fro m the re to Sum a tra a nd the isthm ia n a re a o f the Ma la y Pe ninsula . At le a st o ne e xa m p le ha s b e e n fo und a s fa r a w a y a s Fo sta t, Eg yp t, in a tw e lfthc e ntury c o nte xt. It is no t kno w n w he n Srivija ya in so uth Sum a tra b e g a n to issue c o ina g e ; no sp e c im e ns o f na tive c o ina g e ha ve b e e n re p o rte d fro m the vic inity o f Pa le m b a ng , b ut Pa le m b a ng ha s b e e n ve ry c urso rily e xc a va te d . Thre e g o ld sa nd a lw o o d -flo w e r c o ins w e re fo und a t a te m p le site a t Mua ra Ja m b i, a s p a rt o f a fo und a tio n d e p o sit tha t p ro b a b ly d a te s fro m the e le ve nth o r tw e lfth c e ntury. Ac c o rd ing to the DYZL, in Ja va the y c a st c o ins o f a n a llo y o f silve r, tin, le a d , a nd c o p p e r, "the size o f a se c tio n o f a sm a ll c o nc h she ll. The y a re c a lle d 'silve r c o ins,' a nd a re use d in b usine ss tra nsa c tio ns in e xc ha ng e fo r [C hine se ] c o p p e r c a sh" (Ro c khill, 1914: 237). Silve r c o ins a re ra re in Sum a tra , in c o ntra st to Ja va . The o nly sig nific a nt d isc o ve ry o f silve r c o ins is a c a c he o f 79 fo und a t Krui, Be ng kulu, in 1904 (Wic ks, 1985: 219). O the r m a jo r find s o f sa nd a lw o o d flo w e r c o ins, a t Ba rus a nd Be ng kulu, ha ve b e e n o f g o ld . Tin c o ins w e re use d in Sum e nd a la , Ac e h (YYSL). The tin c o ins w e re the m a in c urre nc y use d in tra d ing , b ut the y a lso c a st g o ld c o ins c a lle d d ina r. The Hsi Ya ng C ha o Kung Tie n Lu sa ys in a no te tha t "The y c a st a c o in o f p a le g o ld a n inc h a nd 5 te nths in d ia m e te r a nd o n b o th sid e s o f w hic h the re a re d e sig ns. It w e ig hs 3 c a nd a re e ns 5 li. O ne a utho rity sa ys tha t 48 o f the m is e q ua l to o ne ta e l fo ur c a nd a re e ns in g o ld ." (Ro c khill, 1914: 154, n. 1.) In 1079, a Srivija ya n e m b a ssy w a s g ive n 64,000 string s o f c a sh. The se d o no t se e m to ha ve fo und the ir w a y into c irc ula tio n, ho w e ve r; the y w e re p ro b a b ly m e lte d d o w n a nd use d fo r so m e o the r p urp o se . So m e tim e w ithin a fe w ye a rs o f 1300, the Ja va ne se a d o p te d C hine se c o p p e r c o ina g e a s a n o ffic ia l m e d ium o f e xc ha ng e , a la nd m a rk in the inte ra c tio n b e tw e e n the inte rna l e c o no m y o f Ind o ne sia a nd its links w ith C hina . C hine se c o ins ha d a lre a d y b e e n in use a s m o ne y in a fe w p o rts in Sum a tra a nd e lse w he re in So uthe a st Asia a s m uc h a s a c e ntury e a rlie r, b ut the 32 c o nve rsio n o f the Ja va ne se e c o no m y c a n b e vie w e d a s a sig nific a nt w a te rshe d in the e vo lutio n o f So uthe a st Asia n so c ie ty. Mo ne tiza tio n ha d p e rha p s re a c he d a sta g e b e yo nd w hic h it c o uld no t e vo lve furthe r w itho ut a n e ffic ie nt b a se -m e ta l c o ina g e , w hic h C hine se m o ne y w a s a b le to p ro vid e . The a m o unt o f C hine se c o ina g e in So uthe a st Asia m ust ha ve b e e n c o nsid e ra b le . The Ja va ne se insc rip tio ns shift a lm o st o ve rnig ht fro m q uo ting m o ne ta ry a m o unts in Ja va ne se c urre nc y to C hine se p ic is. Ne ve rthe le ss, Wa ng Da yua n in the la te Yua n m e ntio ne d tha t, in his d a y, C hine se c o ins w e re ro utine ly e xc ha ng e d w ith na tive c o ins (Ro c khill, 1914: 236), so na tive c o ins m ust still ha ve b e e n in c irc ula tio n. The c o m ing o f Isla m to Sum a tra in the e a rly fo urte e nth c e ntury intro d uc e d a ne w fo rm o f c o ina g e . "By the e a rly fifte e nth c e ntury this c o ina g e w o uld b e c o m e the c o m m e rc ia l a nd a c c o unting sta nd a rd thro ug ho ut isla nd So uthe a st Asia , a p o sitio n it m a inta ine d fo r m o re tha n tw o hund re d ye a rs" (Wic ks, 1993). C hine se c o ins no lo ng e r fo rm e d the b a sis o f tra d e . 33 3. ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROGRAM b y Mic hae l Fle c ke r 3.1 Archaeological Objectives The p rim a ry a rc ha e o lo g ic a l o b je c tive s o f this p ro je c t w e re to d o c um e nt a s m uc h o f the w re c k site a s p o ssib le , c o m m e nsura te w ith a c tua l site c o nd itio ns, a nd the n to use tha t d o c um e nta tio n a nd fo llo w -up re se a rc h to a ssig n the ship w re c k a p la c e in histo ry. A p re lim ina ry inve stig a tio n o f the w re c k site ind ic a te d a p rim a ry c a rg o o f iro n a nd So ng Dyna sty c e ra m ic s. Be fo re the e xc a va tio n c o m m e nc e d , re se a rc h w a s und e rta ke n to d isc o ve r m o re a b o ut thirte e nth-c e ntury tra d e thro ug ho ut Asia , a s w e ll a s C hine se a nd So uthe a st Asia n ship b uild ing te c hniq ue s a t the tim e . By kno w ing w ha t to e xp e c t in te rm s o f a rtifa c ts a nd hull struc ture , e xc a va tio n, d o c um e nta tio n, c o nse rva tio n, a nd sto ra g e c o uld b e p la nne d w ith sp e c ific s in m ind . Ac tua l find s a lw a ys d iffe r to so m e e xte nt fro m e xp e c ta tio ns, b ut it is a w o rthw hile e xe rc ise to find o ut a s m uc h a s p o ssib le a b o ut a site b e fo re it is d isturb e d . O nc e a w re c k site is e xc a va te d , the re is no g o ing b a c k. Any info rm a tio n no t re c o rd e d is lo st fo re ve r. The tw o m o st im p o rta nt d e ta ils to re c o rd b e fo re a n a rtifa c t o r struc tura l e le m e nt is m o ve d a re p o sitio n a nd c o nte xt. With the se , a nd a g o o d und e rsta nd ing o f site c o nd itio ns, the site c a n b e re c o nstruc te d o n p a p e r, w ith a c o m p ute r, o r b y m o d e ling to d e te rm ine c a rg o sto w a g e p a tte rns, ve sse l la yo ut, c o nstruc tio n te c hniq ue s, c re w a nd p a sse ng e r d isp o sitio ns, a nd the w re c king p ro c e ss. O n a w e ll-d e fine d a nd und isturb e d site it is d e sira b le a nd o fte n fe a sib le to p lo t p re c ise p o sitio ns fo r a ll sig nific a nt a rtifa c ts. Unfo rtuna te ly, the Ja va Se a Wre c k site w a s hig hly d isturb e d , la rg e ly b y the na tura l w re c king p ro c e ss, a s d e sc rib e d in Se c tio n 5.0. It w o uld ha ve b e e n a n im p o ssib le ta sk to re c o rd the ind ivid ua l p o sitio ns o f te ns o f tho usa nd s o f c e ra m ic s sp re a d o ve r a n a re a o f 70 x 55 m . Inste a d , the a re a w a s d ivid e d into 5 x 5 m g rid -sq ua re s (134 in to ta l) a nd c e ra m ic s p o sitio ns w e re re c o rd e d b y g rid -sq ua re . Ap a rt fro m a fe w fist-size d c hunks o f e ro d e d w o o d , no thing w ha tso e ve r re m a ine d o f the ship itse lf. In its p la c e w e re m a ssive iro n c o nc re tio ns tha t c o nc re te d to g e the r b e fo re the hull d isinte g ra te d . All tha t c o uld b e le a rne d o f the ship ’ s la yo ut ha d to b e g le a ne d fro m the c o nfig ura tio n o f the iro n c o nc re tio ns. As a re sult, the y w e re p ho to g ra p he d , vid e o ta p e d , m e a sure d , a nd (in ve ry sm a ll a re a s) c a re fully d isse c te d . A p ho to m o sa ic w a s a lso c o nstruc te d , b ut d ue to c ha ng e s in ve rtic a l re lie f a nd m e d io c re visib ilty, it c a nno t b e inte rp re te d q ua ntita tive ly. Sc a tte r o f c e ra mic s o n the se a b e d p rio r to e xc a va tio n. The a rtifa c ts the m se lve s m ust b e sta b ilize d a nd c o nse rve d . It is the a rtifa c ts tha t p ro vid e so m uc h info rm a tio n o n tra d e p a tte rns, a nc ie nt te c hno lo g y, c ultura l inte ra c tio ns, life o n b o a rd , a nd life in g e ne ra l a t the tim e o f the lo ss. The a rtifa c ts a nd the ir c o nstitue nt m a te ria ls w e re stud ie d in d e ta il. Fo llo w -up re se a rc h w a s und e rta ke n. Muc h w a s le a rne d , a s d e ta ile d in the fo llo w ing se c tio ns. 34 TABLE 3.1 ARC HAEO LO G IC AL PRO C EDURE FLO W C HART Re se a rc h Surve ys Exc a va tio n Re c o rd ing C o nse rva tio n Re sults Tra d e / Ec o no m ic Ba c kg ro und Pre Disturb a nc e Surve y Artifa c t Lo c a tio n Re c o rd ing Uniq ue Artifa c t Num b e rs Assig ne d C o nse rva tio n of Artifa c ts Ma jo r Arc ha e o lo g ic a l Re p o rt Artifa c t In-Situ Vid e o s/ Stills C o m p ute r Im a g ing Arc ha e o lo g ic a l Illustra tio ns Sp e c ia l Stud ie s Te c hnic a l Re p o rts Syste m a tic Exc a va tio n Me a sure m e nts C o m p ute r Im a g ing / Vid e o Pro fe ssio na l a nd Po p ula r Artic le s Artifa c t Re c o ve ry Artifa c t To p o lo g ic a l C la ssific a tio n Artifa c ts Sto re d To p o lo g ic a lly Pre se nta tio ns (Vid e o / Slid e s) Enviro nm e nta l Do c um e nta tio n Inp ut Arc ha e o lo g ic a l Da ta Ve sse l C o nstruc tio n a nd Fitting s Pre se nt Le g a l a nd C o ntra c tua l Re g io na l Enviro nm e nta l C o nd itio ns Surve y/ Re c o ve ry/ Do c um e nta tio n Me tho d o lo g y Pa c ific Se a Re so urc e s 3.2 Recovery Vessel and Diving Systems 3.2.1 Recovery Vessel 35 The 53 m lo ng a c c o m m o d a tio n/ d ive sup p o rt b a rg e , ABEX TS, w a s hire d fo r the e xc a va tio n. This b a rg e w ith its sp a c io us c o ve re d a c c o m m o d a tio n a re a , a m p le d e c k sp a c e , a nd hig h-c a p a c ity w a te r a nd fue l ta nks w a s a n e xc e lle nt w o rk p la tfo rm fo r a tw o - to thre e m o nth p ro je c t w ith m inim a l sho re sup p o rt. G e ne ra l a rra ng e me nt o f DSB, ABEX TS. The a c c o m m o d a tio n a re a c o nsiste d o f sle e p ing q ua rte rs fo r up to thirty p e rso nne l, tw o a b lutio n c a b ins, a g a lle y a nd m e ss, a d ry-sto re c o nta ine r, a nd a la rg e o ffic e . The o ffic e ho use d the c o m p ute r a nd vid e o syste m s use d fo r d a ta re c o rd ing , to g e the r w ith the c ha rts a nd d ra w ing s ne e d e d fo r the d a y-to -d a y m o nito ring o f e xc a va tio n w o rk. An SSB ra d io insta lle d in the up p e rle ve l a c c o m m o d a tio n p ro vid e d a w o rld w id e c o m m unic a tio ns link via Ja ka rta a nd Sing a p o re Ra d io . Fo rw a rd o f the a c c o m m o d a tio n w e re the p e rm a ne ntly insta lle d b o sun’ s sto re c o nta ine r, c o m p re sso r/ w o rksho p c o nta ine r, d ive c ha m b e r/ c o ntro l p a ne l c o nta ine r, a nd b o w -m o unte d Afra m e . 36 ABEX TS mo o re d o ve r the site . ABEX TS a c c o mmo d a tio n. All o nb o a rd fa c ilitie s w e re p o w e re d b y a 195 KVA a nd a 125 KVA g e ne ra to r, w hic h w e re ro ta te d o n a tw e lve -ho ur b a sis, the sm a lle r unit b e ing use d fo r the nig ht sup p ly. Tw o 390 c fm lo w -p re ssure ind ustria l c o m p re sso rs w e re insta lle d ne a r the b o w to run the a ir lifts a nd thre e a irtug g e r w inc he s, 1 x 1 to n, 1 x 2 to n, a nd 1 x 5 to n. O ne c o m p re sso r w a s suffic ie nt to run a ll syste m s, w hile the se c o nd p ro vid e d full b a c kup . The y w e re a lte rna te d o n a thre e -d a y c yc le . A fo ur-p o int m o o ring syste m , run o ff tw o hyd ra ulic d o ub le -d rum w inc he s, e na b le d the b a rg e to b e m a ne uve re d p re c ise ly o ve r the g rid b e ing w o rke d . The g ro und ta c kle fo r e a c h m o o ring p o int c o nsiste d o f a thre e -to n sto c kle ss a nc ho r c o nne c te d to a p e nna nt b uo y b y 27 m o f stud -link c ha in a nd 40 m o f 25 m m p e nna nt w ire . The b a rg e ’ s 25 m m m o o ring w ire ra n thro ug h fa irle a d s to the p e nna nt b uo y. The a nc ho r p a tte rn re q uire d a ve ry w id e sp re a d , so tha t the b a rg e c o uld b e m o ve d a nyw he re o ve r the 70 m lo ng w re c k site w itho ut ha ving to re d e p lo y a nc ho rs. Thre e -to n a nc ho r re a d y fo r d e p lo yme nt. Ta king up sla c k o n a mo o ring winc h . Anc ho r p e nna nt b uo y. 37 Five c o nta ine rs w e re lo a d e d o nto the fo rw a rd d e c k, tw o o f the m d o ub le sta c ke d . Thre e c o nta ine d p a c king m a te ria l fo r the c e ra m ic s fro m the w re c k; o ne w a s fo r p a c king a nd sto ring the c e ra m ic s; a nd o ne w a s a n a rtifa c t sto re a nd c o nse rva tio n a re a . Be fo re d e p a rting fro m Sing a p o re , 300 to ns o f p o ta b le w a te r, 100 to ns o f w a shing w a te r, a nd 80 to ns o f d ie se l fue l w e re lo a d e d into the fo ur d e sig na te d ta nks, suffic ie nt fo r a n e xte nd e d o p e ra tio n w itho ut re sup p ly fro m sho re . Lo a d ing sto re s o nto the b a rg e . The ABEX TS w a s to w e d b e tw e e n Sing a p o re a nd the w re c k site in the Ja va Se a b y the 660 BHP tug ATSA I. A ste a d y five kno ts w a s a c hie ve d b o th w a ys in m o d e ra te w e a the r c o nd itio ns. The ATSA I a ssiste d w ith a nc ho r ha nd ling a nd re m a ine d o n sta nd b y thro ug ho ut the p ro je c t. Eng ine ro o m o f ATSA I. Tug a nd a nc ho r ha nd le r, ATSA I. A 10 m lo ng Ind o ne sia n fishing b o a t w a s hire d to fe rry te m p o ra ry p e rso nne l to a nd fro m Ja ka rta , 115 na utic a l m ile s to the so uth, a nd to sup p ly fre sh fruit, ve g e ta b le s a nd sp a re p a rts. The trip typ ic a lly to o k 19 ho urs a nd o c c urre d o n a ve ra g e o nc e e ve ry te n d a ys. An Ind o ne sia n fishing b o a t use d fo r re sup p ly . 38 3.2.2 Diving Systems Diving System On Board DSB ABEX TS LP Compressor HP Compressor HP Quad HP Compressor Oxygen Quad Communications Communications Single Scuba Tanks Double Tanks Aquarium 2 Recompression Chamber Dive Panel Air Communications Kluge Scuba Divers O2 Regulator Down Line Stage KMB Divers The w re c k la y in 26 m o f w a te r, a n id e a l d e p th fo r surfa c e -sup p lie d -a ir d iving w ith surfa c e d e c o m p re ssio n o n o xyg e n. With a c o re o f tw e lve surfa c e sup p ly d ive rs, the first p a ir le a ving the surfa c e the m o m e nt the sun c re p t a b o ve the ho rizo n a nd the la st p a ir le a ving the d e c o m p re ssio n c ha m b e r just a fte r d a rk, tw e nty d ive r ho urs o f b o tto m tim e w e re a c hie ve d o n a d a ily b a sis. De c o mp re ssio n c ha mb e r o p e ra tio ns. The c o mp re ssio n ro o m. 39 The d iving sp re a d w a s m o unte d a t the b o w o f the b a rg e , so the b a rg e w a s m o o re d w ith the ste rn fa c ing the p re va iling w e a the r in o rd e r to p ut the b o w in the le e . The m a in e q uip m e nt w a s insta lle d in tw o 20 ft c o nta ine rs. The fo rw a rd c o nta ine r, w ith a c le a r vie w o f the w o rking d e c k, ho use d a tw o -d ive r a ir-c o ntro l p a ne l a nd a 48 in d o ub le lo c k De c k De c o m p re ssio n C ha m b e r (DDC ). The se c o nd c o nta ine r ho use d a n 86 c fm lo w -p re ssure c o m p re sso r, a 9 c fm hig hp re ssure c o m p re sso r, an 8-c ylind e r e m e rg e nc y a ir b a nk, a nd w o rksho p a nd O xyg e n ra c ks fo r surfa c e d e c o mp re ssio n. sto ra g e sp a c e . In a ro w a lo ng sid e b o th c o nta ine rs w e re nine 16-b o ttle ra c ks o f m e d ic a l o xyg e n ne e d e d fo r surfa c e d e c o m p re ssio n. Kirb y Mo rg a n Ba nd Ma sks (KMB) – a nd o c c a sio na lly a Sup e rlite he lm e t – w e re use d fo r the surfa c e -sup p lie d d iving . The y w e re c o nne c te d to the a ir c o ntro l p a ne l b y um b ilic a ls tha t inc o rp o ra te d a n a ir ho se , p ne um o fa tho m e te r ho se fo r d e te rm ining the d ive r’ s d e p th, c o m m unic a tio ns c a b le , a nd a ro p e -stre ng the ning m e m b e r. The Sup e rlite c o uld b e use d w ith a he lm e t-m o unte d vid e o c a m e ra a nd a lig ht; ho w e ve r, the Ind o ne sia n d ive rs fo und the KMB m o re c o m fo rta b le . Ad justing a KMB ma sk. Two -d ive r c o ntro l p a ne l. C he c king the e me rg e nc y a ir sup p ly p rio r to a d ive . 40 Diving o p e ra tio ns w e re c o ntro lle d fro m the fo rw a rd c o nta ine r a t the a ir c o ntro l p a ne l. Air w a s sup p lie d to the tw o -d ive r p a ne l fro m b o th the lo w -p re ssure c o m p re sso r a nd the e m e rg e nc y a ir b a nk. Pne um o fa tho m e te rs b uilt into the p a ne l a llo w e d a c c ura te m o nito ring o f the d e p th o f e a c h d ive r, a nd a ra d io m o unte d just b e lo w the p a ne l p ro vid e d tw o -w a y c o m m unic a tio ns. Dive rs w e re d e p lo ye d in a tw o -m a n sta g ing o p e ra te d fro m a n A-fra m e p e rm a ne ntly m o unte d o ff the b o w o f the b a rg e . A 2-to n a ir-tug g e r w inc h w a s use d to lo w e r the sta g ing fro m the d e c k to the se a b e d a nd to lift it b a c k to the d e c k a t the e nd o f the d ive . The a d va nta g e s o f using a sta g ing a re tha t a sc e nt a nd d e c e nt ra te s c a n b e c a re fully c o ntro lle d fro m the surfa c e , a nd um b ilic a ls c a n b e tie d o ff a t the b o tto m to d ra stic a lly re d uc e c urre nt d ra g o n the d ive r. A c lum p w e ig ht, c o nsisting o f a so lid 7 c m b a r o f ste e l, w a s rig g e d suc h tha t the sta g ing c o uld b e lo w e re d d o w n to it o n tw o g uid e w ire s, thus p re ve nting the sta g ing fro m tw isting a nd fo uling the um b ilic a ls. The c lum p w e ig ht c o uld b e ra ise d a nd lo w e re d b y a n 1-to n tug g e r in o rd e r to ke e p the sta g ing a m e te r o r tw o a b o ve the se a b e d , w he re it c o uld no t fo ul the g rid ro p e s. In he a vy se a s this c le a ra nc e w a s inc re a se d . Dive rs a b o ut to le a ve surfa c e . The sta g ing o n the wa y to the se a b e d . 40 Surfa c e d e c o m p re ssio n o n o xyg e n a t the d e p th o f this site ha s thre e m a in a d va nta g e s. First, the d ive rs c a n b e re m o ve d fro m the w a te r a nd c o m p le te the ir d e c o m p re ssio n in a c a re fully c o ntro lle d e nviro nm e nt. Se c o nd , d e c o m p re ssio n tim e is re d uc e d b y b re a thing o xyg e n ra the r tha n a ir. La stly, b y tra nsfe rring the d ive rs into the DDC , it fre e s up the d iving e q uip m e nt, a llo w ing the ne xt p a ir o f d ive rs to im m e d ia te ly e nte r the w a te r. De c o m p re ssio n sc he d ule s w e re ta ke n fro m the US Na vy Surfa c e -De c o m p re ssio n-o nO xyg e n ta b le s a nd m o d ifie d a c c o rd ing to sta nd a rd o ffsho re d iving p ra c tic e . Bo tto m tim e s ra ng e d b e tw e e n 100 a nd 105 m inute s a t a d e p th o f 85 ft (26 m ). Inste a d o f using a 110/ 90’ ta b le , the 130/ 90’ ta b le w a s c ho se n (a n inc re a se o f tw o ta b le s) to ta ke into a c c o unt the nitro g e n b uild -up d ue to m a ny c o nse c utive d a ys o f d iving . The US Na vy p ro c e d ure is to tra ve l d ire c tly to the surfa c e w itho ut a ny in-w a te r sto p s, e nte r the c ha m b e r, a nd b e p re ssure d d o w n to 40 ft fo r 48 m inute s, b re a thing o xyg e n. O n c o m p le tio n the d ive r tra ve ls to the surfa c e a t 25 ft p e r m inute . Mo d ific a tio ns to this p ro c e d ure inc lud e d a 3 m inute w a te r sto p a t a d e p th o f 30 ft, p re ssuring the c ha m b e r d o w n to 50 ft w hile b re a thing o xyg e n fo r 10 m inute s b e fo re a sc e nd ing to 40 ft, a nd the n slo w ing d o w n the a sc e nt to the surfa c e suc h tha t it to o k 10 m inute s ra the r tha n 1 m inute , 40 se c o nd s. An a ir b re a k o f 5 m inute s w a s a lso ta ke n fo r e ve ry 20 m inute s o n o xyg e n to m inim ize the c ha nc e s o f suffe ring fro m o xyg e n to xic ity. The se m o d ific a tio ns g re a tly re d uc e d the risk o f d e c o m p re ssio n sic kne ss. While surfa c e -sup p ly d iving w a s use d fo r e xc a va tio n w o rk, sc ub a w a s use d fo r se tting up the ro p e g rid , vid e o a nd p ho to g ra p hy, m e a suring a nd re c o rd ing , a nd sup e rvisio n. Up to fo ur d ive rs use d sc ub a , the num b e rs fluc tua ting to e nsure a full te a m o f tw e lve surfa c e sup p ly d ive rs. A sp e c ia l sc ub a p la tfo rm w a s rig g e d o n the sid e o f the b a rg e , w ith a la d d e r a nd a he a vily w e ig hte d d e c o m p re ssio n line . A g uid e line ra n fro m the b o tto m o f the d e c o m p re ssio n line o ut to a b uo ye d d o w n line . The d o w n line le d to o ne o f the g rid sta ke s, w e ll a w a y fro m the w o rking surfa c e sup p ly d ive rs, so tha t the re w a s no inte rfe re nc e b e tw e e n the tw o . No rm a lly, tw in ta nks w e re use d a nd d ive s w e re ke p t to 30 to 40 m inute s fo r a first d ive a nd 20 to 30 m inute s fo r a re p e titive d ive . All d e c o m p re ssio n w a s d o ne in w a te r, using sta nd a rd US Na vy ta b le s. Ho w e ve r, a s a n a d d e d sa fe ty p re c a utio n, o xyg e n w a s b re a the d a t the 10 ft sto p via lo w -p re ssure ho se s fitte d w ith se c o nd sta g e re g ula to rs. In a ll, 880 d ive s w e re m a d e d uring the p ro je c t, to ta ling 1,190 d ive r ho urs b o tto m tim e , w itho ut a ny se rio us m isha p . C o mp a ny a t the sc ub a d e c o mp re ssio n sta g ing . A sc ub a d ive r le a ve s the b a rg e . 41 3.3 Excavation Techniques Be fo re e xc a va tio n c o uld c o m m e nc e , a g rid syste m ha d to b e se t up o ve r the w re c k site . A lo ng itud ina l g a p ra n b e tw e e n the ro w s o f iro n c o nc re tio ns tha t p ro trud e d fro m the c e nte r o f the site . This g a p w a s the o nly re m a ining e vid e nc e o f a lo ng itud ina l b ulkhe a d tha t m ust ha ve run the full le ng th o f the w re c ke d ship . It p ro vid e d a ve ry c o nve nie nt c e nte r-line o rie nta tio n. A 12 m m p o lyp ro p yle ne ro p e w a s run o ve r the c o nc re tio ns p a ra lle l to the g a p ra the r tha n thro ug h it, a s the re w e re o b struc tio ns a t b o th e nd s. It w a s e xte nd e d in b o th d ire c tio ns to se ve ra l m e te rs b e yo nd the surfa c e sc a tte r o f c e ra m ic s, w he re 1.5 m-lo ng p ip e sta ke s w e re ha m m e re d thro ug h the so ft se d im e nt into the stiff c la y b e lo w . The ro p e w a s stre tc he d ta ut a nd tie d o ff to the sta ke s. The c e nte r-line ro p e w a s 70 m lo ng . Using a fib e rg la ss ta p e a nd the 3,4,5-p ytha g o rus-rig ht-a ng le te c hniq ue , m o re sta ke s w e re d rive n in p e rp e nd ic ula r to the c e nte r line a nd 5 m o n e ithe r sid e . Ha ving insta lle d the lo ng itud ina l ro p e s b e tw e e n the se ne w sta ke s, the p ro c e d ure w a s re p e a te d until six line s w e re e sta b lishe d . By m e a suring 5 m a lo ng the line s fro m the o ute r sta ke s, p e rp e nd ic ula r tra nsve rse g rid line s c o uld b e insta lle d . Initia lly thre e tra nsve rse g rid line s w e re p ut in, a nd m o re fo llo w e d a s the e xc a va tio n p ro g re sse d . Lo ng itud ina l line s w e re initia lly num b e re d 1 to 7. As the site w id e ne d , a d d itio na l lo ng itud ina l line s ha d to b e insta lle d until num b e rs ra ng e d fro m -1 to 9. Tra nsve rse line s sta rte d a t A a nd e ve ntua lly re a c he d N, b e ing 55 m lo ng a t the w id e st p o int. La rg e p la stic g rid ta g s w e re tie d in to the g rid line s to the fro nt a nd to the rig ht o f e a c h g rid in the d ire c tio n o f p ro g re ssio n fo r e a sy re fe re nc e b y d ive rs. The ta g s w e re p a inte d g ra y/ b lue to p re ve nt fla ring fro m the c a m e ra stro b e a nd vid e o lig ht. G rid ro p e a nd ta g in a n une xc a va te d a re a . Dive rs w o rke d in p a irs, w ith e a c h d ive r b e ing a llo c a te d o ne g rid sq ua re . If it w e re p o ssib le , a d ja c e nt g rid s w e re no t w o rke d sim ulta ne o usly to p re ve nt se d im e nts stirre d up b y o ne d ive r fro m re d uc ing the visib ility o f the o the r. Ea c h d ive r use d a 15 c m d ia m e te r a irlift fitte d w ith a 45- d e g re e e lb o w a t the b a se to p re ve nt it fro m d ig g ing itse lf into the se a b e d . O ne a irlift w a s p a inte d re d a nd the o the r w hite to m inim ize c o nfusio n o n the b o tto m in tim e s o f lo w visib ility. By p la c ing the a irlift a w a y fro m the w o rk fa c e , d ive rs c o uld fa n se d im e nts into it to e xp o se c e ra m ic s a nd a rtifa c ts. In a re a s w ith a he a vy c o nc e ntra tio n o f b ro ke n c e ra m ic s a nd p o o r visib ility, it w a s o fte n m o re e ffic ie nt to d ig up thro ug h the w o rk fa c e w ith b o th ha nd s, so tha t a rtifa c ts a nd inta c t c e ra m ic s c o uld b e fe lt a s w e ll a s se e n. Ea c h g rid ha d a p la stic b a ske t, c o lo r-c o d e d in the sa m e m a nne r a s the a irlifts a nd num b e re d w ith a sm a ll ta g tha t m a tc he d the g rid b e ing w o rke d . Artifa c ts a nd inta c t c e ra m ic s w e re p la c e d d ire c tly into the se b a ske ts, so tha t the ir p o int o f o rig in c o uld b e re c o rd e d o n the surfa c e . La rg e b ro ke n p ie c e s w e re p la c e d in a no the r unm a rke d p la stic b a ske t tha t w a s e m p tie d 5 m b e hind the w o rk fa c e w he ne ve r full. 42 KMB d ive r e xc a va ting within a g rid sq ua re . Surfa c e sig ns o f a irlifts a t wo rk. Artifa c t b a ske t c lo se a t ha nd . Fille d b a ske t a wa iting re c o ve ry. At the e nd o f a d ive e a c h d ive r w o uld p la c e his w o rking b a ske t in a ste e l lift b a ske t, re g a rd le ss o f ho w m uc h w a s in it. The re w e re a lw a ys sp a re la b e le d p la stic b a ske ts in the ste e l b a ske t in c a se the first o ne w a s fille d . The ste e l b a ske t w a s w inc he d to the surfa c e a t the e nd o f e a c h d ive . Wo rking b a ske ts w e re re m o ve d , a nd ne w o ne s p ut in a nd lo w e re d to the b o tto m fo r the ne xt p a ir o f d ive rs. 43 C e ra m ic s w e re re c o rd e d b y g rid -sq ua re , d ue to the hug e q ua ntitie s invo lve d . Artifa c ts suc h a s the sto ne a nc ho rs a nd the iro n c o nc re tio ns w e re p lo tte d w ith re fe re nc e to the g rid line s. The c o nc re tio ns w e re m o re tho ro ug hly re c o rd e d by m e a ns of a p ho to m o sa ic , w hic h w ill b e d isc usse d in m o re d e ta il in Se c tio n 3.4.4. Artifa c t b a ske t b e ing p la c e d in the ste e l lift b a ske t. Site c ro ss se c tio ns a nd c o nc re tio n he ig hts w e re d e te rm ine d by ta king so und ing s w ith a d e c o m p re ssio n m e te r tha t wa s a c c ura te to 0.1 m . A re fe re nc e p o int on a g rid sta ke e nsure d tha t so und ing s c o uld b e c o rre c te d fo r tid a l va ria tio ns. Exc a va tio n p ro g re sse d a c ro ss the full w id th o f the site b e fo re m o ving fo rw a rd to the ne xt g rid , up to the iro n c o nc re tio ns. At this p o int, w o rk w a s re stric te d to the so uth o f the c o nc re tio ns to p re ve nt e q uip m e nt b e ing d ra g g e d o ve r the m d uring b a rg e m o ve s, a nd b e c a use the site ha d b e c o m e so w id e tha t it to o k to o lo ng to shift the b a rg e tra nsve rse ly a s w e ll a s lo ng itud ina lly a s w o rk p ro g re sse d . Ha ving p a sse d the c o nc re tio ns, w o rk c o ntinue d o n the so uth sid e o f the site until re a c hing the e nd o f the g rid s. The n e xc a va tio n m o ve d up a nd b a c k a lo ng the g rid s o n the no rth sid e o f the c o nc re tio ns. The lift b a ske t b re a ks the surfa c e . 45 3.4 Photographic Procedures Eve ry ste p o f the p ro je c t w a s d o c um e nte d o n still film a nd o n vid e o ta p e . 3.4.1 Still Photography All still p ho to g ra p hs, inc lud ing tho se sho t und e rw a te r, w e re ta ke n w ith Niko n c a m e ra s, m a inly the F90, N90S a nd F801 m o d e ls, a nd o c c a sio na lly w ith a n F90X. A se le c tio n o f Niko n le nse s w a s use d fo r surfa c e p ho to g ra p hy. Zo o m le nse s inc lud e d a 28-70 m m f3.5-4.5 D, a nd a 35-105 m m f3.5-4.5, b o th D a nd no n-D se rie s. A 105 m m f2.8 D m a c ro le ns w a s use d fo r p ho to g ra p hs o f sm a ll o b je c ts, a nd a 20 m m f2.8 D w a s use d fo r w id e -a ng le sho ts in c o nfine d sp a c e s. O c c a sio na lly, a Sig m a 75-300 m m f4-5.6 zo o m le ns w a s use d fo r d ista nt sub je c ts. Niko n SB-25 a nd SB-26 fla she s w e re use d e xte nsive ly, b e ing p a rtic ula rly e ffe c tive fo r fill-in lig ht o n fa c e s w he re the re w a s a b rig ht b a c kg ro und . Sixty-five ro lls o f Fuji Pro via 100 ASA slid e film w e re e xp o se d d uring the p ro je c t, a lo ng w ith se ve ra l ro lls o f Fuji Sup e r HG V 100 ASA p rint film a nd a fe w ro lls o f Fuji Se nsia 100 ASA slid e film . O ne ro ll o f Pro via 400 Fully-e q uip p e d und e rwa te r p ho to g ra p he r, Antho ny Ho lle y. ASA slid e film w a s a lso use d , ra te d a t 800 ASA, w ith 500 w a tt lig hts und e rw a te r. All ro lls w e re 36 e xp o sure s g iving a to ta l o f o ve r 2,600 p ho to g ra p hs ta ke n d uring m o b iliza tio n a nd o n site . Ad d itio na l film w a s ta ke n o f the c o nse rva tio n o f c e ra m ic s a nd o the r fo llo w -up w o rk in Sing a p o re . 3.4.2 Underwater Still Photography Bo th a rc ha e o lo g ic a l a nd a e sthe tic sho ts w e re ta ke n und e rw a te r. A b la c k a nd ye llo w 30 c m sc a le rule w a s inc lud e d in m o st o f the a rc ha e o lo g ic a l p ho to g ra p hs. A b la c k a nd w hite rule w a s no t use d , a s the hig h c o ntra st c a use s ha la tio n, w he re the w hite is o ve re xp o se d a nd d isto rts the a p p a re nt size o f the sc a le d ivisio ns. An F90 c a m e ra w ith a 20 m m le ns a nd a n SB-25 fla sh w e re se a le d in a Sub a l Minifle x a lum inum und e rw a te r ho using fo r the d o c um e nta tio n o f la rg e fixe d o b je c ts, suc h a s the c o nc re tio ns. C o nc re tio ns o f p a rtic ula r no te w e re p ho to g ra p he d fro m m a ny d iffe re nt a ng le s a nd e xp o sure s. As the c o nc re tio ns w e re to o he a vy to re c o ve r, a nd w e re to o d e g ra d e d to re sp o nd to no rm a l c o nse rva tio n tre a tm e nts, the p ho to g ra p hic d o c um e nta tio n w a s tha t m uc h m o re im p o rta nt. Sp e c ia l a tte ntio n w a s p a id to c e rta in b lo c ks fo r inte rp re ta tio n p urp o se s, suc h a s C o nc re tio n 19, w hic h w a s tho ug ht to b e m o ld e d to the sha p e o f the b o w . O the rs c le a rly sho w e d the p a c king o f the c a uld ro ns a nd b und le s o f iro n b a rs. Airlifting w o rk o n the se a b e d w a s a lso p ho to g ra p he d m a ny tim e s w ith this se tup fro m va rying vie w p o ints a nd w ith d iffe re nt lig hting a ng le s. The ve ry w id e a ng le o f the le ns b e hind the d o m e p o rt a llo w e d the se sho ts to b e ta ke n a t c lo se ra ng e in p o o r visib ility. The fla sh w a s usua lly 46 he ld o ut a t full a rm ’ s le ng th o n its lo ng jo inte d a rm s to re d uc e the re fle c tio n o f the lig ht o ff the susp e nd e d m a tte r in the w a te r (b a c k sc a tte r). No rm a lly the m a in fla sh w a s a b o ve a nd to the le ft o f the sub je c t, b ut this w a s va rie d a c c o rd ing to the sub je c t’ s o rie nta tio n. An Iso te c hnic s Iso te nd e r sla ve fla sh, fire d b y a se nso r d e te c ting the m a in fla sh a nd a im e d fro m the rig ht-ha nd sid e , p ro vid e d a d d itio na l lig hting m a ny tim e s. Fo r the c o nc re tio ns it w a s p la c e d o n the se a b e d to lig ht up o ve rha ng ing p o rtio ns. A p a ir o f No va 500 w a tt tung ste n ha lo g e n lig hts w a s use d fo r d iffe re nt lig hting e ffe c ts. The se w e re m o unte d o n a n a lum inum b a r w ith a p o w e r sup p ly c a b le fro m the surfa c e . The a rra ng e m e nt w a s m a d e le ss c um b e rso m e w ith a sm a ll lift b a g , b ut still ha d to b e m a ne uve re d b y a n a ssista nt d ive r. Fo r the sta nd a rd 100 ASA film the e xp o sure re q uire d w a s 1/ 8th o f a se c o nd , w id e o p e n a t f2.8. With the d a m p ing e ffe c ts o f the w a te r a nd b y lying o n the b o tto m , slo w shutte r sp e e d s c a n b e use d und e rw a te r, b ut the m o ve m e nts o f the a irlifting w o uld b e b lurre d . The re fo re , 400 ASA film w a s use d , up g ra d e d to 800 ASA, to g ive re a so na b le sp e e d s o f 1/ 60th o f a se c o nd . The p ho to g ra p he r w a s a lw a ys o n sta nd b y to re c o rd o ne -o ff e ve nts, suc h a s the re c o ve ry o f a la rg e sto ne a nc ho r a nd the e xc a va tio n o f uniq ue c e ra m ic s. The w id e -a ng le le ns w a s use d w he n a d ive r w a s re q uire d to fill the fra m e , a nd the zo o m le ns w a s inva lua b le fo r sho o ting sm a lle r ite m s, suc h a s the e w e rs, in d e ta il. Ma rine life p ho to g ra p hs w e re ta ke n w ith the w id e -a ng le le ns fo r sc ho o ls o f fish, a nd the zo o m fo r ind ivid ua ls, c o ra ls a nd sp o ng e s. Ma ny o f the g ro up e rs tha t ha d ta ke n up re sid e nc e b e tw e e n the c o nc re tio ns w e re ve ry c o o p e ra tive , e na b ling c lo se -up s o f a n e ye o r a g a p ing m o uth. The 105 m m m a c ro le ns w a s id e a l fo r sm a ll c re a ture s, a s it c o uld fo c us d o w n to life size , e q ua l to the 24 x 36 m m film . Wa iting fo r the rig ht m o m e nt a nd the rig ht a ng le fo r a sho ve le r shrim p a nd a tte nd a nt g o b y re q uire d g re a t p a tie nc e , b ut c o uld b e w e ll re w a rd e d w ith the re sults p ro d uc e d w ith this le ns. De ta ils o f se a slug s a nd se a sna ke s w e re a lso re c o rd e d . 3.4.3 Video Photography The ne w So ny DC R-VX 1000 Ha nd yc a m Dig ita l 3C C D vid e o c a m e ra w a s use d fo r surfa c e a nd und e rw a te r vid e o w o rk. The Mini DV d ig ita l vid e o c a sse tte s g ive no lo ss in q ua lity o n re p e a te d p la ying o r o n d ig ita l c o p ying , thus g iving e xc e lle nt re sults in the fina l e d ite d ve rsio n. So ny DVM60 c a sse tte s w e re use d e xc lusive ly. In m o st insta nc e s, the vid e o c a m e ra w a s trip o d m o unte d fo r surfa c e use . An Am p hib ic o VH1000 a lum inum ho using p ro vid e d the ne c e ssa ry p ro te c tio n fo r the c a m e ra fo r und e rw a te r film ing . Dig ita l vid e o c a me ra in a c tio n. A So ny Ma rine Pa c k HVL-80DA 80w a tt lig ht p ro vid e d illum ina tio n fo r c lo se ra ng e film ing o f fish a nd c o ra ls a nd sp o ng e s, b ut w a s no t p o w e rful e no ug h fo r lo ng e r ra ng e w o rk. The p a ir o f No va 500 w a tt tung ste n ha lo g e n lig hts d e sc rib e d a b o ve im p ro ve d the ra ng e , b ut re q uire d g re a t c o o rd ina tio n b e tw e e n the c a m e ra m a n a nd the lig hting d ive r. The se lig hts 47 p ro vid e d the ne c e ssa ry illum ina tio n fo r film ing a irlifting o p e ra tio ns a nd fo r c o lo rful sho ts o f the und isturb e d c e ra m ic s fie ld . The y c o uld a lso b e use d fo r a rtistic b a c kg ro und illum ina tio n. Like still p ho to g ra p hy, vid e o w a s use d fo r a rc ha e o lo g ic a l re c o rd ing a s w e ll a s a e sthe tic w o rk. The a b ility to fre e ze -fra m e the d ig ita l vid e o , w ith no lo ss o f p ic ture q ua lity o r flic ke ring , m a d e the vid e o a p o w e rful to o l fo r q uic k a na lysis o f va rio us a sp e c ts o f the site . De ta ils c o uld b e stud ie d im m e d ia te ly a fte r a d ive . The re w a s no ne e d to w a it fo r film d e ve lo p ing . Be fo re e xc a va tio n w o rk b e g a n, p re -d isturb a nc e runs w e re m a d e o ve r the c e ra m ic s fie ld s a nd a lo ng the c e ntra l a xis o f the w re c k, fo llo w ing se ve ra l o f the lo ng itud ina l g rid line s. Ma ny sho ts w e re ta ke n o f the c o nc re tio ns to stud y the ir inte rre la tio nship a nd the ir ind ivid ua l c o m p o sitio n. 3.4.4 Photomosaic The m e d io c re visib ility o ve r the site m a d e it im p o ssib le to g e t a n o ve ra ll vie w o f the c o nc re tio ns w hile d iving . As no hull struc ture survive d a t a ll, it b e c a m e im p e ra tive to fully re c o rd the c o nc re tio n la yo ut. The ind ivid ua l b lo c ks d e p ic te d the c o nfig ura tio n o f the no lo ng e r e xiste nt hull. Unfo rtuna te ly, the y p re se nte d the w o rst p o ssib le p ho to m o sa ic situa tio n w ith she e r ve rtic a l re lie f c ha ng e s o f up to 1.6 m . Ac c e p ting tha t it w o uld b e im p o ssib le to g e t a m e a ning ful sc a le o ut o f the m o sa ic , it w a s d e c id e d to c o m p ile it b y m e a ns o f d ig ita l vid e o a nd c o m p ute r m a nip ula tio n. Thre e p a ra lle l ro p e line s w e re insta lle d a t the sa m e le ve l a c ro ss the c o nc re tio ns, the c e nte r o ne b e ing c le a rly m a rke d w ith o ne m e te r d ivisio ns. The c a m e ra w a s he ld ve rtic a lly w ith the a ssista nc e o f a sm a ll b ub b le le ve l g lue d o nto the ho using . Pla na r a lig nm e nt w a s a c hie ve d b y ke e p ing o ne o f the ro p e line s p a ra lle l w ith the e d g e o f the vie w find e r. And a c o nsta nt le ve l w a s a c hie ve d b y m a inta ining a c o nsta nt d e p th re a d ing . O f c o urse , it w a s im p o ssib le to w a tc h a ll thre e ind ic a to rs a t the sa m e tim e , b ut re sults w e re re a so na b ly c o nsiste nt no ne the le ss. A lo ng le a d -in sw im g a ve tim e to a d just a nd sta b ilize . Line s w e re sw um , o r ra the r d rifte d , w ith the c urre nt in a n e a st to w e st d ire c tio n. In a ll, e ig ht line s w e re film e d , a nd six o f tho se w e re use d fo r the m o sa ic . No a rtific ia l lig hting w a s use d fo r the p ho to m o sa ic runs o ve r the c o nc re tio ns, d ue to the ir ra p id ly va rying he ig hts fro m the se a b e d . This w o uld c a use the c a m e ra to c o nsta ntly a lte r e xp o sure le ve ls a nd re sult in ha rsh sha d o w s a nd g la re . The c a m e ra is m o re lig ht se nsitive tha n the hum a n e ye , so re a so na b le re sults w e re a c hie ve d w itho ut a rtific ia l lig hting . The vid e o runs w e re p la ye d b a c k a t ve ry slo w sp e e d , a nd ind ivid ua l fra m e s w e re se le c te d to g ive m o re tha n 50% o ve rla p . Ha ving se le c te d a fra m e , it w a s sto re d a s a b itm a p file o n the c o m p ute r via a d ig ita l im a g e c a p ture syste m c a lle d Sna p p y (se e Se c tio n 3.5, Re g istra tio n Syste m s). The im a g e s fo r e a c h run w e re the n re c a lle d o ne b y o ne into a im a g e m a nip ula tio n p ro g ra m c a lle d Fa uve Ma tisse . First the e d g e s o f e a c h im a g e w e re c ro p p e d , w he re d isto rtio n is g re a te st. The n the sc a le a nd a lig nm e nt w e re slig htly a d juste d to m a tc h a s c lo se ly a s p o ssib le the p re vio us im a g e . Whe n the b e st fit ha d b e e n a c hie ve d , the ne w c o m b ine d im a g e w a s sa ve d a nd the ste p s re p e a te d until the c o m p le te line (typ ic a lly 20 im a g e s) w a s la id o ut. In the o ry, suc c e ssive line s c o uld ha ve b e e n c o m b ine d w ith the first to p ro vid e a c o m p le te m o sa ic o f the c o nc re tio ns. In a c tua lity, the PC (se e Se c tio n 3.5, Re g istra tio n Syste m s) d id no t ha ve the p o w e r to d o this a nd suffe re d m e m o ry o ve rlo a d . Inste a d , e a c h run w a s p ro c e sse d a nd p rinte d o ut a s a m o sa ic strip . The se strip s w e re the n c ut a nd p a ste d to fo rm the 48 c o m p le te m o sa ic . c o nc re tio n fie ld . This w a s use d in c o njunc tio n w ith a c tua l m e a sure m e nts to ske tc h the Two d ig ita lly p ro d uc e d mo sa ic strip s. 49 3.5 Registration System Thre e d a ta b a se s w e re re q uire d fo r the p ro je c t: c e ra m ic s re g istra tio n w ith g rid lo c a tio n a s the p ivo ta l d a ta ; a rtifa c t re g istra tio n w ith the sa m e e m p ha sis; a nd a p a c king inve nto ry fo r G o ve rnm e nt m o nito ring . Inste a d o f a c o nve ntio na l c a rd re g istra tio n syste m , a ll info rm a tio n inc lud ing im a g e s w a s re c o rd e d o n c o m p ute r. Je ff Nic kla so n a t his a rtifa c t ima g ing a nd re g istra tio n sta tio n . Mic ro so ft Ac c e ss w a s c ho se n a s the m o st a p p ro p ria te d a ta b a se d ue to its w id e sp re a d a c c e p ta nc e , c o m p a tib ility w ith o the r so ftw a re p ro g ra m s, e a se o f o p e ra tio n, a nd a b ility to inc o rp o ra te d ig ita l im a g e s. Im a g ing w a s d o ne w ith a n 8-m m vid e o c a m e ra linke d to the c o m p ute r b y a n o ff-the -she lf d ig ita l im a g ing p a c ka g e c a lle d “ Sna p p y,” a c ig a re tte p a c ke tsize d d e vic e w ith a c c o m p a nying so ftw a re . The m a in c o m p ute r w a s a C o m p a q Pre sa rio 7222 (Pe ntium ) PC , a nd the d e c k re g istra tio n c o m p ute r w a s a To shib a Sa te llite 115C S (110 Pe ntium ) no te b o o k. 3.5.1 Ceramics Registration Database The c e ra m ic s re g istra tio n d a ta b a se is the p rim a ry to o l fo r d e te rm ining c e ra m ic s d istrib utio n o ve r the w re c k site , a nd he nc e the like ly sto w a g e p a tte rn fo r the d iffe re nt w a re s. It c o nta ins 21 fie ld s, 4 o f the m b e ing fo r im a g e s o f the p ie c e ta ke n fro m d iffe re nt a ng le s a nd sc a le s. Ma ny o f the fie ld s ha d a p ull-d o w n list o f the d a ta m o st fre q ue ntly inp ut. O f c o urse , ne w d a ta c o uld a lw a ys b e typ e d in. The inp ut fie ld s w ith a sso c ia te d p ull-d o w n lists a re inc lud e d a s Ta b le 3.2. 3.5.2 Artifact Registration Database The a rtifa c t re g istra tio n d a ta b a se c o nta ins a ll info rm a tio n o n the a rtifa c ts a nd c a n b e up d a te d a s the a rtifa c ts a re c le a ne d a nd c o nse rve d , w hic h o fte n re ve a ls d e ta ils no t a p p a re nt w he n the y a re first re c o ve re d . The d a ta b a se c o nta ins 12 fie ld s, inc lud ing 2 fo r im a g e s. The fie ld s a nd a sso c ia te d p ull d o w n-lists a re inc lud e d a s Ta b le 3.3. 3.5.3 Ceramics Packing Inventory 50 The c e ra m ic s p a c king inve nto ry is a sim p lifie d ve rsio n o f the c e ra m ic s re g istra tio n d a ta b a se . It w a s re q uire d to ke e p tra c k o f the c o nte nts o f e a c h b o x tha t w a s p a c ke d a nd to m o nito r the q ua ntitie s b e ing re c o ve re d o n a d a ily b a sis. O nly six fie ld s w e re ne c e ssa ry, a nd the p ull-d o w n lists a re id e ntic a l to tho se in the c e ra m ic s re g istra tio n d a ta b a se . Ta b le 3.2: C e ra m ic s Re g istra tio n Da ta b a se G rid Re c o ve ry Info rma tio n Ma te ria l Ea rthe nw a re Sto ne w a re Po rc e la in Fo rm Bo x w ith c o ve r Ja r Ba sin Bo x c o ve r Ja rle t Bo ttle Bo x b a se Ke nd i Va se Ew e r Lid Dish Size Ve ry Sm a ll Sm a ll Me d ium La rg e Ve ry La rg e Tra it Fine Pro vinc ia l No Fo o tring Ung la ze d Ring O c ta g o na l G la ze G re e n Q ing b a i Pa le G re e n G ra y Burnishe d O live White C izho u Bro w n De c o ra tio n Me tho d Co mb e d Ap p liq ué Mo ld e d / Pa inte d Mo ld e d Pa inte d No ne Inc ise d Inc ise d / Pa inte d Inte rna l & Exte rna l De c o ra tio n Co mb e d Pla in Wa vy Zig za g Flo ra l Sw e p t Stria te d Sc ro lls Lo tus Rib b e d Ring e d De sc rip tio n Bo d y C o nd itio n Po o r Ma rg ina l Go o d Exc e lle nt G la ze C o nd itio n 51 Po o r Ma rg ina l Go o d Exc e lle nt Ro und Ta b le 3.3: Artifa c t Re g istra tio n Da ta b a se Artifa c t Num b e r Lo c a tio n/ G rid Re c o ve ry Info rm a tio n Ma te ria l C u Allo y Wo o d Fe rro us Ro c k G la ss O rg a nic Unid e ntifie d Fo rm Fig urine Ivo ry Re sin G o ng Ba la nc e We ig ht Ba lla st Sto ne Sha rp e ning Sto ne Tra y Ing o t Sc a le s Ba r Finia l Unid e ntifie d Fe a ture s C o nd itio n Dim e nsio ns De sc rip tio n C la ssific a tio n C a rg o Pe rso na l Po sse ssio ns Ship Struc ture Ship ’ s Sto re s Intrusive Sto re d Im a g e s 52 Ship ’ s Fitting Unid e ntifie d 3.5.4 Data Analysis and Display Ac c e ss is a p o w e rful d a ta b a se p ro g ra m tha t a llo w s filte ring , so rting , a nd sum m ing o n m a ny le ve ls. Thus the c e ra m ic s d a ta b a se c a n b e a na lyze d in g re a t d e ta il a nd in m a ny w a ys. The m a in use , ho w e ve r, is to d e te rm ine the d istrib utio n o f c e ra m ic s o ve r the site . This w a s first d o ne fo r c e ra m ic s a s a w ho le b y sum m ing the c e ra m ic s fo und in e a c h g rid . In o rd e r to g ra p hic a lly d isp la y the re sults, the ne w d a ta w a s tra nsfe rre d to Mic ro so ft Exc e l, a sp re a d she e t p ro g ra m w ith m o re p o w e rful g ra p hic s tha n Ac c e ss. The re sults w e re p rinte d o ut b o th o n 2-D a nd 3-D c o lo r-c o d e d p lo ts tha t d e p ic t the g rid la yo ut o f the w re c k site . Just a g la nc e a t the p lo ts is e no ug h to p ic ture the unusua l d istrib utio n tha t ha s ta ke n p la c e . Sim ila rly, the sum o f the d iffe re nt typ e s o f c e ra m ic s w a s d e te rm ine d fo r e a c h g rid . By p lo tting this in the sa m e m a nne r, it is ve ry e a sy to se e w hic h typ e s w e re sto w e d in w hic h p a rt o f the ship . By using the fo rm func tio n in Ac c e ss, e xc e lle nt-q ua lity c a ta lo g s w ith c o lo r im a g e s c o uld b e p ro d uc e d fo r b o th the c e ra m ic s a nd the a rtifa c t d a ta b a se s. 3.6 Ceramics and Artifact Handling Procedure 3.6.1 Ceramics Handling Procedure At the e nd o f e a c h d ive the fo a m -p a d d e d ste e l b a ske t c o nta ining the p la stic g rid b a ske ts w a s w inc he d to the surfa c e . The g rid b a ske ts w e re c a re fully re m o ve d a nd ta ke n d ire c tly to the c e ra m ic s w a shing ta b le , w hic h w a s lo c a te d o n the p o rt b o w o f the b a rg e und e r a n a w ning . A sub m e rsib le p um p sup p lie d a c o ntinuo us flo w o f se a w a te r via p ip ing a nd fo ur d isc ha rg e ho se s a tta c he d to the b a c k o f the ta b le . A fo a m m a ttre ss w a s fixe d to the ste e l g ra ting ta b le to p . He re the c e ra m ic s w e re c le a ne d o f m ud , sp o ng e s, o yste r she lls a nd c o ra l w ith sc rub b ing b rushe s a nd p la stic c ho p stic ks. The m o re te na c io us m a rine g ro w th, a nd the re w a s a lo t o f it, w a s le ft fo r re m o va l in the c o nse rva tio n la b o ra to ry. C e ra m ic s fro m e a c h g rid b a ske t w e re ke p t c o m p le te ly se p a ra te . Unlo a d ing c e ra mic s o nto the wa shing ta b le . C e ra mic s c le a ning in full swing . 53 Afte r w a shing , the c e ra m ic s w e re rinse d in fre sh w a te r, the n so rte d a c c o rd ing to fo rm , size , g la ze , a nd c o nd itio n in p re p a ra tio n fo r re g iste ring . The so rte d c e ra m ic s w e re sta c ke d o n the sha d e d d e c k in se p a ra te a re a s d e sig na te d b y g rid ta g s. Exc e p t fo r p e rio d s o f inc le m e nt w e a the r, a ll c e ra m ic s re g istra tio n to o k p la c e o n d e c k im m e d ia te ly a fte r w a shing . O ne p e rso n w o uld e xa m ine the so rte d c e ra m ic s a nd c a ll o ut the p e rtine nt info rm a tio n to a no the r fo r d a ta e ntry into a no te b o o k c o m p ute r. Info rm a tio n o n e a c h p ie c e inc lud e d the fo llo w ing : g rid sq ua re , q ua ntity o f p ie c e s w ith the sa m e a ttrib ute s, w a re , m a te ria l, fo rm , size , g la ze typ e , d e c o ra tio n m e tho d , inte rna l d e c o ra tio n, e xte rna l d e c o ra tio n, b o d y c o nd itio n, a nd g la ze c o nd itio n. O ne a d d itio na l fie ld w a s p ro vid e d to re c o rd g e ne ra l tra its, suc h a s “ no fo o tring ” o r “ ung la ze d ring ,” a nd a no the r fo r a ny furthe r d e sc rip tio n uniq ue to the p ie c e b e ing re g iste re d , suc h a s “ sp o ut b ro ke n” o r “ d isto rte d rim .” A sm a ll ro ta ting sta ff o f thre e p e o p le w a s use d fo r c a lling a nd d a ta e ntry in o rd e r to m a inta in the c o nsiste nc y o f lo g g e d info rm a tio n. Uniq ue o r e xc e p tio na l p ie c e s a nd re p re se nta tive e xa m p le s o f e a c h c e ra m ic s typ e w e re se t a sid e fo r d ig ita l im a g ing . C e ra mic s se g re g a te d b y g rid -sq ua re . Lo g g ing e a c h find o n c o mp ute r. O nly a fte r re g istra tio n w a s c o m p le te d w e re c e ra m ic s fro m d iffe re nt g rid s m ixe d to g e the r in p re p a ra tio n fo r p a c king . Pie c e s tha t c o uld b e sta c ke d , suc h a s b o w ls a nd d ishe s, w e re p la c e d o ne insid e the o the r w ith 10 m m b ub b le p la stic b e tw e e n e a c h p ie c e . La rg e o r o d d sha p e d p ie c e s, suc h a s e w e rs a nd ke nd is, w e re w ra p p e d in 25 m m b ub b le p la stic . Sta c ks o r ind ivid ua l la rg e p ie c e s w e re the n se a le d in he a vy g a ug e p la stic b a g s c o nta ining sm a ll a m o unts o f fre sh w a te r to p re ve nt the m fro m d rying o ut w hile a w a iting tra nsp o rt to the c o nse rva tio n la b o ra to ry. The b a g s w e re the n p la c e d in d o ub le -w a ll c a rd b o a rd b o xe s tha t w e re line d o n a ll sid e s w ith 20 m m p o lystyre ne she e ting a nd d ivid e d into q ua d ra nts w ith a c a rd b o a rd p a rtitio n. The p a rtitio n ke p t the sta c ks o f c e ra m ic s se p a ra te a nd inc re a se d the ve rtic a l stre ng th o f the b o x to p re ve nt c rushing w he n sta c ke d . In o rd e r to p re ve nt shifting , a ll re m a ining sp a c e in the b o x w a s p a c ke d w ith lo o se fill p o lystyre ne . Ea c h b o x w a s fina lly ta p e d shut, num b e re d o n a ll sid e s, a nd sta c ke d in se q ue nc e in a se c ure sto ra g e c o nta ine r. 54 A se p a ra te d a ta b a se w a s use d to ke e p tra c k o f e a c h b o x’ s c o nte nts, b a se d o n fo rm , size , c o nd itio n, a nd q ua ntity. Da ily p a c king lists w e re p rinte d o ut e a c h e ve ning fo r jo int sig ning b y the Ind o ne sia n G o ve rnm e nt Re p re se nta tive a nd b y Pa c ific Se a Re so urc e s. O n a rriva l a t the c o nse rva tio n la b o ra to ry in Sing a p o re , the b o xe s w e re unlo a d e d fro m the c o nta ine r a nd sta c ke d in the la b o ra to ry in se q ue nc e , suc h tha t p ro c e ssing c o uld sta rt w ith the first b o x tha t w a s p a c ke d a nd p ro g re ss in o rd e r. The m a in p rio rity w a s to c o m p le te c le a ning a nd c o m m e nc e d e sa lina tio n w itho ut a llo w ing the c e ra m ic s to d ry o ut. Bo xe s w e re unp a c ke d o ne a t a tim e , the ne xt o ne no t b e ing o p e ne d until the first ha d b e e n p ro c e sse d . As m uc h o f the m a rine g ro w th a s p o ssib le w a s c a re fully c hip p e d o ff w ith sm a ll c hise ls a nd c ho p stic ks. Se ve ra l p ie c e s w e re o nly he ld to g e the r b y the m a rine g ro w th. Whe n the she ll a nd c o ra l w e re re m o ve d , the y fe ll a p a rt, re ve a ling ye llo w sta ine d b ro ke n e d g e s, a sig n tha t the y ha d b e e n tha t w a y fo r so m e tim e . Lo g g ing the c e ra mic s fo r p a c king . The c e ra mic s c a rg o o n a rriva l in Sing a p o re . 55 On c o m p le tio n of m e c ha nic a l c le a ning , p ie c e s tha t re q uire d m o re w o rk w e re le ft o ve rnig ht in a ve ry d ilute hyd ro c hlo ric a c id so lutio n. Afte r this tre a tm e nt the p ie c e s w e re sc rub b e d c le a n in fre sh w a te r, the n c a re fully sta c ke d in fre shw a te r b a ths fo r d e sa lina tio n, the d e ta ils o f w hic h a re g ive n in Se c tio n 3.7, C o nse rva tio n. Pla stic she e ting w a s p la c e d o ve r the b a ths to p re ve nt e va p o ra tio n a nd the b re e d ing o f m o sq uito e s. Afte r d e sa lina tio n the p ie c e s w e re re m o ve d fro m the b a ths in the sa m e o rd e r in w hic h the y ha d b e e n p la c e d the re , d rie d , a nd so rte d fo r c a ta lo g ing in a c c o rd a nc e w ith a ll the c rite ria re c o rd e d in the o rig ina l c e ra m ic s d a ta b a se . The y w e re the n sta c ke d in d e sig na te d g ro up ing s o n se c ure she lving in a n a ir-c o nd itio ne d sto re ro o m . 3.6.2 Artifact Handling Procedure The c e ra mic c le a ning a nd d e sa lina tio n p ro c e ss. The p ro c e d ure fo r re g iste ring no n-c e ra m ic a rtifa c ts w a s sim ila r to tha t fo r c e ra m ic s, a ltho ug h the num b e rs w e re fa r le ss. As e a c h b a ske t a rrive d o n the surfa c e , a rtifa c ts w e re re m o ve d , la b e le d a c c o rd ing to g rid , a nd p la c e d d ire c tly into a n a p p ro p ria te sto ra g e m e d ium . Re g istra tio n o f a rtifa c ts g e ne ra lly to o k p la c e in the e ve ning a nd w a s c a rrie d o ut a t the PC w o rk sta tio n in the b a rg e o ffic e . The a rtifa c t d a ta b a se re c o rd e d the fo llo w ing fie ld s: a rtifa c t num b e r; g rid sq ua re ; d a te re c o ve re d ; q ua ntity; m a te ria l (fe rro us, c o p p e r a llo y, e tc .); fo rm (g o ng , b a la nc e w e ig ht, e tc .); c la ssific a tio n (c a rg o , ship ’ s struc ture , e tc .); d im e nsio ns; c o nd itio n; a nd d e sc rip tio n. Dig ita l im a g e s w e re usua lly ta ke n d uring the sa m e re g istra tio n se ssio n fo r inc lusio n in the d a ta b a se . 3.7 Conservation 3.7.1 Conservation of Ceramics C o nse rva tio n o f c e ra m ic s is fa irly stra ig htfo rw a rd . Afte r c le a ning o ff the m a rine g ro w th, it is e sse ntia l to le a c h o ut the sa lts tha t ha ve e nte re d the g la ze a nd b o d y o f the p ie c e d uring the hund re d s o f ye a rs tha t it re ste d o n the se a b e d . If this is no t d o ne , the p re ssure c re a te d b y sa lt c rysta lizing o ut o f so lutio n, p a rtic ula rly b e tw e e n the g la ze a nd the b o d y o f a n im p e rfe c tly g la ze d p ie c e , c a n re sult in e xfo lia tio n a nd c ra c king . To a c hie ve this, the c e ra m ic s w e re p la c e d in d e sa lina tio n b a ths 2 m in d ia m e te r a nd 0.3 m d e e p . A fe w d ro p s o f Alg a e tre ne w e re a d d e d to p re ve nt a lg a e g ro w th. The sa linity o f the w a te r w a s ind ire c tly m e a sure d w ith a c o nd uc tivity p ro b e , a nd the re sult g ra p he d o ve r tim e . As 56 so o n a s the c o nd uc tivity sta rte d to le ve l o ut, the w a te r w a s c ha ng e d . The first w a sh inc re a se d in sa linity ve ry q uic kly, p a rtic ula rly the b a th c o nta ining sto ne w a re ja rs, w hic h a re m o re p o ro us tha n the g la ze d c e ra m ic s. Sub se q ue nt w a she s w e re typ ic a lly c ha ng e d o nc e e ve ry 10 d a ys o r so . The to ta l d e sa lina tio n p e rio d w a s typ ic a lly 3 m o nths. 3.7.2 Conservation of Artifacts Sta b le sto ra g e a nd c o nse rva tio n tre a tm e nt a re d e te rm ine d la rg e ly b y m a te ria l typ e . The d iffe re nt m a te ria ls tha t ha d to b e tre a te d o n this w re c k inc lud e d iro n, c o p p e r a llo y, g la ss, ivo ry, a nd w o o d . The iro n w a s in the fo rm o f c o nc re tio ns, a m a trix o f iro n c o rro sio n p ro d uc ts, sa nd , a nd c a lc a re o us m a rine g ro w th tha t fo rm s a ro und a n iro n a rtifa c t a nd o fte n g ro w s to se ve ra l c e ntim e te rs thic k. In a c tua l fa c t, the re w a s no iro n b a se m e ta l le ft a fte r 750 ye a rs o r so . So m e c o nc re tio ns c o nta ine d a b la c k m a te ria l tha t w a s q uite so lid in p la c e s, b ut c o uld re a d ily b e p ic ke d o ut, a nd o the r c o nc re tio ns c o nta ine d slush. So m e c o nc re tio ns tha t w e re no t to ta lly e nc lo se d w e re c o m p le te ly ho llo w . O b vio usly no thing c a n b e d o ne to sa ve the c o nte nts, b ut the c o nc re tio ns ha ve b e c o m e a m o ld o f the o rig ina l o b je c t. The y w e re sto re d in w a te r, a s the y ve ry q uic kly e xp a nd a nd c ra c k o p e n if a llo w e d to d ry. Se le c te d c o nc re tio ns w e re c ut o p e n w ith a g rind ing d isk a nd c le a ne d o ut so tha t a c a st c o uld b e ta ke n. The c a sting m a te ria l use d w a s Sila stic J RTV silic o ne rub b e r, a lo w -shrink, ro o m te m p e ra ture vulc a nizing c o m p o und tha t g ive s hig hly d e ta ile d re p ro d uc tio ns. C o p p e r a llo y a rtifa c ts te nd to b e fa irly sta b le a fte r p ro lo ng e d im m e rsio n in se a w a te r. The y c a n c e rta inly b e b a d ly c o rro d e d a nd w o rn, b ut d o no t ra p id ly d e te rio ra te w he n re m o ve d fro m the ir m a rine e nviro nm e nt. The lo ng -te rm p ro b le m is b ro nze d ise a se , c a use d b y a b so rb e d sa lts. A g o o d sto ra g e m e d ium tha t a lso re m o ve s c hlo rid e iro ns fro m the a rtifa c t is so d ium se sq uic a rb o na te . The c o p p e r a llo y a rtifa c ts w e re im m e d ia te ly p la c e d in a 3 p e rc e nt so lutio n o n b o a rd the re c o ve ry ve sse l. At the e nd o f the e xc a va tio n it w a s im p ra c tic a l fo r tra nsp o rt in the so lutio n, so the a rtifa c ts w e re rinse d w ith fre sh w a te r a nd a llo w e d to d ry b e fo re b e ing p la c e d in p la stic b a g s w ith silic a g e l to re m o ve a ny re m a ining m o isture . In the c o nse rva tio n la b o ra to ry in Sing a p o re the la rg e ite m s w e re p ut b a c k in so d ium se sq uic a rb o na te fo r se ve ra l m o re w e e ks o f tre a tm e nt. Afte r tha t the y w e re d rie d o ut a s a b o ve a nd c o a te d w ith Inc ra la c . G la ss a rtifa c ts w e re tre a te d in the sa m e w a y a s the c e ra m ic s. The y w e re sim p ly d e sa lina te d in fre sh w a te r. Whe n the inc re a se in so lutio n sa linity b e c a m e m inim a l, the a rtifa c ts w e re p la c e d in p la stic b a g s fo r c o ntro lle d d rying . The ivo ry a rtifa c ts p o se d a b it o f a p ro b le m . The la rg e st p ie c e m e a sure s 620 m m lo ng a nd 130 m m in d ia m e te r, w hile the sm a lle st p ie c e is a 100 m m lo ng tip o f a tusk. All o f the p ie c e s w e re b a d ly d e te rio ra te d a nd e xfo lia ting . The ivo ry w a s so a ke d in fre sh w a te r to re m o ve the sa lt. O ne sm a ll p ie c e w a s p ut in se ve ra l a c e to ne b a ths to re m o ve the w a te r, the n in a 40% a c e to ne / ro sin so lutio n in o rd e r to b ind the la ye rs. The re sults w e re q uite sa tisfa c to ry; ho w e ve r, it is no t p ra c tic a l to use this tre a tm e nt o n la rg e r p ie c e s d ue to the la rg e a m o unt o f a c e to ne tha t is re q uire d . Inste a d , the la rg e r p ie c e s w e re sim p ly b o und in p a ntyho se to re d uc e the risk o f e xfo lia tio n, a nd slo w ly d rie d o ut in p la stic b a g s. So fa r this sim p le m e tho d se e m s to ha ve w o rke d . 57 O nly a fe w p ie c e s o f hig hly d e g ra d e d w o o d w e re re c o ve re d . Tw o o f the se ha d a d o w e l ho le in the m a nd he nc e w e re c o nse rve d . As the y w e re o nly fist size d , the a c e to ne / ro sin m e tho d , a s d e sc rib e d fo r ivo ry a b o ve , w a s use d . Ap a rt fro m a fe w sm a ll shrinka g e c ra c ks, the m e tho d se e m s to ha ve w o rke d w e ll. 58 4.0 SITE CONDITIONS b y Mic hae l Fle c ke r 4.1 Site Description The w re c k lie s in the Ja va Se a in Ind o ne sia in la titud e 4° 14’ S a nd lo ng itud e 106° 40’ E. The so uthe a st c o a st o f Sum a tra lie s 50 na utic a l m ile s to the w e st. The isla nd s o f Ba nka a nd Be litung a re so m e 70 m ile s to the no rth, a nd the no rthe rnm o st isla nd o f the Tho usa nd Isla nd G ro up is situa te d a p p ro xim a te ly 60 m ile s to the so uth. The re a re no isla nd s, re e fs o r sa nd b a nks w ithin 40 m ile s. The ship sa nk in the m id d le o f no w he re . At nig ht the so uthe rn ho rizo n is d isturb e d b y a flic ke ring o ra ng e g lo w tha t m a rks the no rthe rnm o st p ro d uc tio n p la tfo rm o f the Ma xis O ilfie ld . Fishing b o a ts a nd ship s na vig a ting thro ug h the Ba nka Stra its p a ss b y a t re g ula r inte rva ls, b ut fro m tim e to tim e the se a p re se nts 360 d e g re e s o f uninte rrup te d ho rizo n. Tw e nty-six m e te rs b e lo w , the se a b e d is a lso b le a k. A g e ntly und ula ting silty sa nd y b o tto m stre tc he s fo r m ile s in a ll d ire c tio ns. This lo o se a nd m o b ile se d im e nta ry la ye r, va rying fro m 0.5 to 1.0 m thic k, o ve rlie s a stiff m a rine c la y. Enviro nm e nta l a nd b io lo g ic a l w e a the ring ha ve re d uc e d the c la y surfa c e to und ula tio ns, ho le s, a nd lo o se c hunks. Pro je c ting so m e 1.5 to 2.0 m a b o ve the surro und ing se d im e nts, the w re c k m o und fo rm s a sig nific a nt fe a ture o n a n o the rw ise fe a ture le ss se a b e d . A se rie s o f m a ssive iro n c o nc re tio ns p ro trud e s a furthe r 1.5 m a b o ve the m o und , c re a ting a thriving a rtific ia l re e f, a n o a sis in a n a q ue o us d e se rt. The re is a p a tte rn to the c o nc re tio ns. The iro n c a rg o e vid e ntly c o nc re te d to g e the r b e fo re the ship c o m p le te ly d isinte g ra te d . C o m p a rtm e nts a nd b ulkhe a d lo c a tio ns c a n b e re a d ily d isc e rne d fro m the p re se nt c o nc re tio n d isp o sitio n. A lo ng -g o ne lo ng itud ina l b ulkhe a d o r p a rtitio n ha s d ivid e d the c o nc re tio ns into tw o ro w s. Sm a ll c o nc re tio n c hunks lie sc a tte re d a ro und the m a in b lo c ks, p o ssib ly the re sult o f fishe rm e n’ s e xp lo sive s. It is the lo ng itud ina l p a rtitio ning o f the c o nc e ntra tio ns tha t p ro vid e s the o rie nta tio n o f the w re c k, 300°/ 120°, o r WNW/ ESE. Fo r c o nve nie nc e , “ w re c k no rth” is ta ke n a s 30 °, o r NNE, a nd a ll future re fe re nc e s to b e a ring s a re w ith re sp e c t to “ w re c k no rth.” Ap a rt fro m a fe w sc a tte re d sha rd s a nd so m e tub e w o rm s, the se a b e d im m e d ia te ly surro und ing the c o nc re tio ns is b a rre n. In fa c t, the re is a re la tive ly c le a r b a nd o f 10 to 15 m b e fo re sub sta ntia l q ua ntitie s o f surfa c e sha rd s b e c o m e e vid e nt. The o ute r lim its o f the w re c k a re m a rke d b y a c a rp e t o f silt-c o ve re d , e nc ruste d sha rd s. Ag a in, the se fo rm a w id e b a nd a ro und the c e ntra l c o nc re tio ns, a b a nd w ith a re m a rka b ly w e ll d e fine d o ute r e d g e . The o va l-sha p e d a re a thus fo rm e d is 70 m lo ng a nd 55 m w id e . To the so uth, w e st, a nd m uc h o f the no rth, the slo p e o f the w re c k m o und is b a re ly d isc e rnib le . Ho w e ve r, the e a ste rn slo p e a nd so m e p a rts to the no rth a re ve ry d istinc t, a s c a n b e se e n in the illustra tio ns o f the c ro ss se c tio ns (Se c tio n 5.0). In va rio us p la c e s a ro und the site , m a inly to the no rth a nd no rthe a st, the re a re la rg e ho le s. The y a re the re sult o f p re vio us e xc a va tio ns, re p o rte d ly w e ll into the c la y, to d e te rm ine w he the r a ny re m a ins o r a rtifa c ts la y b e ne a th the c la y la ye r. During the tw o ye a rs sinc e the la st e xc a va tio n, the se ho le s ha ve a c c um ula te d o ve r ha lf a m e te r o f fine silt. 58 4.2 Oceanographic and Meteorological Conditions The Ja va Se a is sub je c t to the typ ic a l m o nso o na l w e a the r syste m o f the so uthe rn he m isp he re tro p ic s. The so uthe a st m o nso o n p re va ils fro m Ma y thro ug h Se p te m b e r. The no rthw e st m o nso o n b lo w s fro m No ve m b e r thro ug h Ma rc h a nd te nd s to ha ve stro ng e r, m o re c o nsiste nt w ind s tha n the so uthe a st m o nso o n. Ap ril a nd O c to b e r/ No ve m b e r te nd to b e p e rio d s o f tra nsitio n w ith va ria b le w ind s a nd c a lm s. Mo nso o n-ind uc e d c urre nts te nd to se t in a m o nth o r so p rio r to the true o nse t o f the m o nso o n, flo w ing w e st to no rthw e st d uring the so uthe a st m o nso o n a nd e a st to so uthe a st d uring the no rthw e st m o nso o n. The se c urre nts a re w e a k a nd a re usua lly o ve rrid d e n b y tid a l c urre nts. Ac c o rd ing to Ad m ira lty w e a the r c ha rts the m o nso o n c urre nts ra re ly e xc e e d ha lf a kno t. The tid a l c urre nt re g im e in suc h a n e xp o se d lo c a tio n, w he re the re is re la tive ly little b o und a ry influe nc e , is ve ry c o m p le x. The inte rp la y o f the m o nso o n c urre nt, tid a l m o ve m e nt, a nd lo c a l m e te o ro lo g ic a l c o nd itio ns re sult in c urre nts fro m a ll d ire c tio ns. Whe n a ll fa c to rs c o ntrib ute to a c urre nt in o ne p a rtic ula r d ire c tio n, it m a y re a c h a ve lo c ity o f 2 kno ts. But this is ra re , a nd c urre nts a t the w re c k lo c a tio n ne ve r e xc e e d e d 1 kno t d uring the e xc a va tio n. 59 O ne unusua l p he no m e no n o b se rve d d uring the e xc a va tio n, w hic h w a s und e rta ke n fro m the b e g inning o f Se p te m b e r to the e nd o f O c to b e r 1996, w a s tha t c urre nts te nd e d to b e stro ng e r d uring the ha lf-m o o n p ha se tha n d uring full o r ne w m o o n, a c o ntra st to the no rm . C urre nt shifts w e re typ ic a lly d iurna l w ith a t le a st a n ho ur o f sla c k w a te r b e tw e e n shifts a nd w e re ra re ly d ia m e tric a lly o p p o se d . The a c tua l w e a the r c o nd itio ns o b se rve d o n the site d uring the e xc a va tio n w e re so m e w ha t d iffe re nt fro m the e xp e c te d m o nso o n p a tte rn. During the first tw o w e e ks o f Se p te m b e r the w ind b le w p re d ic ta b ly fro m the so uthe a st thro ug h to no rthe a st w ith m o d e ra te ve lo c ity a nd so m e he a vy ra ins e a rly o n. The re w e re a lso o c c a sio na l sq ua lls, the w o rst g usting to 25 kno ts fo r a full d a y in m id -Se p te m b e r. Wind s w e re the n c o nsiste ntly lig ht fro m the so uthe a st w ith no ra in until the la st w e e k o f the m o nth, w he n the y sw ung so uth a nd so uthw e st a nd b le w ha rd fo r fo ur d a ys, c re a ting sho rt 2 m se a s. A so uthe rly sw e ll p re c e d e d this b lo w b y a full d a y. The first thre e w e e ks o f O c to b e r w e re typ ic a l o f the m o nso o na l tra nsitio n p e rio d , w ith w ind s g e ne ra lly b lo w ing lig htly fro m so uth to e a st, a nd o c c a sio na l sq ua lls a nd ra in fro m the so uth. O nly o ne d a y w a s fla t c a lm . Fro m 20 O c to b e r the re w e re fre q ue nt sq ua lls w ith ve ry he a vy ra in fro m the so uth a nd so uthw e st, la sting fo ur d a ys. The re a fte r, w ind s w e re lig ht fro m the so uth to e a st. O nly o nc e d id the w ind b lo w fro m the no rthw e st, a nd tha t w a s d ue to a sho rt-live d lo c a l thund e rsto rm . Und e rw a te r visib ility w a s m o d e ra te , typ ic a lly ra ng ing fro m 3 to 6 m . Ve ry fine se d im e nts o n the b o tto m w e re e a sily stirre d up b y d ive r a c tivity, a nd in tim e s o f lo w c urre nt, c o uld re sult in ze ro visib ility. Mo d e ra te c urre nts fro m the e a st re sulte d in a n unusua lly lo c a lize d m ilky la ye r o ve r the no rthe a st q ua d ra nt o f the site . Sw e lls fo rm e d b y the so uthe rly b lo w s a lso c a use d re d uc e d visib ility fo r se ve ra l d a ys. 4.3 Environmental Monitoring and Marine Life First, it is inte re sting to no te tha t the a b und a nt life o b se rve d is re stric te d a lm o st e ntire ly to the w re c k m o und . Fifty-m e te r sw im surve ys und e rta ke n in the fo ur c a rd ina l d ire c tio ns fro m the o ute r lim its o f the m o und re ve a le d the o c c a sio na l sho ve le r shrim p w ith its a tte nd a nt g o b y a nd a fe w w o rm ho le s. O the rw ise , the g e ntly und ula ting sa nd y se a b e d a p p e a re d life le ss. The sho ve le r shrim p a nd g o b y w e re a lso a c o m m o n sig ht o n the w re c k m o und . Ho le s in the se d im e nt w ith c le a re d p a ths in fro nt ind ic a te d the ir p re se nc e . C e ra m ic sha rd s o fte n fo rm e d the ro o fs o f the se b urro w s. It is ve ry e a sy to sw im o ve r the m a nd se e no thing , a s the g o b y a c ts a s lo o ko ut a nd d a rts into the ho le w he n d a ng e r is ne a r. Shrim p c o uld so m e tim e s b e o b se rve d c le a ning o ut the e ntra nc e . The y a re a lso kno w n a s b ulld o ze r shrim p , a s the y c a n e ffe c tive ly p ush d e b ris fo rw a rd w ith the ir tw o c la w s c la sp e d to g e the r. The y a re ne a rly b lind a nd m a inta in c o nta c t w ith the g o b y thro ug h the ir lo ng a nte nna e . Whe n a g o b y se nse s d a ng e r, it w a g g le s its ta il a nd the shrim p w a its, re tre a ting if the sig na l c o ntinue s. Fina lly, the g o b y itse lf va nishe s into the ho le . This is a n e ffe c tive sym b io tic re la tio nship w ith the g o b y g e tting a c le a n ho m e a nd the shrim p a fo re w a rning o f p re d a to rs. Se a sna ke s w e re re g ula rly sig hte d a nd o fte n c a use d so m e a la rm b y sw im m ing b e tw e e n the d ive rs’ le g s. Se ve ra l w e nt fo r a rid e up the a irlifts. The y a re ve ry p o iso no us, the ir ve no m b e ing m uc h m o re p o te nt tha n the m o st ve no m o us la nd sna ke ’ s, b ut the y a re d o c ile a nd w e re ne ve r a ny thre a t. Be ing re p tile s, the y ne e d to surfa c e re g ula rly to b re a th a ir w hic h re sulte d in m a ny sig hting s fro m the b a rg e . 60 Live c o ra ls w e re sc a rc e . The re w e re a fe w sm a ll a re a s o f e nc rusting c o ra ls o n the c o nc re tio ns a nd se ve ra l so ft w hip c o ra ls o f d iffe re nt c o lo r, w hic h o fte n g re w o n sha rd s sc a tte re d a b o ut. Se ve ra l sp e c ie s o f sp o ng e s a lso g ro w o n the c o nc re tio ns, a nd o n the sha rd s. inc lud e sm a ll tub e , b a rre l, a nd e nc rusting sp o ng e s. The y Live m o llusks w e re re la tive ly sc a rc e , a ltho ug h d e a d she lls w e re fo und in a nd o n the re c o ve re d c e ra m ic s. O nly live sig hting s w e re no te d . Sim ila rly, o nly a fe w live c ra b s w e re a c tua lly sp o tte d . No w o rm s w e re se e n a ltho ug h the ir ho le s a nd the ir c a sts w e re e vid e nt o n the c e ra m ic s. The c o nc re tio ns p ro vid e d the m a in fo c us fo r fish life in the a re a . Rising up to 1.5 m fro m a n o the rw ise fla t b o tto m , the y se rve d a s a re fug e fo r re sid e nt fish a nd a hunting g ro und fo r the p re d a to ry fish. The b a rg e a lso a ttra c te d p e la g ic fish. La rg e sc ho o ls o f ja c ks w e re o fte n sig hte d b e ne a th the b a rg e , inte rm ing le d w ith b a tfish, ra inb o w runne rs, a nd fusilie rs. Sc ub a d ive rs d e c o m p re ssing o n a line und e r the b a rg e p ro vid e d a c o nve nie nt re fug e fo r fry, b ut fusilie rs a nd ja c ks o fte n d isre g a rd e d the sa nc tua ry o f the d ive r a nd a tta c ke d a nyw a y. C o nsta nt d o d g ing ke p t the d ive r’ s b lo o d c irc ula ting . La rg e g ro up e rs up to a m e te r in le ng th w e re a c o m m o n sig ht a ro und the a irlifting . The y w a tc he d the d ive rs a nd w a ite d fo r a ny fo o d d isturb e d fro m the se d im e nts. The y a lso m a d e the m se lve s c o m fo rta b le in the lifting b a ske t a nd in the d ive r sta g ing . O n d a ys o f p o o r visib ility it w a s e a sy to c o m e up o n a la rg e g ro up e r une xp e c te d ly, surp rising b o th p a rtie s. A g ia nt sting ra y m e a suring 2 m a c ro ss m a d e its ho m e a m o ng the c o nc re tio ns. The re w a s o nly o ne , b ut he ha d m a ny la rg e a nc e sto rs, e vid e nc e d b y sp ine s o ve r 200 m m lo ng lying o n the b o tto m . O ne a ng e lfish sp e c ie s w a s o b se rve d , the b lue line d a ng e l ( Po m o c a nthus a nnula ris). A p a ir o f the se w a s a lw a ys a ro und the c o nc re tio ns, nib b ling o n the a lg a e . No b utte rfly fish, p a rro t fish, o r sim ila r c o m m o n re e f fish, w e re o b se rve d . O the r fish o b se rve d o n the site a re liste d in Ap p e nd ix E. Fa r fro m ha ving a d e trim e nta l e ffe c t o n the m a rine life , the e xc a va tio n c a use d a te m p o ra ry inc re a se in a c tivity, la rg e ly b ro ug ht a b o ut b y the stirring up o f fo o d fro m the se d im e nts. Se d im e nt fro m the a irlift d isc ha rg e b la nke te d c o ra ls a nd sp o ng e s o n the c o nc re tio ns a t tim e s, b ut m o d e ra te c urre nts p re ve nte d sig nific a nt a c c um ula tio n. The c o nc re tio ns w e re no t d isturb e d , so re sid e nt m a rine o rg a nism s w e re no t d isp la c e d . So ft c o ra l (De nd ro ne p hthya sp .) So ft c o ra l (De nd ro ne p hthya sp .) 61 Nurse sha rk (Ne b rius fe rrug ine us) Ma rb le d g ro up e r (Ep ine p he lus p o lyp he ka d io n) Blue line d a ng e lfish (Po mo c a nthus a nnula ris) Ma rb le d g ro up e r (Ep ine p he lus p o lyp he ka d io n) Ye llo w ta il b a rra c ud a (Sp hyra e na Sc ra wle d file fish (Alute rus sc rip ta ) je llo ) Ha wksb ill turtle (Ere tmo c he lys imb ric a ta ) Bla c k sp o tte d sting ra y (Ta e niura me la no sp ilo s) Se a sna ke (Unid e ntifie d sp e c ie s) Shrimp g o b y (Amb lye le o tris sp .) 62 Nud ib ra nc h (Bo rne lla sp .) Purp le tub e sp o ng e (C rib o c ha lina sp .) Fe a the r sta r o n rim (Unid e ntifie d sp e c ie s) Nud ib ra nc h (C hro mo d o ris sp .) Se a c uc umb e r (Stic ho p us va rie g a tus) Pa ir o f fla two rms (Thysa no zo o n sp .) Ye llo w whip c o ra l (Ellise lla sp .) 63 5.0 THE WRECKING PROCESS b y Mic ha e l Fle c ke r A d e sc rip tio n o f the site p rio r to e xc a va tio n is g ive n in Se c tio n 4.1, Site De sc rip tio n. To re c a p itula te , the surfa c e c e ra m ic s sc a tte r o c c urs o ve r a n o va l-sha p e d a re a a p p ro xim a te ly 70 m lo ng b y 55 m w id e , w hic h is slig htly le ss tha n the e xte nt o f the so -c a lle d w re c k m o und . The hig he st p o int o n the m o und p ro je c ts ne a rly 2 m a b o ve the surro und ing se a b e d . In the c e nte r o f the m o und a re tw o ro w s o f iro n c o nc re tio ns tha t a ssum e d the sha p e o f the c o m p a rtm e nts in w hic h the iro n c a rg o w a s sto re d b e fo re the ship d isinte g ra te d . The c o nc re tio ns c o ve r a n a re a o f a p p ro xim a te ly 18 m b y 10 m in the sa m e a lig nm e nt a s the m o und a nd p ro je c t a furthe r 1.5 m a b o ve the se d im e nts. A w re c k m o und is no rm a lly fo rm e d b y se d im e nt b uild ing up o ve r hull a nd c a rg o re m a ins. Typ ic a lly, se d im e nt c a rrying c urre nts d ro p p a rt o f the ir b urd e n in the le e o f a n o b struc tio n. If c urre nts tra ve l in se ve ra l d ire c tio ns, this c a n le a d to a ra p id b uria l o f the site , w ith the re sult tha t hull tim b e rs a re p ro te c te d fro m m a rine b o re rs a nd c e ra m ic s a re p ro te c te d fro m a b ra sio n a nd m a rine g ro w th. C o nse q ue ntly, this va st site w a s initia lly vie w e d w ith g re a t o p tim ism . Ve ry e a rly in the e xc a va tio n, ho w e ve r, a stiff c la y w a s fo und to und e rlie a la ye r o f se d im e nt a nd c e ra m ic s. The e le va tio n o f the c la y w a s hig he r tha n the surro und ing se a b e d . This le a d to sp e c ula tio n tha t the c la y w a s p a rt o f the c a rg o , b ut the re w a s fa r to o m uc h a nd it w a s sp re a d fa r to o w id e fo r this. The n it w a s sug g e ste d tha t the m o und w a s c o m p le te ly surro und e d b y a sc o ur tre nc h, b ut so und ing runs sw um fo r 50 m fro m the o ute r lim it o f the c e ra m ic s sc a tte r in fo ur d ire c tio ns ind ic a te d tha t the re w a s no sc o ur tre nc h a t a ll. The he ig ht o f the c la y re la tive to the surro und ing se a b e d is vivid ly d e p ic te d in the lo ng itud ina l a nd tra nsve rse c ro ss se c tio ns o f the w re c k site . Ano the r p uzzling d isc o ve ry w a s tha t a b so lute ly no ne o f the hull ha d survive d inta c t, no t e ve n und e r the iro n c o nc re tio ns. The o nly w o o d tha t w a s fo und w a s in fist-size d e ro d e d c hunks, a nd the re w e re o nly a fe w d o ze n o f tho se . 64 Furthe rm o re , e ve ry c e ra m ic ite m tha t w a s re c o ve re d , w itho ut e xc e p tio n, ha d so m e m a rine g ro w th o n it, w he the r o yste r she lls, c o ra l o r sp o ng e s. So e ve ry p ie c e ha s b e e n c o m p le te ly e xp o se d fo r a t le a st so m e o f its life o n the se a b e d . The re fo re , it ha s b e e n d e d uc e d tha t the ship c a m e to re st up rig ht o n a c la y se a b e d w ith little o r no se d im e nta ry o ve rb urd e n. O ve r se ve ra l d e c a d e s the hull tim b e rs w e re e ro d e d b y c urre nts a nd e a te n b y to re d o w o rm s. As the up p e rm o st tim b e rs c o lla p se d , the c e ra m ic s c a rg o , w hic h w a s sto w e d o n to p o f the iro n c a rg o , sta rte d to sp ill o ut in a ll d ire c tio ns. With no se d im e nt c o ve ring the tim b e rs the y w e re e ve ntua lly c o m p le te ly c o nsum e d . The iro n c a rg o , c o nsisting o f sta c ks o f w o ks a nd b und le s o f b a rs, w a s w e ll c o nc re te d to g e the r b e fo re the w o o d e n c o m p a rtm e nts d isa p p e a re d . Tho se m a ssive lum p s o f c o nc re te d iro n ha ve e sse ntia lly re m a ine d in the ir o rig ina l lo c a tio n e ve r sinc e a nd c le a rly d e p ic t the lo ng -g o ne b ulkhe a d s a nd o utline o f the ship . As the c o nta ine rs ho ld ing the c e ra m ic s (p o ssib ly w o o d e n b a rre ls o r b und le s o f stra w ) ro tte d a w a y, the c e ra m ic s sp ille d o ut o ve r a w id e r a re a . The re the n fo llo w e d a n e ro sio n re g im e , o r p e rha p s it w a s o ng o ing . The e ntire se a b e d in the re g io n o f the ship w re c k ha s b e e n e ro d e d a w a y b y a s m uc h a s 2 m . But the w id e sc a tte r o f c e ra m ic s p ro te c te d the c la y und e r the w re c k fro m e ro sio n. As a slo p e b e g a n to fo rm a ro und the e vo lving m o und , m o re c e ra m ic s w o uld slid e d o w n, inc re a sing the sc a tte r a nd the re sulta nt p ro te c te d a re a . Eve ntua lly the e ntire c e ra m ic s c a rg o la y in a ring a ro und a n e sse ntia lly b a re hill. Pe rc he d o n to p o f the hill w e re the ro w s o f iro n c o nc re tio ns. Lo o king a t sa m p le s o f the stiff c la y, it is ha rd to b e lie ve tha t so m uc h c o uld ha ve b e e n e ro d e d . Tw o c o re sa m p le s w e re a na lyze d b y Dr. Ta n Thia m So o n o f the Na tio na l Unive rsity o f Sing a p o re C ivil Eng ine e ring De p a rtm e nt. A c o re ta ke n fro m the to p o f the m o und ind ic a te s tha t the c la y is ve ry stiff. Six c e ntim e te rs fro m the c la y surfa c e , it ha s a va ne she a r stre ng th o f 63 kN/ m 2, a nd 14 c m d o w n it g e ts a s hig h a s 107 kN/ m 2 (se e Ap p e nd ix F). But w he n the o ve rb urd e n is re m o ve d to e xp o se the c la y surfa c e , e xte nsive w e a the ring a nd b io lo g ic a l d e g ra d a tio n b e c o m e e vid e nt. Ra the r tha n a sm o o th surfa c e , it is p o c km a rke d w ith ho le s tha t ha ve b e e n 65 c re a te d b y tub e w o rm s a nd is c o ve re d in sm a ll c hunks o f c la y. O n a la rg e r sc a le , the re a re ho le s a nd tre nc he s in the c la y w e ll o ve r a m e te r d e e p a nd se ve ra l m e te rs in e xte nt, p o ssib ly w he re the c la y w a s le ss stiff a nd he nc e m o re e a sily e ro d e d (the se a re no t to b e m ista ke n fo r the ho le s d ug b y e a rlie r sa lvo rs). The se ho le s ha ve b e c o m e tra p s fo r c e ra m ic s. It is inte re sting to no te tha t the c la y o f the surro und ing se a b e d , a nd p re sum a b ly tha t und e rlying the m o und , is sig nific a ntly d iffe re nt to the c la y in the m o und . The m o und c la y is stre a ke d w ith re d . Whe n kne a d e d it b e c o m e s a unifo rm o c hre c o lo r. The se a b e d c la y is g e ne ra lly g ra y w ith so m e b ro w n inc lusio ns, a nd it is c o nsid e ra b ly so fte r, ha ving a va ne she a r o f 25 kN/ m 2 10 c m b e lo w the c la y surfa c e . This is sim ila r to the c la y fo und 24 c m b e lo w the c la y surfa c e o n the m o und a nd im p lie s tha t m o st o f the 2 m o r so tha t ha s e ro d e d a w a y w a s a so ft c la y. It w a s a lso a fa irly silty c la y, a s ind ic a te d b y a p a rtic le size d istrib utio n te st, w ith up to 36% silt. In m o re re c e nt tim e s, w ith g re a tly inc re a se d a g ric ulture a nd d e fo re sta tio n, the se a b e d in the re g io n o f the ship w re c k ha s b e c o m e a d e p o sito ry e nviro nm e nt. Aro und the m o und the re is typ ic a lly a 0.3 m se d im e nt la ye r o ve r the c la y. O n the m o und the se d im e nt surfa c e is fa irly unifo rm . It is the und ula tio ns in the und e rlying c la y tha t c a use c o nsid e ra b le va ria tio n in the thic kne ss o f the la ye r. In a d e e p ho le the re m a y b e m o re tha n 1.5 m o f se d im e nt, w he re a s w ithin the b a rre n b a nd a ro und the c o nc re tio ns it c a n b e a s little a s 0.1 m thic k. The re is 0.5 to 0.9 m o f se d im e nt a ro und the c o nc re tio ns. The re w e re virtua lly no c e ra m ic s b e tw e e n the c o nc re tio ns, a nd ve ry fe w w ithin a 10 to 15 m ra d ius. The la c k o f c e ra m ic s b e tw e e n the c o nc re tio ns is und e rsta nd a b le if the w o o d e n b ulkhe a d s survive d until a fte r the c e ra m ic s w e re sw e p t o ff the iro n, thus le a ving no g a p fo r the m to e nte r. It re m a ins a m yste ry w hy the re w e re so fe w c e ra m ic s in the im m e d ia te vic inity o f the c o nc re tio ns. G ive n the sha llo w na ture o f the o ve rb urd e n, it is p o ssib le tha t fishe rm e n sa lvo rs w ith no e xc a va tio n e q uip m e nt c o nc e ntra te d the ir e ffo rts he re . But the re a re no t m a ny sha rd s in this a re a , e ithe r, a nd it is unlike ly tha t fishe rm e n b o the re d to re c o ve r o r m o ve the sha rd s. So , ra the r tha n a n inta c t hull fille d w ith iro n a nd c e ra m ic s still in the ir o rig ina l p a c king , the site d isc lo se d a hug e sc a tte r o f b ro ke n c e ra m ic s. It is e stim a te d tha t a t le a st 80% o f the c e ra m ic s c a rg o w a s b ro ke n. G ive n the d ista nc e p ie c e s ha ve tra ve le d fro m the o rig ina l w re c k lo c a tio n, this is no t to o surp rising . As if this w a s no t e no ug h, it se e m s tha t e xp lo sive s ha ve b e e n use d o n the site fo r fishing . The re is e vid e nc e to sup p o rt this. In iso la te d a re a s the re is ne a rly 100% b re a ka g e , a nd the sha rd s a re sm a lle r tha n usua l. The stiff c la y la ye r w o uld a c t a s a w a ll a nd b o unc e the sho c k w a ve s b a c k, so the re w a s little c ha nc e fo r the c e ra m ic s ne a r g ro und ze ro . 66 6.0 INTERPRETING THE SHIP b y Mic hae l Fle c ke r 6.1 Hull Structure The re is no surviving hull struc ture , o nly a fe w fist-size d p ie c e s o f w o o d sc a tte re d a b o ut the site . As d isc usse d in Se c tio n 5.0, The Wre c king Pro c e ss, the hull a nd c a rg o ha ve b e e n c o m p le te ly e xp o se d to the e le m e nts fo r p ro lo ng e d p e rio d s. The re w a s no la ye r o f fine se d im e nts to a ffo rd p ro te c tio n. C o nse q ue ntly, e ve ry p ie c e o f the c e ra m ic s c a rg o w a s e nc ruste d to so m e e xte nt w ith m a rine g ro w th, a nd a ll o f the ship ’ s tim b e rs ha ve b e e n e a te n a w a y b y m a rine b o re rs a nd c urre nt e ro sio n. To le a rn so m e thing o f the ship , w e m ust inste a d stud y the m a ssive b lo c ks o f iro n c o nc re tio n tha t d o m ina te the site . The iro n c a rg o w a s sto w e d in the lo w e r ho ld s a nd fuse d to g e the r b e fo re the ship d isinte g ra te d . The b lo c ks ha ve ha rd ly m o ve d fro m the ir o rig ina l re sting p la c e d ue to the ir g re a t w e ig ht. It is the sha p e o f the c o nc re tio ns a nd the ir d isp o sitio n tha t hints a t the ve sse l la yo ut. Iron Concretion Plan Whe n stud ying the C o nc re tio n Pla n, the o rd e rly la yo ut o f the b lo c ks is im m e d ia te ly a p p a re nt. The y a re d ivid e d lo ng itud ina lly into tw o ro w s b y a lo ng na rro w g a p , a nd tra nsve rse ly 66 the y a re sim ila rly se p a ra te d . The se g a p s a re the p o sitio ns o f b ulkhe a d s tha t ro tte d a w a y lo ng ago. A lo ng itud ina l b ulkhe a d is a n unusua l fe a ture . In fa c t, to the a utho r’ s kno w le d g e suc h a struc tura l e le m e nt ha s ne ve r b e fo re b e e n re c o rd e d o n a ship o f this e ra . It is fe a sib le tha t w he n the hull c o lla p se d , the c o nso lid a te d iro n c a rg o , p a c ke d a c ro ss the full w id th o f the ship , b ro ke a t the ke e l, b ut suc h a unifo rm b re a k in e ve ry c o m p a rtm e nt m a ke s this hig hly unlike ly. Ano the r p o ssib ility is tha t the re w a s a no nstruc tura l p a rtitio n running the le ng th o f the ship , b ut the w id th o f the g a p sug g e sts a sub sta ntia l struc tura l e le m e nt. C o nje c tura l Bulkhe a d La yo ut Tra nsve rse g a p s sug g e st a m inim um o f tw e lve b ulkhe a d s, d ivid ing the ship into thirte e n c o m p a rtm e nts. The c o m p a rtm e nt w id ths va rie d fro m 1.2 to 1.5 m in the c e ntra l p o rtio n o f the ship . Tw o sto ne a nc ho rs w e re fo und lying sid e b y sid e in G rid K3, a stro ng ind ic a to r tha t the b o w o f the ship is fa c ing e a st. This sup p o sitio n is sup p o rte d b y the sha p e o f C o nc re tio n 19, the e a ste rnm o st b lo c k. Lo o king a t this c o nc re tio n fro m the no rthe a st a t se a b e d le ve l, o ne c a n c le a rly se e the d e e p V se c tio n o f the b o w . The b lo c k se e m s to ha ve ske w e d 45 d e g re e s w he n the hull c o lla p se d . In the o rig ina l c o nfig ura tio n the lo w e r le ve ls o f the fo rw a rd ho ld m ust ha ve b e e n fille d w ith iro n b a rs a nd c a uld ro ns. The lo ng itud ina l b ulkhe a d a p p e a rs to ha ve sto p p e d a t the fo re m o st b ulkhe a d a nd no t c o ntinue d a ll the w a y to the b o w . Lo o king d o w n o n C o nc re tio n 19, it c a n b e se e n tha t the b o w fla re d o ut ve ry q uic kly fro m a fine p ro w . The b o w c o m p a rtm e nt w a s a p p ro xim a te ly 2.7 m in lo ng itud ina l e xte nt. 67 End vie w o f the “ b o w” c o nc re tio n. Pla n vie w o f the “ b o w” c o nc re tio n (the b o tto m le ft is the “ b o w” ). To w a rd s the ste rn the c o nc re tio ns a re b ro ke n into sm a lle r b lo c ks a nd a re m o re sc a tte re d . This m a y p a rtly b e the w o rk o f fishe rm e n’ s d yna m ite . But it is a lso p ro b a b ly d ue to the iro n b e ing sto w e d in the ra ise d ste rn, w hic h m ust ha ve c o lla p se d b e fo re the lo w e r hull. At C o nc re tio n 4 the p a tte rn b e c o m e s a sym m e tric . The re is no thing o n the p o rt sid e to b a la nc e the w e ig ht o f C o nc re tio n 4. Eithe r the p o rt sid e w a s lo a d e d w ith a no the r c a rg o , suc h a s c e ra m ic s, o r C o nc re tio n 4 ha s fa lle n to o ne sid e a nd o rig ina lly w a s a m id ship s. If the la tte r, the n the lo ng itud ina l b ulkhe a d sto p p e d sho rt a t this c o m p a rtm e nt. C o nc re tio n 12 ha s a ve ry inte re sting c ro ss se c tio n. The o ute r p o rtio n o f this c o nc re tio n turns up a b rup tly fro m the ho rizo nta l, sug g e sting tha t it is a m o ld ing o f the turn-o f-the -b ilg e . If it is, the n the ve sse l m ust ha ve b e e n fla t b o tto m e d a nd ha rd c hine d . C o nc re tio n 12, ho w e ve r, is o nly ha lf a s lo ng a s c o nc re tio ns o n the p o rt sid e , so it c o uld no t ha ve e xte nd e d to the turn o f the b ilg e . An e xp la na tio n is tha t the iro n w a s sta c ke d up o n a no the r fo rm o f c a rg o a t this p o int, a c a rg o tha t ha s lo ng sinc e d isa p p e a re d , suc h a s wo o d . C ro ss se c tio na l vie w o f C o nc re tio n 12. The sha p e o f C o nc re tio n 19 ind ic a te s tha t iro n w a s sto w e d a ll the w a y up to the b o w . Fro m the sym m e try o f the c e ra m ic s sp re a d a b o ut the c e ntra lly lo c a te d c o nc re tio n a sse m b ly, it is re a so na b le to a ssum e tha t iro n w a s lo a d e d a lo ng the full le ng th o f the ship . This ind ic a te s a ke e l le ng th in the o rd e r o f 18 m . The w e ll c o nso lid a te d C o nc re tio n 11 is 3.8 m lo ng , g iving a m inim um hull w id th o f 7.6 m . The sto ne a nc ho rs a re 3.2 m e a st o f C o nc re tio n 19. Assum ing the y w e re sto w e d rig ht o n the fo re p e a k a nd d id no t m o ve fa r la te ra lly w he n the ship c o lla p se d , the b o w o ve rha ng w a s a p p ro xim a te ly 4 m . If the ste rn o ve rha ng w a s o f the sa m e o rd e r, the le ng th o ve ra ll w o uld ha ve b e e n a p p ro xim a te ly 26 m , g iving a n a sp e c t ra tio o f 1:3.4. 68 Altho ug h ve ry fe w p ie c e s o f w o o d survive d , tw o sm a ll c hunks d id ha ve id e ntifia b le d o w e l ho le s. O ne w a s o nly a c ro ss se c tio n w ith a d o w e l d ia m e te r o f 15 m m . The o the r e nc a se d the e ntire ho le w ith a d o w e l d ia m e te r o f 27 m m . Do we l ho le in a wo o d fra g me nt. 6.2 Stowage Pattern and Cargo Capacity Iro n a nd c e ra m ic s m a d e up the b ulk o f the c a rg o . O the r ite m s, suc h a s ivo ry a nd c o p p e r a llo y w a re , w e re a lso p re se nt, b ut the sto w a g e o f the se le ss sig nific a nt tra d e g o o d s is d isc usse d in Se c tio n 7.0, Artifa c ts. Iro n w a s sto w e d first a nd a p p e a rs to ha ve b e e n p la c e d in the lo w e r p o rtio n o f e ve ry ho ld . It is ve ry d iffic ult to m a ke o ut the ind ivid ua l c o m p o ne nts o f the m a ssive c o nc re tio n b lo c ks, b ut in so m e p la c e s it is c le a r. Ma ny a re m a d e up e ntire ly o f b und le s o f iro n b a rs la she d to g e the r in a c o ne sha p e . The c o ne s ha ve b e e n sta c ke d e nd -fo r-e nd in a lo ng itud ina l d ire c tio n. C a uld ro ns a re sta c ke d o ne insid e the o the r in a lo ng itud ina l d ire c tio n a s w e ll, o fte n o n to p o f the iro n b a rs. O ne e xc e p tio n is C o nc re tio n 6, w hic h is m a d e up o f la rg e r c a uld ro ns sta c ke d a thw a rtship s. By c a lc ula ting the vo lum e o f the iro n c o nc re tio ns, m a king a 30 % a llo w a nc e fo r e xp a nsio n a nd p a c king inte rstic e s a nd using a sp e c ific g ra vity o f 7.2 fo r c a st iro n, the to ta l w e ig ht c a n b e e stim a te d a t 340 to ns. To g e t a n id e a o f the sto w a g e o f the c e ra m ic s, it is w o rth lo o king a t the O ve ra ll Site Pla n (Se c tio n 4.1) a nd the O ve ra ll C e ra m ic s Distrib utio n Plo t (Ap p e nd ix C ). The c e ra m ic s ha ve sp re a d o ut 20 to 25 m in a ll d ire c tio ns fro m the iro n c o nc re tio ns. The C e ra m ic s Distrib utio n Plo t m ust be inte rp re te d w ith c a utio n sinc e a s m a ny a s 12,000 p ie c e s w e re re c o ve re d in e a rlie r e xc a va tio ns. It d o e s, ho w e ve r, ind ic a te tre nd s. The re is a d e a rth o f p ie c e s in the so uthe a st q ua d ra nt, b ut this is Bund le s o f iro n b a rs c o nc re te d to g e the r. 69 o ffse t b y a n a b und a nc e to the no rthe a st. O ve ra ll, the d istrib utio n o f c e ra m ic s is fa irly e ve n a lo ng the w ho le le ng th o f the site , sug g e sting tha t c e ra m ic s w e re lo a d e d in e ve ry ho ld o f the ve sse l. The y m ust ha ve b e e n lo a d e d o n to p o f the iro n c a rg o , p ro b a b ly in stra w c ylind e rs a nd w o o d e n b a rre ls. No thing re m a ins o f the p a c king m a te ria l. It is inte re sting to stud y the d istrib utio n o f the va rio us typ e s o f c e ra m ic s to d e te rm ine in w hic h p a rt o f the ship the y w e re sto w e d (se e Ap p e nd ix D, C e ra m ic s Distrib utio n Plo ts). Ea rthe nw a re ke nd is w e re sto w e d thro ug ho ut the ship , a ltho ug h the re a re m uc h hig he r c o nc e ntra tio ns just fo rw a rd o f m id ship s a nd a t the b o w . As the ke nd is a re p ro b a b ly no t fro m C hina , b ut ra the r w e re p ic ke d up a t a p o rt e n ro ute to Ja va , it is re a so na b le to c o nc lud e tha t the y w e re lo a d e d o n to p o f the C hine se c e ra m ic s c a rg o a lo ng the le ng th o f the ship w he re ve r the re w a s re m a ining ho ld sp a c e . In fa c t, so m e o f the C hine se c e ra m ic s m a y ha ve b e e n b a rte re d fo r the ke nd is w hic h w e re ve ry p o p ula r in Ind o ne sia . O c ta g o na l c o ve re d b o xe s a p p e a r to ha ve b e e n sto w e d thro ug ho ut the ve sse l. So to o w e re p ro vinc ia l d ishe s, b ut the re w e re m o re in the b o w a re a . G la ze d p ro vinc ia l b o w ls w ith no d e c o ra tio n w e re e sse ntia lly sto w e d fro m m id ship s a ft; w he re a s p ro vinc ia l b o w ls w ith a n ung la ze d ring in the w e ll w e re sto w e d in the ste rn a nd in the b o w , b ut no t a m id ship s. Fine b o w ls w ith a n inc ise d d e c o ra tio n w e re a lso p rim a rily sto w e d in the ste rn a nd in the b o w w ith o nly a sm a ll q ua ntity just fo rw a rd o f m id ship s. Sm a ll q ing b a i va se s w e re sto w e d fro m m id ship s fo rw a rd w ith the va st m a jo rity rig ht up in the b o w c o m p a rtm e nts. Sm a ll d ishe s w ith a n inc ise d d e c o ra tio n, o n the o the r ha nd , w e re sto w e d e ve ryw he re e xc e p t in the b o w . Sm a ll c o nic a l b o w ls w ith a n inc ise d d e c o ra tio n w e re sto w e d a m id ship s a nd p e rha p s in a fe w c o m p a rtm e nts just a ft o f tha t. Me rc ha nts w e re g e ne ra lly a llo tte d c o m p a rtm e nts o r p o rtio ns o f c o m p a rtm e nts fo r the ir tra d e g o o d s. Unfo rtuna te ly, the hug e sc a tte r o f c e ra m ic s m a ke s it im p o ssib le to d e te rm ine the sto w a g e p a tte rn b y c o m p a rtm e nt. So it is d iffic ult to sa y w he the r the d iffe re nt typ e s o f c e ra m ic s lo a d e d thro ug ho ut the ship w e re d e te rm ine d b y the p re fe re nc e o f ind ivid ua l m e rc ha nts o r w e re g o ve rne d b y a fe w ind ivid ua ls ship p ing a la rg e c o nsig nm e nt. A ve ry ro ug h e stim a te c a n b e m a d e o f the w e ig ht o f the c e ra m ic s c a rg o . Ba se d o n a t le a st 100,000 p ie c e s o f typ ic a l ric e b o w l size (m a ny p ie c e s a re la rg e r a nd m a ny sm a lle r), the c e ra m ic s c a rg o w e ig he d b e tw e e n 25 a nd 30 to ns. The m a ssive iro n c a rg o a nd hug e sp re a d o f c e ra m ic s stro ng ly ind ic a te s tha t the ship w a s lo a d e d to c a p a c ity. Fro m the e stim a te d w e ig ht o f the c a rg o a nd fro m d e d uc e d ship ’ s d im e nsio ns, it is e stim a te d tha t the lo a d e d d isp la c e m e nt o f the ship w a s 400 to 500 to ns. 6.3 Wood Identification Tw o w o o d sa m p le s w e re id e ntifie d b y Dr. Ia n G o d fre y o f the De p a rtm e nt o f Ma te ria ls C o nse rva tio n a t the We ste rn Austra lia n Ma ritim e Muse um (Ap p e nd ix G ). The se sa m p le s, fro m the ir size a nd a p p e a ra nc e , w e re fro m struc tura l tim b e rs. O the r w o o d sa m p le s w e re c o lle c te d ; ho w e ve r, the y w e re m o stly in the fo rm o f b ra nc he s. Suc h m a te ria l c o uld ha ve b e e n c a rg o (i.e . a ro m a tic w o o d s) o r d unna g e , b ut it c o uld a lso b e intrusive to the site . Bra nc h w o o d is a lso d iffic ult to p o sitive ly id e ntify. Mo st o f the sm a ll p ie c e s o f w o o d re c o ve re d w e re o f the sa m e sp e c ie s, jud g ing fro m m a c ro sc o p ic e xa m ina tio n. The y inc lud e d the tw o p ie c e s w ith d o w e l ho le s a llud e d to e a rlie r. The sp e c ie s is tho ug ht to b e Pa ra ste m o n , w ith the fe a ture s o f P. Uro p hyllus (c o m m o n na m e 70 Ma nd a ila s) b e st m a tc hing the sa m p le s. Pa ra ste m o n sp e c ie s a re na tive to So uthe a st Asia a nd ne ig hb o ring re g io ns, b e ing fo und in We ste rn Ira n, Pa p ua Ne w G uine a , So lo m a n Isla nd s, Mya nm a r, Ind o ne sia , a nd the Ma la y Pe ninsula , a s w e ll a s so m e a d ja c e nt c o untrie s a nd isla nd s. Ano the r p o ssib le m a tc h fo r this tim b e r, a ltho ug h le ss like ly tha n Pa ra ste m o n , is Pa rina ri. This is fo und thro ug ho ut So uthe a st Asia a nd in so uthe rn C hina to so m e e xte nt. The d ra w b a c k o n b o th o f the se sp e c ie s is tha t the tre e s a re no t p a rtic ula rly la rg e a nd the tim b e r is m o re d iffic ult to w o rk. The o the r sa m p le tha t w a s id e ntifie d w a s o f a lig ht-c o lo re d so ft w o o d , a fra g m e nt o f a sm a ll re c ta ng ula r b e a m w ith a b e ve le d e d g e . The b e st m a tc h is tha t o f Alsto nia sc ho la ris (c o m m o n na m e : w hite c he e se w o o d o r m ilkw o o d ), w hic h is na tive to Afric a a nd the Philip p ine s, a s w e ll a s the c o untrie s liste d a b o ve . This tim b e r is e a sy to w o rk a nd c o m e s fro m la rg e tre e s. Be ing a so ft w o o d , ho w e ve r, it is no t d ura b le . Unfo rtuna te ly, a s a re sult o f the hig hly d e g ra d e d na ture o f the sa m p le , this id e ntific a tio n sho uld no t b e re g a rd e d a s c o nc lusive . 6.4 Identifying the Ship De sp ite the fa c t tha t the m a in c a rg o o f iro n a nd c e ra m ic s is fro m C hina , it is unlike ly tha t the ship is o f the sa m e o rig in. 6.4.1 Construction Materials The fe w surviving fra g m e nts o f w o o d p ro vid e a n im p o rta nt c lue a s to ve sse l o rig in. The Ja va Se a Wre c k se e m s to ha ve b e e n b uilt la rg e ly of m a nd a ila s, a p re d o m ina ntly So uthe a st Asia n tim b e r, a nd m ilkw o o d , a lso tro p ic a l b ut m a y b e fo und in the ve ry so uth o f C hina . It is inte re sting to no te the w o o d s id e ntifie d o n o the r no nEuro p e a n ship w re c ks d isc o ve re d in Asia . The Phu Q uo c ship (Bla ke a nd Fle c ke r, 1994) ha s b ulkhe a d s o f p a d a uk ( Pte ro c a rp us Sp .), a tim b e r to d a y re stric te d to Mya nm a r a nd the And a m a n Isla nd s, a nd hull p la nks o f te a k ( Te c to na g ra nd is), w hic h o c c urs m a inly in Mya nm a r, Tha ila nd , a nd Ind o ne sia . The p la nks w e re e d g e jo ine d w ith d o w e ls o f sa p p a n wo o d ( C a e sa lp ine a sa p p a n ), w hic h is w id e ly use d b y So uthe a st Asia n b o a tb uild e rs, suc h a s the Bug is, to this d a y (Ho rrid g e , 1985). This w re c k w a s d a te d to the Bulkhe a d a nd c o mp a rtme nt p la ns o f the Phu Q uo c Wre c k. 71 fo urte e nth o r e a rly fifte e nth c e ntury a nd w a s a lm o st c e rta inly b uilt in Tha ila nd , a ltho ug h p ro b a b ly und e r C hine se sup e rvisio n o r influe nc e . The Pa tta ya ship (G re e n a nd Ha rp e r, 1982), ha d b ulkhe a d s c o nstruc te d fro m b e e c h. The p a rtic ula r sp e c ie s w a s no t id e ntifie d . Be e c h is fo und a c ro ss c e ntra l a nd no rthe rn Euro p e , the Ba ltic , a nd thro ug ho ut Asia . Ja p a ne se Be e c h is re stric te d to So uthe rn C hina , Ja p a n, Tha ila nd a nd Ko re a . This w re c k is a lso tho ug ht to b e o f Tha i o rig in. The Q ua ng zho u ship (G re e n, 1983) ha d a p ine ke e l, a c e d a r hull, a nd a c a m p ho r tra nso m b e a m . This w re c k fro m c irc a 1277 is b e lie ve d to ha ve b e e n b uilt in So uthe rn C hina . It is c o nte m p o ra ry to the Ja va Se a Wre c k. The c o nstruc tio n a p p e a rs to b e sim ila r, w ith 12 c lo se ly sp a c e d b ulkhe a d s b e ing the m o st striking p a ra lle l, a nd ye t the m a te ria ls use d a re ve ry d iffe re nt. By w a y o f inte re st, the a sp e c t ra tio o f the Q ua ng zho u ship w a s 1:3.1 c o m p a re d to 1:3.4 fo r the Ja va Se a ship . Fro m the w o o d id e ntific a tio n a lo ne , it se e m s unlike ly tha t the Ja va Se a ship w a s c o nstruc te d in C hina . Te a k w a s o ne o f the m a in tim b e rs use d fo r the c o nstruc tio n o f ve sse ls in Tha ila nd , d ue to its a va ila b ility, w o rka b ility, e xc e lle nt d ura b ility, a nd re sista nc e to the to re d o w o rm . The a b se nc e o f te a k o n the Ja va Se a Wre c k sug g e sts tha t it m a y no t ha ve b e e n c o nstruc te d in Tha ila nd e ithe r. 6.4.2 Stones Anchors As p re vio usly m e ntio ne d , tw o sto ne a nc ho rs w e re fo und in G rid K3. The y w e re lying sid e b y sid e , p a ra lle l to the a xis o f the ship . The la rg e r a nc ho r m e a sure s 1180 m m lo ng , 480 m m w id e , a nd 280 m m thic k. It ha s b e e n sha p e d o ut o f a ha rd sa nd sto ne . In p ro file a nd in se c tio n it lo o ks like a ship ’ s rud d e r. Ba re ly visib le line s c hise le d into the sto ne stra ng e ly c o rre sp o nd to the p inte l stra p s o f a rud d e r. The o the r a nc ho r is sha p e d o ut o f a la rg e b lo c k o f lim e sto ne . It is 1120 m m lo ng , 430 m m w id e , 220 m m thic k a nd ha s a sim ila r sha p e to the Sto ne a nc ho r sha p e d fro m sa nd sto ne , in situ. sa nd sto ne a nc ho r. It is inte re sting tha t a p o ro us a nd re la tive ly lig ht lim e sto ne ha s b e e n use d fo r a n a nc ho r, w he re w e ig ht is a p rim e c o nsid e ra tio n. A sto ne a nc ho r sto c k w a s fo und o n the Bre a ke r Sho a l Wre c k in the Philip p ine s, w hic h ha s a ve ry sim ila r c a rg o a nd d a te to the Ja va Se a Wre c k. Tha t sto ne is d e sc rib e d a s “ a sla b , m e a suring 3 m in le ng th, in the sha p e o f a n a ng ula r c o lum n thic ke ning a t the m id d le a nd na rro w ing a t b o th e nd s” (Dup o iza t, 1995). It is sim ila r to a nc ho r sto ne s fo und o n the Q ua nzho u Wre c k, d a te d c irc a 1277. The a nc ho r sto ne s fro m the Ja va Se a Wre c k a re no thing like the m . Sto ne a nc ho r sha p e d fro m lime sto ne , in situ. 72 A b a s re lie f o n the Ba yo n o f Ang ko r in C a m b o d ia c le a rly d e p ic ts a n a nc ho r b e ing lo w e re d fro m a la rg e se a g o ing ve sse l. The a nc ho r a p p e a rs to ha ve a la rg e sto ne sla b fa ste ne d ne a r the c ro w n (m o re like a m o d e rn d a nfo rth a nc ho r tha n a n a d m ira lty p a tte rn a nc ho r) tha t ha s the sto c k w e ll d o w n the sha nk. This fla t sto ne sla b d e p ic te d o n the b a s re lie f b e a rs fa r m o re re se m b la nc e to the Ja va Se a Wre c k a nc ho rs tha n to e xa m p le s o n the Q ua nzho u a nd Bre a ke r Sho a l Wre c ks, w hic h a re b o th tho ug ht to b e C hine se ve sse ls. 6.4.3 Fastenings C hine se ship s w e re fa ste ne d e xc lusive ly w ith iro n b o lts a nd na ils (Wa te rs, 1946). So m e tim e s w ro ug ht iro n stra p s w e re a lso use d to fa ste n hull p la nks to b ulkhe a d s. Ho rrid g e (1985) sta te s tha t the typ ic a l So uthe a st Asia n c a rg o ve sse l, w hic h he c a lls a jo nq ue , is d istinc tive ly so d ue to the a b se nc e o f iro n fa ste ning s. He sug g e sts tha t So uthe a st Asia n ship w rig hts d id no t use iro n, a s it rusts ra p id ly in w a rm tro p ic a l w a te rs. The te m p e ra ture d iffe re nc e b e tw e e n te m p e ra te a nd tro p ic a l w a te rs w o uld a c tua lly ha ve little e ffe c t o n the o xid a tio n o f iro n. Anc ho r d e p ic te d o n the Ba yo n o f Ang ko r, Furthe rm o re , the C hine se skillfully c o ve re d na il C a mb o d ia . re c e sse s a nd se a le d e d g e jo ints w ith a lim e b a se d c a ulking c o m p o und c a lle d c hu-na m to inhib it o xid a tio n o f the iro n fa ste ning s (Li, 1989). Tha i ship s o f the fo urte e n to sixte e nth c e nturie s ha ve hull a nd b ulkhe a d p la nks e d g e -jo ine d w ith d o w e ls, a nd ye t the inne r stra ke s a re a tta c he d to the b ulkhe a d s w ith iro n na ils. This is the c a se w ith the Pa tta ya w re c k (G re e n, 1983), the Phu Q uo c w re c k (Bla ke a nd Fle c ke r, 1994), the C e ntra l G ulf o f Tha ila nd w re c k (Fle c ke r, unp ub lishe d ), a nd the Ro ya l Na n Ha i w re c k (Sjo stra nd , p e rs. c o m m .). Wo rc e ste r (1947), in d e sc rib ing m e tho d s e m p lo ye d in b uild ing C hine se junks, c o m m e nts, “ The sid e p la nks a re the n p la c e d lo ng itud ina lly in p o sitio n a nd ho ve d o w n b y a C hine se w ind la ss, a fte r w hic h the y a re firm ly na ile d to the e d g e s o f the b ulkhe a d s.” So it m a y b e sa id tha t the p re se nc e o f d o w e l e d g e -jo ining p re c lud e s C hine se c o nstruc tio n, b ut the p re se nc e o f iro n fa ste ning s d o e s no t p re c lud e So uthe a st Asia n c o nstruc tio n. This c o nc lusio n c a n p e rha p s b e furthe r re fine d . The re is no e vid e nc e tha t a nc ie nt Ind o ne sia n ship s use d iro n fa ste ning s a t a ll. So m e c ra ft a re o f la she d -lug c o nstruc tio n, a nd so m e a re fa ste ne d e xc lusive ly w ith d o w e ls a nd tre e na ils. Ho rrid g e ’ s o b se rva tio ns, the re fo re , p ro b a b ly re fe r to Ind o ne sia n ra the r tha n So uthe a st Asia n ve sse ls. The d o w e l ho le s in c hunks o f w o o d re c o ve re d fro m the Ja va Se a Wre c k ind ic a te tha t it is no t a C hine se ve sse l, b ut o the r c ha ra c te ristic s m ust b e e xa m ine d to d e te rm ine in w hic h p a rt o f So uthe a st Asia it w a s c o nstruc te d . 73 6.4.4 Bulkheads C o m p a rtm e nta lize d d e sig n ha s lo ng b e e n a ttrib ute d to the C hine se , p rim a rily thro ug h the stud y o f e a rly C hine se m a nusc rip ts (Ne e d ha m , 1971). The Tha i w re c ks m e ntio ne d a b o ve a lso ha d b ulkhe a d s. G re e n (1978) sug g e sts tha t a s a re sult o f the d ra stic re d uc tio n in the e xp o rt o f C hine se p o rc e la in c a use d b y the so -c a lle d “ Ming Ba n” o n p riva te o ve rse a s tra d e , w hic h c a m e into e ffe c t in 1371, a nd the Inte rre g num (1435-65) c a lling fo r the c lo sure o f the im p e ria l kilns a t Jing d e zhe n, C hine se e m ig ra nts in So uthe a st Asia m a y ha ve b e e n b uild ing fle e ts o f tra d ing ve sse ls to e sta b lish a ne w b a sis o f tra d e in the re g io n. Suc h ship s w o uld na tura lly inc o rp o ra te a sp e c ts o f b o th C hine se a nd lo c a l ship b uild ing tra d itio ns. Mo st o f tha t ne w tra d e w a s in Tha i c e ra m ic s (w hic h a re a lso he a vily influe nc e d b y C hine se w a re , p a rtic ula rly Sa w a nkha lo k w a re w hic h ha s stro ng p a ra lle ls to Lo ng q ua n w a re fro m no rthe rn C hina ), so it is re a so na b le to a ssum e tha t the ve sse ls re q uire d to im p le m e nt the tra d e w e re a lso b uilt in Tha ila nd . The Ja va Se a Wre c k ha d a t le a st tw e lve c lo se ly sp a c e d b ulkhe a d s. If it w a s ind e e d b uilt in Tha ila nd , the n b ulkhe a d s ha ve b e e n a fe a ture o f Tha i ship c o nstruc tio n fro m w e ll b e fo re the b o o m in the Tha i c e ra m ic s tra d e in the fo urte e n a nd fifte e nth c e nturie s. With the c lo se p ro xim ity o f C hina a nd c o ntinuo us inte ra c tio n o ve r p re c e d ing c e nturie s, it w o uld no t b e surp rising if C hine se te c hniq ue s w e re a d o p te d w e ll b e fo re this tim e . It is a lso q uite fe a sib le tha t Tha i fe a ture s, suc h a s b utt-jo inte d m ulti-la ye re d hull p la nking , w e re a d o p te d b y the C hine se . Pla n o f the C e ntra l G ulf o f Tha ila nd Wre c k, a Tha i ve sse l with b ulkhe a d c o nstruc tio n. The a ttrib ute s o f e a rly Ind o ne sia n ve sse ls a re d e te rm ine d m o stly fro m a ve ry lim ite d num b e r o f te m p le c a rving s, suc h a s the ninth c e ntury re lie f a t C a nd i Bo ro b ud ur in Ja va , w hic h is tho ug ht to b e a c o a sta l tra d ing ve sse l ra the r tha n a n o c e a n-g o ing ship . O b vio usly, no thing c a n b e a sc e rta ine d a b o ut inte rna l struc ture fro m suc h so urc e s. Ac c o rd ing to Ma ng uin (1980), sixte e nth- a nd se ve nte e nth-c e ntury Dutc h a nd Po rtug ue se tra ve le rs d e sc rib e Ind o ne sia n ve sse ls in c o nsid e ra b le d e ta il, b ut no w he re is the re m e ntio n o f b ulkhe a d s; w he re a s e a rly fo re ig n w rite rs d e sc rib ing C hine se ve sse ls a re e nthra lle d b y the m (Ne e d ha m , 1971). Furthe rm o re , no m o d e rn 74 Ind o ne sia n ve sse l still c o nstruc te d b y the d o w e l e d g e -jo ine d m e tho d inc o rp o ra te s b ulkhe a d s in the ir d e sig n. So it se e m s unlike ly tha t c o m p a rtm e nta lize d c o nstruc tio n w a s a n Ind o ne sia n ship b uild ing fe a ture . The re is o ne o the r Tha i w re c k w ith no te w o rthy sim ila ritie s. The Ko Si C ha ng III w re c k o f the fifte e nth o r sixte e nth c e ntury is e stim a te d to ha ve ha d sixte e n b ulkhe a d s, c re a ting c o m p a rtm e nts a p p ro xim a te ly 1.2 m w id e . The a sp e c t ra tio o f 1:3.3 is a lm o st the sa m e a s the Ja va Se a Wre c k, a ltho ug h it is c o nsid e ra b ly sm a lle r a t 20 m LO A. 6.4.5 Conclusion It is im p o ssib le to c o nc lusive ly d e te rm ine the c o untry o f o rig in o f the Ja va Se a Wre c k. The re w a s no surviving c o he sive hull struc ture , a nd the re a re m inim a l c o nte m p o ra ry Asia n w re c ks w ith w hic h to c o m p a re . The w o o d id e ntific a tio n ind ic a te s tha t the ve sse l w a s no t b uilt in C hina . But the a b se nc e o f te a k m a y a lso p la c e d o ub t o n Tha ila nd a s the p la c e o f o rig in. The sto ne a nc ho rs se e m to b e no n-C hine se fro m the ve ry lim ite d info rm a tio n a va ila b le . The d o w e l ho le s in tw o surviving p ie c e s o f tim b e r a nd the a b se nc e o f iro n fa ste ning s, so m e o f w hic h sho uld ha ve survive d in c o nc re tio n fo rm ha d the y b e e n p re se nt, a d d s to the like liho o d tha t C hina is no t the p la c e . While c o m m o n in C hine se a nd Tha i ship s, b ulkhe a d s a re no t kno w n to ha ve b e e n utilize d in Ind o ne sia n ship b uild ing , a ltho ug h the re is a lm o st no e vid e nc e o n the inte rna l la yo ut o f suc h c ra ft. It is a lm o st c e rta in tha t the Ja va Se a Wre c k w a s no t b uilt in C hina . Bo th Ind o ne sia a nd Tha ila nd a re p o ssib le c o untrie s o f o rig in. Ho p e fully, future d isc o ve rie s w ill she d m o re lig ht o n e a rly c o nstruc tio n te c hniq ue s p ra c tic e d b y the se tw o c o untrie s. 6.5 Dating the Ship Bo th Ro xa nna Bro w n a nd Dr. Jo hn Miksic d a te the ship to the m id -thirte e nth c e ntury, b a se d o n a stylistic a na lysis o f the c e ra m ic s c a rg o . In o rd e r to c he c k this hyp o the sis, a re sin sa m p le w a s se nt to Be ta Ana lytic , Inc ., a ra d io c a rb o n-d a ting la b o ra to ry in the USA, fo r C 14 c o nte nt m e a sure m e nt a nd C 13/ C 12 ra tio a na lysis (se e Ap p e nd ix H). Wo o d o r ivo ry c o uld a lso ha ve b e e n use d fo r a na lysis. Ho w e ve r, the w o o d w a s p e rha p s to o d e g ra d e d to g ive m e a ning ful re sults, a nd ivo ry ha s b e e n kno w n to e xc ha ng e C 14 w ith se a w a te r o ve r p ro lo ng e d p e rio d s a nd he nc e p ro vid e m isle a d ing d a ta . Wo o d c a n a lso p re d a te a ship b y 100 ye a rs o r m o re , if o ld tim b e r is use d fo r its c o nstruc tio n. Re sin, o n the o the r ha nd , is unlike ly to ha ve b e e n ke p t in sto ra g e fo r a ny sig nific a nt p e rio d b e fo re b e ing ship p e d , a nd the sa m p le ha s suffe re d m inim a l d e g ra d a tio n. The C 13/ C 12 ra tio is use d to c o rre c t the m e a sure d C 14 a g e a nd to c a lib ra te the re sult to the c o nve ntio na l c a le nd a r. Fro m the a na lysis the re is a 95% p ro b a b ility d a te ra ng e o f AD 1215 to 1405. The 68% p ro b a b ility d a te ra ng e is AD 1265 to 1310. So it c a n b e sa id w ith so m e c e rta inty tha t the c e ra m ic s c a rg o d o e s no t p re d a te the thirte e nth c e ntury. This is sig nific a nt, a s se ve ra l o f the fine r w a re s d id sug g e st a n e a rlie r d a te . While it is c e rta inly fe a sib le tha t suc h w a re s w e re m a nufa c ture d o ve r a lo ng e r p e rio d tha n p re vio usly tho ug ht, it is unlike ly tha t p ro d uc tio n c o ntinue d o n into the fo urte e nth c e ntury. Thus, the thirte e nth c e ntury re m a ins the m o st like ly d a te fo r the w re c k a nd its c a rg o . 75 The re is o ne o the r Tha i w re c k w ith no te w o rthy sim ila ritie s. The Ko Si C ha ng III w re c k o f the fifte e nth o r sixte e nth c e ntury is e stim a te d to ha ve ha d sixte e n b ulkhe a d s, c re a ting c o m p a rtm e nts a p p ro xim a te ly 1.2 m w id e . The a sp e c t ra tio o f 1:3.3 is a lm o st the sa m e a s the Ja va Se a Wre c k, a ltho ug h it is c o nsid e ra b ly sm a lle r a t 20 m le ng th o ve ra ll. 6.4.5 Conclusion It is im p o ssib le to c o nc lusive ly d e te rm ine the c o untry o f o rig in o f the Ja va Se a Wre c k. The re w a s no surviving c o he sive hull struc ture , a nd the re a re m inim a l c o nte m p o ra ry Asia n w re c ks w ith w hic h to c o m p a re . The w o o d id e ntific a tio n ind ic a te s tha t the ve sse l w a s no t b uilt in C hina . But the a b se nc e o f te a k m a y a lso p la c e d o ub t o n Tha ila nd a s the p la c e o f o rig in. The sto ne a nc ho rs se e m to b e no n-C hine se fro m the ve ry lim ite d info rm a tio n a va ila b le . The d o w e l ho le s in tw o surviving p ie c e s o f tim b e r a nd the a b se nc e o f iro n fa ste ning s, so m e o f w hic h sho uld ha ve survive d in c o nc re tio n fo rm ha d the y b e e n p re se nt, a d d s to the like liho o d tha t C hina is no t the p la c e . While c o m m o n in C hine se a nd Tha i ship s, b ulkhe a d s a re no t kno w n to ha ve b e e n utilize d in Ind o ne sia n ship b uild ing , a ltho ug h the re is a lm o st no e vid e nc e o n the inte rna l la yo ut o f suc h c ra ft. It is a lm o st c e rta in tha t the Ja va Se a Wre c k w a s no t b uilt in C hina . Bo th Ind o ne sia a nd Tha ila nd a re p o ssib le c o untrie s o f o rig in. Ho p e fully, future d isc o ve rie s w ill she d m o re lig ht o n e a rly c o nstruc tio n te c hniq ue s p ra c tic e d b y the se tw o c o untrie s. 6.5 Dating the Ship Bo th Ro xa nna Bro w n a nd Dr. Jo hn Miksic d a te the ship to the m id -thirte e nth c e ntury, b a se d o n a stylistic a na lysis o f the c e ra m ic s c a rg o . In o rd e r to c he c k this hyp o the sis, a re sin sa m p le w a s se nt to Be ta Ana lytic , Inc ., a ra d io c a rb o n-d a ting la b o ra to ry in the USA, fo r C 14 c o nte nt m e a sure m e nt a nd C 13/ C 12 ra tio a na lysis (se e Ap p e nd ix H). Wo o d o r ivo ry c o uld a lso ha ve b e e n use d fo r a na lysis. Ho w e ve r, the w o o d w a s p e rha p s to o d e g ra d e d to g ive m e a ning ful re sults, a nd ivo ry ha s b e e n kno w n to e xc ha ng e C 14 w ith se a w a te r o ve r p ro lo ng e d p e rio d s a nd he nc e p ro vid e m isle a d ing d a ta . Wo o d c a n a lso p re d a te a ship b y 100 ye a rs o r m o re , if o ld tim b e r is use d fo r its c o nstruc tio n. Re sin, o n the o the r ha nd , is unlike ly to ha ve b e e n ke p t in sto ra g e fo r a ny sig nific a nt p e rio d b e fo re b e ing ship p e d , a nd the sa m p le ha s suffe re d m inim a l d e g ra d a tio n. The C 13/ C 12 ra tio is use d to c o rre c t the m e a sure d C 14 a g e a nd to c a lib ra te the re sult to the c o nve ntio na l c a le nd a r. Fro m the a na lysis the re is a 95% p ro b a b ility d a te ra ng e o f AD 1215 to 1405. The 68% p ro b a b ility d a te ra ng e is AD 1265 to 1310. So it c a n b e sa id w ith so m e c e rta inty tha t the c e ra m ic s c a rg o d o e s no t p re d a te the thirte e nth c e ntury. This is sig nific a nt, a s se ve ra l o f the fine r w a re s d id sug g e st a n e a rlie r d a te . While it is c e rta inly fe a sib le tha t suc h w a re s w e re m a nufa c ture d o ve r a lo ng e r p e rio d tha n p re vio usly tho ug ht, it is unlike ly tha t p ro d uc tio n c o ntinue d o n into the fo urte e nth c e ntury. Thus, the thirte e nth c e ntury re m a ins the m o st like ly d a te fo r the w re c k a nd its c a rg o . 77 7. ARTIFACTS b y Mic ha e l Fle c ke r The p o sitio ns o f ind ivid ua l a rtifa c ts a re d e p ic te d in the Artifa c t Distrib utio n Pla n (se e Ap p e nd ix C ). 7.1 Iron The m o st p ro m ine nt fe a ture o f this w re c k site is the iro n c a rg o . C o nc re te d b lo c ks o f iro n up to 4 m e te rs lo ng , 1.5 m e te rs w id e , a nd p ro je c ting up to 1.5 m a b o ve the w re c k m o und m a rk the p o sitio n o f a ship tha t p lung e d to the se a b e d a p p ro xim a te ly 750 ye a rs a g o . The iro n c a rg o c o nc re te d to g e the r in the ship ’ s c o m p a rtm e nts b e fo re the hull a nd b ulkhe a d s d isinte g ra te d a nd ha ve m a inta ine d tha t sha p e e ve r sinc e . The c o nc re tio ns c o ve r a n a re a a p p ro xim a te ly 18 m lo ng a nd 9 m w id e . Mo st b lo c ks a re w e ll c o nso lid a te d . Ho w e ve r, the re is q uite a w id e sc a tte ring o f c o nstitue nt p a rts in G rid s F4, F5 a nd G 5. This a re a is tho ug ht to b e the ste rn o f the ship . The ste rn, b e ing hig he r, m a y ha ve c o lla p se d b e fo re the iro n ha d a c ha nc e to fully c o nso lid a te . He nc e , the sc a tte r o f sm a lle r p ie c e s the re . Se ve ra l d iffe re nt typ e s o f iro n c a rg o ha ve b e e n id e ntifie d . The re a re c a uld ro ns o f d iffe re nt size s, w hic h ha ve b e e n re c o rd e d o n a num b e r o f ship w re c ks lo st in Asia . But the b ulk o f the iro n c a rg o c o nsists o f b und le s o f b a rs, w hic h w e re p ro b a b ly b la nks inte nd e d fo r fo rg ing b y Ind o ne sia n b la c ksm iths. 7.1.1 Cauldrons C a uld ro ns a re d isting uishe d fro m w o ks in tha t the y ha ve a w id e rim , w he re a s w o ks ha ve no rim a t a ll a nd te nd to b e sha llo w e r. C a uld ro ns o f va rio us size s c a n b e c le a rly se e n in C o nc re tio ns 4, 6, 9 a nd 19 in the Iro n C o nc re tio n Pla n. Se ve ra l sm a ll sta c ks w e re a lso fo und lo o se , a nd tw o o f tho se w e re re c o ve re d fo r m e a suring . A sta c k o f c a uld ro ns a fte r the surfa c e c o nc re tio n la ye r ha s b e e n re mo ve d . C o nc re te d sta c ks o f c a uld ro ns, in situ. 77 Afte r the thic k c o nc re ting m a te ria l m a d e up o f iro n c o rro sio n p ro d uc ts, sa nd , a nd c a lc a re o us m a rine g ro w th w a s c a re fully c hip p e d o ff the o utsid e o f o ne sta c k, 7 ind ivid ua l c a uld ro ns c o uld b e d isc e rne d . The re w a s no b a se m e ta l re m a ining . The c a st iro n ha d tra nsfo rm e d to a b la c k m a te ria l tha t in so m e a re a s w a s b rittle a nd in o the rs c o uld b e w a she d o ut w ith a je t o f w a te r. This b la c k m a te ria l d id , ho w e ve r, m a inta in the o rig ina l sha p e o f the c a uld ro ns. The y w e re 510 m m in d ia m e te r a nd 2.6 m m thic k. The w id e rim s w e re d e c o ra te d w ith tw o se ts o f thre e c o nc e ntric ring s, e ithe r c a st o r e tc he d fine ly into the surfa c e . A sm a lle r sta c k o f 5 c a uld ro ns w a s in a sim ila r c o nd itio n. Ea c h o ne m e a sure d 320 m m in d ia m e te r a nd 2.0 m m thic k. The y w e re d e c o ra te d in the sa m e fa shio n a s the la rg e r c a uld ro ns. It is inte re sting to no te tha t sm a ll p ie c e s o f ra tta n w e re fo und e m b e d d e d in the c o nc re tio n ne a r the to p o f the sta c k. The sta c ks o f c a uld ro ns m a y w e ll ha ve b e e n b o und w ith ra tta n, a nd m a y a lso ha ve ha d ra tta n ha nd le s to fa c ilita te c a rrying . La rg e r c a uld ro ns c a n b e se e n in C o nc re tio ns 6 a nd 19. It is e stim a te d tha t the ir d ia m e te r is c lo se to 700 m m . La rg e c a uld ro ns w e re use d to p re p a re ric e w ine (Bro w n, p e rs. c o m m .). 7.1.2 Iron Bars Mo st o f the iro n c a rg o c o nsiste d o f b und le s o f b a rs. Tw o d iffe re nt typ e s w e re id e ntifie d , a ltho ug h the re m a y b e d iffe re nt size s o f e a c h typ e . An a m o rp ho us iro n c o nc re tio n, m e a suring a p p ro xim a te ly 200 x 120 m m , w a s c a re fully d isse c te d to re ve a l fo ur re c ta ng ula r iro n b a rs, e a c h 160 x 28 x 28 m m . The y w e re b o und to g e the r w ith thre e strip s o f ra tta n a nd w ra p p e d in a c o a rse w o ve n m a te ria l tha t lo o ks ve ry m uc h like he ssia n. Ano the r c o nta ine d five b a rs, e a c h 220 x 30 x 22 m m a nd ro und e d a t the e nd s. This o ne w a s a lso tie d w ith ra tta n, b ut w ra p p e d in strip s o f c a ne . It is tho ug ht tha t the se iro n b a rs a re b la nks fo r m a king to o ls, w e a p o ns, a nd a g ric ultura l im p le m e nts fo r use in Ja va a nd p o ssib ly fo r tra d e thro ug ho ut Ind o ne sia . O nly the tw o sta c ks o f re c ta ng ula r b a rs w e re re c o ve re d , a ltho ug h it is like ly tha t a t le a st o ne c o nc re tio n b lo c k c o nsists e ntire ly o f the m . Unfo rtuna te ly, m o st o f the c o nc re tio n b lo c ks ha ve fuse d to g e the r so so lid ly tha t it is im p o ssib le to d isting uish the c o nstitue nt p a rts. Re c ta ng ula r iro n b a rs b o und with ra tta n. De ta il o f the ma te ria l c o ve ring the re c ta ng ula r iro n b a rs. 78 Ind ivid ua l c o nc re tio ns o f tra p e zo id a l b a rs. A b ro ke n c o nc re tio n sho wing b und le s o f b a rs sta c ke d e nd -to -e nd . Fa r m o re c o m m o n a re c o nic a l c o nc re tio ns, typ ic a lly 400 m m lo ng . Mo st o f the sc a tte ring o f c o nc re tio ns to w a rd s the ste rn c o nsists o f the se , a nd the y c a n b e m a d e o ut in m a ny o f the c o nc re tio n b lo c ks. A ve ry inte re sting lum p o f c o nc re tio n tha t ha s b e e n b ro ke n o p e n (p o ssib ly b y fishe rm e n’ s e xp lo sive s) sho w s c le a rly ho w the se c o ne s w e re sta c ke d e nd -to -e nd in the ho ld o f the ship . Se ve ra l o f the se c o nc re tio ns w e re c a re fully d isse c te d to re ve a l the ir c o nte nts. Ea c h w a s fo und to c o nta in a b und le o f iro n b a rs w ith a tra p e zo id a l se c tio n a nd ta p e ring a lo ng the ir le ng th. The b a rs w e re b und le d in the sa m e o rie nta tio n; he nc e , the c o nic a l sha p e . The b und le s w e re he ld to g e the r w ith tw o lo o p s o f tw iste d ra tta n, a nd im p re ssio ns in the c o nc re tio n sug g e st tha t the y w e re w ra p p e d in le a ve s o r strip s o f c a ne . The ind ivid ua l b a rs w e re se p a ra te d b y a w hite m a te ria l tha t is tho ug ht to b e a lim e c o m p o und , suc h a s w a s use d fo r c a ulking a nd se a ling iro n fa ste ning s in ship s. This c o m p o und is kno w n a s c hu-na m a nd c o nsists o f lim e a nd tung o il. This w o uld b e a n e xc e lle nt m e tho d fo r p re ve nting the iro n fro m c o rro d ing in sto ra g e a nd d uring the lo ng vo ya g e fro m C hina to Ja va . Iro n b a rs o f this unusua l sha p e c o uld ha ve b e e n fo rg e d into la rg e o ne -sid e d b la d e s, like a m o d e rn p a ra ng . 79 C ro ss se c tio n o f a b und le o f tra p e zo id a l iro n b a rs. Lo ng se c tio n o f a b und le o f b a rs c le a rly sho wing the ra tta n b ind ing . Artist’ s imp re ssio n o f a wra p p e d a nd b o und b und le o f tra p e zo id a l b a rs (sc a le in c m.). 7.1.3 Ax O ne c o nc re tio n w a s fo rm e d b y a sm a ll a x he a d . It m e a sure s 145 m m lo ng , 42 m m w id e a t the ha nd le , a nd in p ro file va rie s fro m 55 m m a t the ha nd le to 61 m m a t the c utting e d g e . As the re w a s o nly o ne fo und , it is like ly tha t this w a s a n ite m o f ship ’ s e q uip m e nt. 7.2 Ivory 80 In the so uthw e st q ua d ra nt o f the site , 16 p ie c e s o f ivo ry w e re re c o ve re d . Fro m the re a so na b ly c o nc e ntra te d na ture o f the find s (Artifa c t Distrib utio n Pla n, Ap p e nd ix C ), it se e m s tha t the ivo ry w a s sto w e d in the ste rn o f the ship o n the sta rb o a rd sid e . The ivo ry is in the fo rm o f unw o rke d e le p ha nt tusks. The la rg e st p ie c e m e a sure d 590 m m lo ng a nd 130 m m in d ia m e te r. Unfo rtuna te ly, ivo ry d e te rio ra te s b a d ly und e rw a te r, te nd ing to e xfo lia te . As a re sult, m a ny o f the p ie c e s fo und a re ho llo w o r just the o ute r la ye rs o f a tusk. In se ve ra l c a se s the so lid tip o f a tusk ha s survive d . Ele p ha nt tusks, a p p ro xima te ly 400 mm lo ng . Tw o p ie c e s ha ve b e e n c ut b y ha nd . O ne is a 245 m m lo ng tip o f a tusk tha t ha s ha d the ve ry e nd ne a tly c ut o ff. The re a re a lso c ut m a rks o n the surfa c e o f the p ie c e , a nd it is ho llo w . The o the r is the o ute r la ye r o f o ne ha lf o f a tusk, w hic h ha d ha d a p o rtio n ro ug hly sha ve d o ff. The to o l m a rks a re still q uite c le a r. 7.3 Resin Eig ht p ie c e s o f re sin w e re re c o ve re d . Like the ivo ry, the y te nd e d to b e in the so uthe a st q ua d ra nt o f the site . Ho w e ve r, the y w e re m o re sp re a d o ut, p ro b a b ly d ue to the ir lo w sp e c ific g ra vity. In fa c t, o ne sm a ll p ie c e w a s fo und a t the o p p o site e nd o f the site in G rid N2. As w ith the ivo ry, it is like ly tha t the re sin w a s sto w e d in the ste rn o f the ve sse l, p ro b a b ly o n the sta rb o a rd sid e . Hund re d s o f ye a rs o f im m e rsio n ha ve no t ha d tha t m uc h e ffe c t o n the re sin. The re ha s b e e n a b it o f e ro sio n, a nd the o ute r m illim e te r o r so ha s b e c o m e a so ft p o w d e ry p a le b ro w n. But w ithin, the so lid ifie d tre e sa p re m a ins g la ssy, a nd the fra g ra nc e re m a ins d istinc tive . The la rg e st p ie c e is 410 m m lo ng b y 180 m m a c ro ss. Mo st o f the o the r p ie c e s a re ha lf to q ua rte r tha t size . Tw o o f the m ha ve ve ry w e ll d e fine d c ut surfa c e s o n o ne e nd . 81 A b lo c k o f re sin, 410 mm lo ng . 7.4 Balance Weights and Bars In a ll, 14 b a la nc e w e ig hts w e re fo und fro m a t le a st 4 d iffe re nt se ts. This is no t suffic ie nt to c o nc lud e tha t the y w e re a n ite m fo r tra d e . It is m o re like ly tha t the y w e re the p e rso na l p ro p e rty o f va rio us m e rc ha nts o n b o a rd . O f the 14, 12 a re m a d e o f a c o p p e r a llo y. The y ha ve b e e n ve ry fine ly c a st a nd finishe d . To o b ta in a n e xa c t w e ig ht, ho le s ha ve b e e n d rille d o ut o f the c e nte r o f b o th sid e s a nd the n p lug g e d w ith a c o p p e r a llo y o f slig htly d iffe re nt c o m p o sitio n. The re a re tw o typ e s: o ne p la in a nd the o the r w ith a sc a llo p e d e d g e . No t surp rising ly, a ll o f the he a vy c o p p e r a llo y w e ig hts w e re fo und in c lo se p ro xim ity to the iro n c o nc re tio ns tha t m a rk the o rig ina l p o sitio n o f the ship . Mo st o f the m w e re fo und to the no rth o f the c o nc re tio ns. Ho w e ve r, a sc a tte r o f o ve r 25 m e te rs c o nfirm s tha t the y w e re no t sto w e d in o ne p la c e a s a tra d e c o nsig nm e nt. O ne unusua l b a la nc e w e ig ht fo und in G rid H5 ha s b e e n c a rve d o ut o f m ilky q ua rtz. As w ith the c o p p e r a llo y w e ig hts, ho le s ha ve b e e n b o re d o ut o f the c e nte r o f e a c h sid e to o b ta in the c o rre c t w e ig ht. Ano the r ve ry fine ly c ra fte d w e ig ht is o f c o m p o site c o nstruc tio n a nd is o nly 26 m m in d ia m e te r. It a p p e a rs to b e m a d e o f m a rb le w ith c o p p e r a llo y inse rts p lug g ing the usua l c e ntra l ho le s. Jud g ing fro m the p e rfe c t fit, the a llo y m a y ha ve b e e n c a st in the ho le s. 82 Diffe re nt typ e s o f b a la nc e we ig hts  p la in C u a llo y (to p le ft), sc a llo p e d C u a llo y (b o tto m le ft a nd rig ht), c o mp o site (b o tto m c e nte r), a nd q ua rtz (to p rig ht). By w e ig hing a ll o f the b a la nc e w e ig hts it b e c o m e s a p p a re nt tha t the re a re six d istinc t w e ig ht c a te g o rie s. The se a re ta b ula te d b e lo w (w e ig hts in g ra m s). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Pla in C u a llo y Sc a llo p e d C u a llo y C o m p o site Q ua rtz 37 70 171, 190 340, 363, 364 760, 762 71 189 384 - 27 - 727 Disc re p a nc ie s in the w e ig hts m a y b e a c c o unte d fo r b y the d iffe ring d e g re e s o f c o rro sio n o f the c o p p e r a llo y. The la rg e q ua rtz w e ig ht ha s b e e n e ro d e d a nd in p la c e s p e ne tra te d b y m a rine b o re rs. 83 Tw o b a la nc e b a rs w e re a lso fo und . While b e ing ve ry d iffe re nt in size , the y a re e xa c tly the sa m e sha p e , a ro und b a r ta p e ring fro m the c e nte r to a p p ro xim a te ly ha lf the d ia m e te r a t b o th e nd s. The e nd s a re “ turne d ” a nd the re is a fla t p ivo t p o int in the c e nte r tha t is b ro ke n o n b o th p ie c e s. The sm a ll b a la nc e b a r w a s fo und in G rid K3 a nd is 150 m m lo ng , a nd the la rg e o ne w a s fo und in G rid E2 a nd is 221 m m lo ng . Pre sum a b ly the d iffe re nt size d b a rs w e re use d fo r d iffe re nt w e ig ht c a te g o rie s a nd b o th typ e s m a y ha ve b e e n in a se t, a ltho ug h c o nte xtua l e vid e nc e sug g e sts this w a s no t the c a se . Ba la nc e b a rs. 7.5 Figurines and Finials Tw o ve ry inte re sting c o p p e r a llo y fig urine s w e re fo und o n the site . The first w a s fro m G rid J5. It is a m a n, 65 m m hig h, sitting c ro ss-le g g e d a nd ho ld ing w ith up stre tc he d a rm s a c o rne r sup p o rt fo r a sm a ll p la tfo rm , p e rha p s a n a lta r. He is o ne o f a n o rig ina l se t o f fo ur, w hic h w o uld ha ve b e e n le g s fo r the p la tfo rm . He is ve ry m uc h sto o p e d und e r the lo a d , his b a c k b e ing b e nt d o ub le . His la rg e he a d is q uite un-C hine se , d isp la ying b ig e ye s, a sm a ll fla re d no se , a d o w n-turne d thic klip p e d m o uth, a p o inte d c hin, a nd lo ng e a rs. No p a ra lle l ha s b e e n fo und . Va rio us vie ws o f p la tfo rm le g fig urine (sc a le in c m). Pla tfo rm le g fig urine . C lo se up o f fa c e . 84 The o the r fig urine w a s d isc o ve re d in G rid H2. Me a suring 172 m m lo ng , it is a fig urine o f a w o m a n rid ing a se a c re a ture . The c re a ture b e a rs a n unc a nny re se m b la nc e to tho se sp o uting m o nste rs d e p ic te d o n Euro p e a n se a c ha rts o f the sixte e nth a nd se ve nte e nth c e nturie s, ha ving a la rg e m o uth, b ulb o us no se , a nd thre e p ro ng e d d o rsa l, p e c to ra l, a nd ta il fins. The rid e r sits w ith o ne le g c ro sse d o ve r the o the r. He r rig ht ha nd re sts o n he r kne e . He r le ft a rm is m issing . She ha s lo ng ha ir flo w ing ha lf w a y d o w n he r b a c k a nd lo o ks o ut to the le ft, he r he a d slig htly b o w e d . Bro nze fig urine . Bro nze fig urine (sc a le in c m). Pre -Ma ja p a hit fo lklo re e xp la ins the ro le o f this fine la d y a nd he r unusua l ste e d . An a nc ie nt Ja va ne se te xt, the Sri Ta njung , d e sc rib e s the a fte rlife jo urne y o f a p rinc e ss w ho w a s kille d b e fo re she ha d m a d e p re p a ra tio ns to lib e ra te he r so ul a nd the re fo re c o uld no t a tta in sa lva tio n. He r so ul w a s re sc ue d b y a m o nstro us fish a nd c a rrie d to the ne xt w o rld . This sc e ne is d e p ic te d o n a d ive rse ra ng e o f Ma ja p a hit re lic s, suc h a s a b ro nze ha ng ing la m p , a c a rve d sto ne w ind o w g rill, a nd a g o ld m o d e sty c o ve r (Miksic & So e ka tno , 1995). The Ma ja p a hit a nd p re -Ma ja p a hit re lig io us c e re m o nie s m a y e xp la in the p re se nc e o f tw o unusua l finia ls. A sm a ll o ne , 90 m m lo ng , w a s d isc o ve re d in G rid H2. It is a b a d ly c o rro d e d g e o m e tric sha p e , a ltho ug h so m e e la b o ra te c a st d e c o ra tio n c a n still b e se e n o n o ne sid e . Bro nze finia l. Bro nze finia l (sc a le in c m). 85 The o the r w a s fo und in G rid E2. This o ne ha s the a p p e a ra nc e o f a m a sq ue ra d e p a rty m a sk w ith ho le s fo r the e ye s a nd d istinc t up turne d e ye b ro w s. It ha s a w a vy c ro ss se c tio n, inc o rp o ra ting a stylize d m o uth a nd no se . Ma sk-typ e finia l (sc a le in c m). Ma sk typ e finia l. The se finia ls w e re o rig ina lly m o unte d o n w o o d e n sta ffs a nd w e re c a rrie d b y p rie sts d uring re lig io us c e re m o nie s. Finia ls fro m the Ma ja p a hit e ra ha ve b e e n une a rthe d in e a ste rn Ja va a nd in Ba li. The y o fte n d e p ic t na g a s, a m ythic a l c o b ra -like c re a ture . Bro nze finia ls w ith lo o se ring s tha t ra ttle d ( kha kkha ra ) a d o rne d the to p o f w a lking sta ffs c a rrie d b y m e nd ic a nt p rie sts (Miksic & So e ka tno , 1995). 7.6 Trays Unfo rtuna te ly, no c o m p le te tra ys w e re fo und . The lo ng e xp o se d site a ffo rd e d no p ro te c tio n fo r the se thin c o p p e r a llo y a rtifa c ts. O nly the thic ke r rim s, a nd in a fe w c a se s the c e ntra l p o rtio n, o f a va rie ty o f tra ys re m a ine d . A tra y is d e fine d lo o se ly he re a s b e ing a sha llo w d ish w ith a d istinc t ra ise d rim . A fe w rim s ha ve suffic ie nt b o d y still a tta c he d to c o nfirm this id e ntific a tio n, a nd a ll the thin she e t fra g m e nts a re re la tive ly fla t. O the r rim typ e s w itho ut id e ntifia b le fra g m e nts m a y b e fro m d e e p e r ve sse ls, suc h a s c o p p e r b o w ls o r c a uld ro ns. Tra y fra g me nts. 86 The re a re fo ur d istinc t typ e s o f rim . The first is a ha lf-ro und se c tio n a nd is d e finite ly fro m a tra y. The rim thic kne ss is a p p ro xim a te ly 1.5 m m , w hile the tra y b o d y is le ss tha n 1 m m thic k. The rim is d e c o ra te d w ith a fa intly im p re sse d d o ub le line o n the inne r surfa c e . The se tra ys w o uld ha ve ha d a d ia m e te r o f a p p ro xim a te ly 420 m m . Ano the r d e finite tra y is he a vie r a nd una d o rne d . It ha s a n e ve rte d rim , a p p ro xim a te ly 12 m m w id e a nd 3 m m thic k. The b o d y o f the tra y is 1.5 m m thic k. The d ia m e te r w o uld ha ve b e e n a p p ro xim a te ly 520 m m . The third typ e is ve ry so lid ly m a d e ; b ut a s o nly rim fra g m e nts survive d , it c a nno t d e finitive ly b e te rm e d a tra y. The rim is sq ua re d a nd b e ve le d in tie rs a nd is typ ic a lly 4 m m thic k. The o rig ina l ve sse l w o uld ha ve ha d a d ia m e te r o f o nly 250 m m , sug g e sting tha t p e rha p s it w a s a so lid b o w l ra the r tha n a tra y. The fo urth typ e is re p re se nte d b y o nly tw o sm a ll rim fra g m e nts. The y a re ro ug hly ha lf ro und , o nly 8 m m w id e a nd 4 m m thic k, sug g e sting tha t the y m a y b e c a st. The d ia m e te r w o uld ha ve b e e n 160 m m . Thin c o p p e r a llo y she e ts, he a vily c o rro d e d a ro und the e d g e s, a re tho ug ht to b e the c e ntra l p a rts o f tra ys. O ne la rg e p ie c e , m e a suring 290 x 220 m m a nd a p p ro xim a te ly 1 m m thic k, m a y b e the c e nte r p o rtio n o f the first typ e o f tra y d e sc rib e d a b o ve . Thre e g ro up ing s o f c o nc e ntric c irc le s d e c o ra te this fra g m e nt: a c e ntra l g ro up o f 30 m m d ia m e te r, a m id d le p a ir o f 160 m m d ia m e te r, a nd a ve ry fa int o ute r p a ir o f 340 m m d ia m e te r. O ne slig htly b o w e d p ie c e w ith a thic kne ss o f 2 m m m a y b e fro m the se c o nd typ e o f tra y d e sc rib e d . Like the rim , it is und e c o ra te d . During the Ma ja p a hit e ra , b ro nze tra ys w ith inc ise d c irc ula r d e c o ra tio ns w e re use d a s o ffe ring tra ys in re lig io us c e re m o nie s (Miksic & So e ka tno , 1995). So m e w e re m o re e la b o ra te w ith inc ise d lo tus b lo sso m s a nd sc ro lls. 7.7 Gongs O nly tw o g o ng s w e re re c o ve re d : o ne m o re tha n ha lf inta c t a nd the o the r just a hig hly c o rro d e d c e ntra l p o rtio n. The y w e re fo und re la tive ly c lo se to g e the r in the ste rn a re a o f the ship in G rid s B3 a nd D3. The b e tte r p re se rve d p ie c e ha s a n o ve ra ll d ia m e te r o f 270 m m , a nd the c e ntra l ra ise d d o m e is 60 m m in d ia m e te r. The fra g m e nt ha s a slig htly la rg e r ra ise d d o m e w ith a d ia m e te r o f 65 m m . The re is no sig n o f d e c o ra tio n o n e ithe r p ie c e . A b ro nze g o ng . Bro nze g o ng s ha ve b e e n fo und o n o nly tw o o the r w re c ks to the a utho r’ s kno w le d g e . O ne w a s a Tha i ve sse l lo st in the c e ntra l G ulf o f Tha ila nd , w hic h yie ld e d o ne ne a rly c o m p le te una d o rne d g o ng o f 380 m m d ia m e te r a nd o ne g o ng fra g m e nt (Fle c ke r, 1991, unp ub lishe d ). This 87 ship w a s p ro b a b ly b o und fro m Ayud hya to the Philip p ine s. O the rs w ith a six-p o inte d sta r d e c o ra tio n w e re fo und o n a sixte e nth c e ntury tra d ing ve sse l, p ro b a b ly C hine se , tha t w a s lo st o n Ro ya l C a p ta in Sho a l in the Philip p ine s (G o d d io , 1988). It is p o stula te d tha t this ship w a s b o und fro m C hina to Bo rne o w ith a p rim a ry c a rg o o f p o rc e la in. G o ng s w e re m a nufa c ture d in C hina fro m the sixth c e ntury a nd g re w to b e e xtre m e ly p o p ula r thro ug ho ut C hina a nd So uthe a st Asia . Ma d e fro m a c o p p e r-ric h a llo y, the y w e re initia lly c a st, the n re p e a te d ly he a te d , ha m m e re d , a nd file d until the d e sire d so und q ua lity w a s a c hie ve d . The y w e re use d e xte nsive ly in c ivil a nd re lig io us c e re m o nie s, Bud d hist ritua ls in p a rtic ula r. A p o e m fro m the Ma ja p a hit e ra , the Na g a ra krta g a m a , d e sc rib e s a p o sthum o us c e re m o ny in ho no r o f the p o e t’ s g ra nd m o the r. The rite o f p a risha rm a w a s p e rfo rm e d to re c a ll the so ul o f the d e p a rte d . Pa risha rm a is a rhythm ic , p o ssib ly vig o ro us, ring d a nc e p e rfo rm e d b y d a nc e rs in a tra nc e -like sta te , a c c o m p a nie d b y the c ha nting o f sutra s a nd the rhythm ic b e a ting o f d rum s a nd g o ng s (Miksic & So e ka tno , 1995). 7.8 Copper Ingots Stra ng e ly, o nly thre e c o p p e r ing o ts w e re fo und . Tw o o f the m a re sm a ll c o nic a l ing o ts, fo und w id e ly se p a ra te d in G rid s F6 a nd I3. The y fla re o ut slig htly a t the b a se a nd a re d e c o ra te d w ith m o ld e d c o nc e ntric c irc le s m id w a y b e tw e e n the b a se a nd the p e a k. The y w e ig h 174 g ra m s a nd 231 g ra m s. Sim ila rly sha p e d b ut und e c o ra te d le a d ing o ts ha ve b e e n fo und o n m a ny Tha i w re c ks o f the fifte e nth a nd sixte e nth c e nturie s a nd o n a fe w Euro p e a n ve sse ls o f the e a rly se ve nte e nth c e ntury. The re is so m e sp e c ula tio n tha t the y w e re use d fo r c urre nc y. C o nic a l c o p p e r ing o ts. C o p p e r b a r ing o t. A sing le la rg e c o p p e r ing o t w a s a lso fo und in G rid I3. It is the typ ic a l ta p e ring re c ta ng ula r sha p e o f a m o d e rn g o ld o r silve r ing o t. The surfa c e is p itte d b y c o rro sio n, a nd the re a re no m a rking s. The ing o t m e a sure s 195 x 88 m m a t the b a se a nd is 52 m m hig h. It is tho ug ht unlike ly tha t o the r ing o ts w e re re m o ve d d uring e a rlie r e xc a va tio ns a s the y la y d o w n a t the c la y la ye r a nd he nc e c o uld no t b e re a c he d w itho ut e xc a va tio n e q uip m e nt. It re m a ins a m yste ry w hy the re w e re so fe w o n b o a rd the ship , unle ss the y w e re the lo st re m na nts o f so m e p re vio us c a rg o . 87 7.9 Miscellaneous Copper Alloy Artifacts The re a re six a rtifa c ts tha t d e fy re a d y c la ssific a tio n. O ne is a 230 m m lo ng ho o k-sha p e d p ie c e fo und in G rid K3. Wha t a p p e a rs to b e a ro und p a n ho ld e r is p a rtly m issing fro m the e nd o f the ho o k. The re is a p o ssib le p ivo t p o int a t the to p , so this c o uld b e a tra y ho ld e r fo r a la rg e se t o f w e ig hing sc a le s. The re is a d e c o ra tive kno b a t the b a se o f the ho o k. Po ssib ly p a rt o f a we ig hing sc a le se t. Ano the r ho o k-sha p e d a rtifa c t is p o ssib ly a ha nd le o f so m e kind . It ha s a rive t d rive n thro ug h o ne fla tte ne d e nd w ith e vid e nc e o f so m e fo rm o f te xtile und e r the rive t he a d . The w o o d -like g ra in struc ture o f the p ie c e ind ic a te s tha t it ha s b e e n w ro ug ht. It w a s fo und in G rid I2. A c o m p le te rim o f 110 m m d ia m e te r is p ro b a b ly tha t o f a sm a ll c o p p e r a llo y b o w l. No ne o f the inte rio r ha s survive d . A sm a ll tub ula r p ie c e o f c o p p e r a llo y, slig htly p inc he d a t the w a ist, m a y b e a b ushing fo r a sm a ll w o o d e n p ulle y. It is fro m g rid G 3. Po ssib ly a ha nd le . An unusua l p ie c e re se m b le s the b a se o f a la rg e c a nd le stic k a nd is b a d ly c o rro d e d a nd hig hly p o ro us. The b a se is slig htly d o m e d , a nd is d e c o ra te d w ith c o nc e ntric c irc le s a nd stria tio ns. The ne c k o f the p ie c e is fla ng e d . The c o p p e r a llo y c a sting ha s b e e n fille d w ith a no the r m e ta l, p o ssib ly a n a llo y o f le a d , w hic h is no w e xp o se d w he re the c o p p e r ha s c o rro d e d a w a y. It w a s fo und in G rid D0. Its func tio n is a c o m p le te m yste ry. Unid e ntifie d c o p p e r a llo y a rtifa c t. 88 A c o nic a l ho llo w p ie c e , o p e n a t e a c h e nd , c a nno t e ve n b e g ue sse d a t. The b o tto m se e m s to b e the o rig ina l surfa c e , b ut the to p ha s b e e n b ro ke n o ff o r e ro d e d a w a y. 7.10 Glassware A to ta l o f five g la ss a rtifa c ts w e re re c o ve re d , o nly tw o o f the m o f the sa m e typ e . Tho se tw o a re d e e p o live g re e n sha rd s w ith a sha rp c o nic a l p e a k, ve ry sim ila r to the b a se o f a Euro p e a n o nio n b o ttle . The g la ss is le ss tha n 1 m m thic k a nd ha s m inim a l b ub b le inc lusio ns. The se sha rd s w e re sp re a d w a y a p a rt in G rid s B6 a nd I9. Ano the r b a se typ e sha rd w a s fo und in E9. It is a fa irly c le a r d a rk g re e n g la ss w ith m a ny b ub b le inc lusio ns. The thic kne ss va rie s fro m 1 to 2 m m , a nd the c e ntra l p e a k is a re la tive ly fla t d o m e . The o nly inta c t g la ss a rtifa c t a p p e a rs to b e so m e kind o f lid . It ha s a d o m e d to p a nd a ng le d sid e s w ith a sha rp lip b e tw e e n the tw o . The lid ha s a d ia m e te r o f 52 m m a nd a thic kne ss va rying b e tw e e n 3 a nd 5 m m . The g la ss is a ve ry p a le g re e n, full o f b ub b le s. It w a s fo und in G rid H7. A ra ng e o f g la ss a rtifa c ts  lid (b o tto m le ft), ‘ o nio n b o ttle ’ (to p le ft, b o tto m c e nte r), thic ke r ‘ o nio n b o ttle ’ (to p rig ht), a nd stic k (b o tto m rig ht). The la st g la ss a rtifa c t is a sm a ll stic k, 12 m m in d ia m e te r a nd 44 m m lo ng , fo und in G rid J4. It ha s b e e n fo rm e d b y ro lling ve ry thin she e ts o f ye llo w a nd g re e n g la ss to g e the r, g iving a sp ira l c ro ss se c tio n. The o ute r surfa c e is d e e p ly p itte d . G la ss fro m the so -c a lle d o nio n b o ttle a nd the stic k ha s b e e n a na lyze d b y X-ra y flo re sc e nc e a t the C he m istry De p a rtm e nt o f the Na tio na l Unive rsity o f Sing a p o re a nd c o m p a re d to g la ss sa m p le s e xc a va te d fro m the fo urte e nth c e ntury stra tum a t the Fo rt C a nning site in Sing a p o re ; the y a p p e a r to b e o f C hine se o rig in (Miksic , 1996). X-ra y flo re sc e nc e is a no n- 89 d e struc tive q ua lita tive te c hniq ue w he re the first tw o p rinc ip a l c o m p o ne nts a re p lo tte d using the re la tive c o nc e ntra tio ns o f 17 e le m e nts in o rd e r to c o m p a re d ire c tly to sa m p le s o f kno w n o rig in. The re sults a re p lo tte d b e lo w . 16 14 PRINCIPAL COMPONENT 1 12 10 ONION BOTTLE SAMPLE 8 STICK SAMPLE FORT CANNING SAMPLES 6 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 PRINCIPAL COMPONENT 2 X-ra y flo re sc e nc e a na lysis o f g la ss. The o nio n b o ttle sa m p le is ve ry sim ila r in c o m p o sitio n to the C hine se Fo rt C a nning sa m p le s, to the e xte nt tha t it c a n b e c o nfid e ntly c o nc lud e d tha t it w a s m a d e in C hina . Evid e nc e o f g la ss m a king in So uthe rn C hina g o e s b a c k to the third c e ntury, w he n it w a s d e sc rib e d b y the c o nte m p o ra ry a utho rs Wa n Zhe n (Stra ng e Thing s o f the So uth ) a nd Ko Hung . The Ta i Ping Yu La n re p o rts tha t Em p e ro r Wu-Ti (140-87 BC ) se nt e m issa rie s to “ b a rb a ria ns” in so uthw e ste rn C hina to le a rn g la ss m a king te c hniq ue s (Fra nc is, 1986). Zha o Rukuo , ha rb o rm a ste r o f C a nto n in 1225, no te d tha t the C hine se m e rc ha nts e xp o rte d g la ss b e a d s a nd b o ttle s to Bo rne o a nd the Philip p ine s (Hirth a nd Ro c khill, 1911) (fro m Miksic , 1996). The stic k sa m p le is ve ry d iffe re nt fro m the Fo rt C a nning sa m p le s. G la ss w a s a lso m a nufa c ture d in Ind ia a nd in the Mid d le Ea st a t the tim e , b ut the re is no firm e vid e nc e o f g la ss m a nufa c ture fro m p rim a ry m a te ria ls a nyw he re in So uthe a st Asia d uring the p re m o d e rn p e rio d . It is stro ng ly susp e c te d , tho ug h, tha t the Ja va ne se in the la te first m ille nnium A.D. e ng a g e d in this a c tivity (Miksic 1996). 90 7.11 Rocks Eve ry ro c k fo und o n the site w a s b ro ug ht to the surfa c e . The y va ry in size fro m rive r ro und e d sto ne s w e ig hing 5 kg to fing e rtip -size d p e b b le s. So m e o f the ro c ks ha ve o b vio usly b e e n ha nd sha p e d , a nd the se ha ve b e e n tre a te d se p a ra te ly in Se c tio n 7.12. The to ta l num b e r re c o ve re d w a s 64. O nly ha lf o f tho se c o uld b e c la sse d a b a lla st sto ne size , a nd , w ith ra re e xc e p tio ns, tho se a re w e ll ro und e d a nd w a te rw o rn. With the m a ssive iro n c a rg o it is p la in tha t the re w a s no ne e d fo r sto ne b a lla st o n the la st vo ya g e . The la rg e r sto ne s m a y b e re m na nts fro m a p re vio us vo ya g e w he re b a lla st w a s ne c e ssa ry, a nd m a ny o f the sm a ll ro c ks m a y b e c hip s a nd p e b b le s m ixe d w ith the b a lla st. The id e ntific a tio n o f m a ny o f the se ro c ks b y G ina Ro c ke tt, the c ura to r o f the E. d e C la rke G e o lo g y Muse um a t the Unive rsity o f We ste rn Austra lia , a nd he r a sso c ia te , Jo hn Rid le y, p ro vid e s o the r p o ssib ilitie s a s fo llo w s: a) Eig ht sm a ll a nd o d d -sha p e d ro c ks a re fo ssils o r fo ssil-b e a ring m ud sto ne . O ne is ve ry e vid e ntly the fo ssil o f a tiny c ra b . The fo ssilize d inc lusio ns ha ve a d a rk b ro w n to re d d ish c o lo r a nd w he n ta p p e d g ive a d istinc t “ p ing ,” b e ing lig ht a nd ha rd . The a sso c ia te d m ud sto ne is b ro w n to lig ht b ro w n a nd is so ft e no ug h to ha ve b e e n a tta c ke d b y m a rine b o re rs. The se ro c ks a re a lm o st c e rta inly na tive to the site . b) Fo ur sm a ll, hig hly p o ro us, g ra y ro c ks a re re a d ily id e ntifia b le a s p um ic e . Vo lc a no 120 km fro m the site , this is no t a n im p ro b a b le find . c) Thre e sm a ll a nd o ne la rg e (160 m m x 130 m m ) irre g ula r b ut sm o o th ro c ks m a y a lso b e o f vo lc a nic o rig in. Da rk b ro w n, a nd in so m e c a se s slig htly lustro us o n the surfa c e , a c hip p e d p ie c e re ve a le d a rust-c o lo re d o ute r e d g e w ith so m e irid e sc e nt d a rk b lue a nd g re e n inc lusio ns. The y m a y b e iro n m a ng a ne se c he rt no d ule s. The re is a slig ht p o ssib ility tha t the se ro c ks a re na tive to the site . d) Se ve n w a te r-w o rn ro c ks (the la rg e st b e ing 130 m m x 60 m m ) a re o f se d im e nta ry o rig in. The y a re a fo rm o f siltsto ne kno w n a s g re yw a c ky a nd ha ve sulp hid e c rysta l inc lusio ns. The se ro c ks a re d e finite ly no t na tive to the site a nd the re fo re m a y b e the sm a lle r fra c tio n o f a p re vio us b a lla st c a rg o . e) Thre e sm a ll, a ng ula r, thum b -size d ro c ks ha ve b e e n id e ntifie d a s the m ine ra l c o rund um (Al2O 3). It is a lm o st c e rta in tha t the y w e re o nb o a rd the ship . C o rund um , w he n o c c urring w ith m a g ne tite , is kno w n a s e m e ry a nd is ha rd e r tha n a ny o the r c o m m o n m ine ra l. It is use d a s a n a b ra sive . Rub ie s a nd sa p p hire s a re g e m-q ua lity c o rund um . f) Six sm a ll, he a vy ro c ks w ith a re d d ish-p urp le surfa c e a nd c rysta lline inte rio r ha ve b e e n te nta tive ly id e ntifie d a s rho d o nite , a c a lc ium m a ng a ne se silic a te . The y w e re a ll fo und w ithin m e te rs o f e a c h o the r. Whe n p o lishe d , rho d o nite is re g a rd e d a s a g e m sto ne ; the re fo re , this ro c k m a y ha ve b e e n p a rt o f the c a rg o , p o ssib le a p riva te tra d e ite m jud g ing fro m the lim ite d q ua ntity re c o ve re d . An a tte m p t to p o lish o ne o f the se ro c ks w a s unsuc c e ssful, a s it b ro ke into p ie c e s d ue to inte rna l w e a the ring . g) Thre e ro c ks, o r ra the r lum p s, m e a suring ro ug hly 120 m m x 100 m m p re se nt a b it o f a d ile m m a . The o ute r surfa c e is lig ht b ro w n. O ne e xa m p le is la ye re d in so lid ifie d w a ve s, a s if a visc o us flo w ing m a te ria l ha s ha rd e ne d b e fo re a no the r la ye r flo w e d o ve r tha t a nd ha rd e ne d in five d istinc t e p iso d e s. The re is m uc h fine r la ye ring w ithin the lum p . Ano the r ha s a g lo b ula rd o m e d surfa c e a nd c o nc e ntric fine la ye ring . The m a te ria l is w hite a nd c ha lky, a nd und e r a m a g nifying g la ss the re a p p e a r to b e m inute q ua rtz c rysta l inc lusio ns. The se ro c ks w e re fo und 91 With Kra ka to a c lo se to g e the r, in G rid s B1, B2, a nd C 1. The ir ind ivid ua l c ha ra c te ristic s a re suffic ie ntly d iffe re nt to m a ke it unlike ly tha t the y d e rive d fro m o ne la rg e r p ie c e . O n c o nte xtua l g ro und s, the y w e re initia lly tho ug ht to b e so m e fo rm o f p ro c e sse d m ine ra l tha t w a s p a rt o f the ship ’ s c a rg o , p o ssib ly lim e o r so m e kind o f flux fo r sm e lting . It ha s sinc e b e e n sug g e ste d tha t the y a re rhyo lite b o m b s, la va fra g m e nts thro w n into the a ir b y vo lc a nic e xp lo sio ns. Pum ic e , w hic h is a rhyo lite la va b lo w n into a sp o ng e -like c o nsiste nc y b y the re le a se o f g a se s, ha s b e e n p o sitive ly id e ntifie d o n the site , the re b y sup p o rting this the o ry. h) An o ra ng e -to -b ro w n “ ro c k” p re se nts a no the r id e ntific a tio n p ro b le m . Do ze ns o f p ie c e s w e re re c o ve re d fro m a ll o ve r the site , g e ne ra lly d o w n a t the c la y la ye r a nd so m e tim e p e ne tra ting it. The se ha ve no t b e e n inc lud e d in the to ta l num b e r o f ro c ks re c o ve re d . The o ute r surfa c e is ve ry irre g ula r. The la rg e st p ie c e m e a sure s 220 m m x 130 m m a nd is sha p e d like a b e nt sho e . It is c o m p le te ly ho llo w w ith a w a ll thic kne ss o f 10 to 20 m m . O the r p ie c e s a re sim ila rly c o nvo lute d . The y a p p e a r to ha ve b e e n c a st in the o d d -sha p e d w o rm ho le s tha t rid d le the c la y se a b e d . But fo r the sha p e o f so m e o f the p ie c e s, the y c o uld ha ve b e e n c la ssifie d a s w e a the re d la te rite . Ang ula r inc lusio ns in so m e p ie c e s m a y ind ic a te a p o o rly c o nso lid a te d c a lc a re o us b re c c ia . C o nte xtua l e vid e nc e , ho w e ve r, ind ic a te s tha t the se ro c ks a re na tive to the site . Ano the r inte re sting tho ug ht is tha t the y a re p ie c e s o f kiln sla g fro m the C hine se iro n fo und ry tha t p ro d uc e d the c a uld ro ns a nd b a rs tha t m a ke up a la rg e p o rtio n o f the c a rg o . i) Thre e p ie c e s o f w a te r-w o rn m ilky q ua rtz w e re fo und w id e ly sp re a d o ut in G rid s B1, G 3, a nd H2. The la rg e r p ie c e , m e a suring 100 m m x 90 m m , w a s b ro ke n, re ve a ling a n a ng ula r inte rio r. j) O ne ra w q ua rtz c rysta l wa s re c o ve re d fro m G rid H8. The m a in he xa g o na l c rysta l is 60 m m lo ng , a nd the re is o ne sm a ll o ffsho o t c rysta l. The surfa c e is slig htly sta ine d w ith a b ro w n iro n c o rro sio n p ro d uc t. Altho ug h the re a re so m e inte rna l fra c ture s, the re a re fe w im p uritie s w ithin the c rysta l. This w a s p ro b a b ly a c urio b e lo ng ing to o ne o f the ship ’ s c o m p a ny. k) O nly o ne ro c k tha t is slig htly Q ua rtz c rysta l. w e a the re d b ut no t w a te r-w o rn is re a d ily id e ntifia b le a s g ra nite . It is re a so na b ly fine g ra ine d , a nd the w e a the re d surfa c e ha s a n o ra ng e hue . l) Mo st o f the b a lla st-size d ro c ks a re se d im e nta ry, ra ng ing fro m a c o urse -g ra ine d sa nd sto ne to the ve ry fine -g ra ine d g re yw a c ky m e ntio ne d a b o ve . Tw o e xc e p tio ns a p p e a r to b e g a b b ro a nd d io rite w ith so m e q ua rtz c o nte nt, b o th ig ne o us ro c ks. The re is o nly o ne e xa m p le o f e a c h. 7.12 Sharpening Stones Nine sto ne a rtifa c ts ha ve b e e n p o sitive ly id e ntifie d a s sha rp e ning sto ne s. Five o f the m a re sm a ll a nd e a sily he ld in o ne ha nd , w hile the o the r fo ur w o uld ha ve re ste d o n the g ro und . 92 The ha nd -he ld sha rp e ning sto ne s a re sha p e d o ut o f a ha rd siltsto ne . Fo ur a re m o re o r le ss fing e r sha p e d , b ut o ne o f a lig hte r c o lo re d sto ne ha s the sha p e o f a fla tte ne d “ L” . All ha ve o ne surfa c e w o rn sm o o th, so the y ha ve a ll se e n a c tive d uty. The y w e re w e ll sc a tte re d , lying in g rid s C 1, E9, G 0, I8, a nd J8. The la rg e r sto ne s te nd e d to b e w a te r-w o rn, e lo ng a te d p ie c e s o f ro c k. O ne 350 m m lo ng p ie c e is c o m p le te ly sm o o th a lo ng its full le ng th o n o ne sid e , a nd ha s tw o w e ll-w o rn ho llo w s o n the o the r. Sma ll sha rp e ning sto ne s. A w id e r ro c k is ro ug hly c hip p e d fla t o n the b a se a nd w e ll w o rn o n the w o rking surfa c e . A sm a lle r sto ne is w o rn in tw o p la c e s o n b o th sid e s. O ne o f the sha rp e ning sto ne s is b ro ke n in tw o , a nd ha d b e e n fo r a lo ng tim e , jud g ing fro m the e nc rusta tio n o f c o ra l a nd o yste r she lls o n the b ro ke n fa c e s. Thre e o f the la rg e r sto ne s w e re fo und fa irly c lo se to g e the r, 2 in G rid I3 a nd 1 in G 3, b ut the o the r w a s w e ll a w a y in G rid F-1. Thre e sha rp e ning sto ne s a nd a sto ne ro lle r (le ft). O ne o the r sim ila r sto ne ha s b e e n ha nd sha p e d , a ltho ug h it is no t a c tua lly a sha rp e ning sto ne . It is like a ro lle r, w ith b o th e nd s ta p e re d slig htly a s if to fit e nd b e a ring s. The surfa c e o f this so c a lle d ro lle r ha s b e e n w o rn sm o o th. It ha s a le ng th o f 280 m m a nd a d ia m e te r o f 80 m m . The fa c t tha t a ll o f the sha rp e ning sto ne s w e re w e ll use d im p lie s tha t the y w e re p a rt o f the ship ’ s e q uip m e nt o r p e rha p s b e lo ng e d to so ld ie rs a ssig ne d to p ro te c t the ve sse l, ra the r tha n ite m s fo r tra d e . 7.13 Organic Finds Ap a rt fro m the sm a ll c hunks o f w o o d tha t w e re the o nly re m na nts o f the ship ’ s hull, a nd so m e b ra nc he s w hic h m a y ha ve b e e n d unna g e o r p e rha p s a n a ro m a tic w o o d , the re w e re ve ry fe w o rg a nic find s. G ive n the e xp o se d na ture o f the site , it is surp rising tha t the re w e re a ny a t a ll. In fa c t, it m ust b e susp e c te d tha t so m e o f the ite m s tha t w e re fo und a re intrusive . Tw o o rg a nic find s w e re te nta tive ly id e ntifie d b y Pro f. We e Ye o C hin a nd Dr. Ia n Turne r o f the Na tio na l Unive rsity o f Sing a p o re Bo ta ny De p a rtm e nt. O ne nut fo und in G rid A6 is tho ug ht to 93 b e c a na rium , o r c a na ry nut, w hic h is typ ic a lly use d fo r fo o d fla vo ring . Ano the r ve ry d e g ra d e d sp e c im e n w a s id e ntifie d a s the fruit fro m a nip a p a lm , w hic h c o nta ins w ha t a re c o m m o nly kno w n a s a ta p se e d s. The se se e d s a re sw e e t a nd c he w y, a nd hig hly e d ib le . The nip a p a lm is fo und thro ug ho ut So uthe a st Asia a nd g ro w s p ro lific a lly in sw a m p y rive r d e lta s. An unid e ntifie d se e d c a sing w a s fo und in G rid J8. It is w o o d y, ro ug hly sp he ric a l, a nd a p p e a rs to b e inte rna lly d ivid e d into thre e c a vitie s. Ano the r unid e ntifie d nut is b a d ly d e te rio ra te d , b ut slig htly re se m b le s a n a lm o nd . The o the r o rg a nic find s inc lud e ra tta n tha t w a s use d to b ind the b und le s o f iro n b a rs, a nd a sm a ll p ie c e o f he ssia n-like m a te ria l tha t w a s use d to w ra p up a b und le o f fo ur re c ta ng ula r iro n b a rs. The se w e re p re se rve d b y the e nc a sing iro n c o nc re tio n. 7.14 Tin Ingots Tw o unusua l tin ing o ts w e re d isc o ve re d . Why the re w e re o nly tw o re m a ins a m yste ry. Ba d ly c o rro d e d tin ing o ts. O ne , re c o ve re d fro m G rid J5, is a trunc a te d c o ne 110 m m in d ia m e te r a nd 30 m m in he ig ht. The b a se ha s a sc a llo p e d e d g e , a ltho ug h this d e c o ra tive fe a ture is hig hly d e g ra d e d o n o ne sid e . The ing o t is b a d ly b liste re d w ith ye llo w , w hite a nd c rysta lline c o rro sio n p ro d uc ts. Bo th the b a se m e ta l a nd the c o rro sio n p ro d uc ts ha ve b e e n a na lyze d b y Miss Anna Fle tc he r, Se nio r Ma te ria l Sc ie ntist w ith the Ma te ria ls Institute o f We ste rn Austra lia , fo r Dr. Ia n Ma c Le o d o f the We ste rn Austra lia n Ma ritim e Muse um . The m e ta l w a s fo und to b e a lm o st p ure w ith 99.6% tin, a nd o nly a tra c e o f le a d (0.019%). The se c o nd ing o t w a s re c o ve re d thre e g rid sq ua re s a w a y in G rid G 5. This o ne is a c ylind ric a l ro d , 265 m m in le ng th a nd 45 m m in d ia m e te r. It is he a vily c o rro d e d , w ith m a ny b liste rs sho w ing a ra d ia l c rysta lline struc ture . The ro d ing o t w a s fo und to c o nta in 98.4% tin, 0.175% le a d , a nd 0.006% zinc . 94 The d e ta ile d re sults o f the m e ta l a nd c o rro sio n p ro d uc ts a na lysis fo r b o th ing o ts c a n b e fo und in Ap p e nd ix I. 95 8.0 THE IRON INDUSTRY AND TRADE b y Dr. Be nne t Bro nso n 8.1 The History of Iron Production in Asia Iro n is kno w n to ha ve first b e e n m a d e in Ind ia b y 1000 B.C . (C ha kra b a rti, 1992), in c e ntra l a nd so uthe rn C hina b y 600 B.C . (Wa g ne r, 1996), a nd in Tha ila nd a nd Vie tna m b y 500 B.C . (Bro nso n, 1985). Its first a p p e a ra nc e in p e ninsula r a nd isla nd So uthe a st Asia is la te r, b ut the re is no re a so n to d o ub t tha t m a ny p a rts o f the re g io n w e re m a king a nd using iro n b y 100 B.C . The ra w m a te ria ls fo r iro n m a king a re d istrib ute d q uite une ve nly w ithin So uthe a st Asia . This is e sp e c ia lly true o f la rg e d e p o sits o f hig h-g ra d e iro n o re s. Se ve ra l a re a s ha ve no ne , inc lud ing Ja va , Sula w e si a nd Mind a na o (a ll o f w hic h ha ve sub sta ntia l lo w e r-g ra d e d e p o sits) a s w e ll a s so uthe rn Vie tna m a nd the Visa ya s (w he re e ve n lo w -g ra d e o re s a re q uite sc a rc e ). O the r a re a s, ho w e ve r, a re ric h in e xc e lle nt iro n o re s, no ta b ly Luzo n, the Ma la y Pe ninsula , a nd a b e lt tha t runs fro m no rthe rn Tha ila nd thro ug h La o s to no rthe rn Vie tna m a nd C hina . Altho ug h a va ila b le info rm a tio n o n sm a lle r hig h-g ra d e d e p o sits in the 10,000-500,000 to n ra ng e is ve ry inc o m p le te , it se e m s re a so na b le o n g e o lo g ic a l g ro und s to c o nc lud e tha t m o st o f the se o c c ur in the sa m e a re a s a s the m ultim illio n-to n d e p o sits. Use ful q ua ntitie s o f ric h o re s a lso e xist in C e ntra l Tha ila nd , Bo rne o a nd the isla nd s b e tw e e n Bo rne o a nd Sum a tra (Surve y, 1970; Be m m e le n, 1949; MRDS-39, 1972; DMR, 1975). Existing histo ric a l re c o rd s ind ic a te tha t c o m m e rc ia l iro n m a king d uring p re ind ustria l tim e s w a s c o nc e ntra te d in a re a s w ith hig h-g ra d e o re s, like tho se o f Phno m De k in no rthe rn C a m b o d ia (Mo ura , 1883:43-6), o r w ith unusua l o re s like the iro n-nic ke l d e p o sits o f c e ntra l Sula w e si (Ab e nd a no n, 1917-8). Whe re a s a lm o st a ll p a rts o f So uthe a st Asia c o nta in e no ug h m e d io c re se d im e nta ry o re s (m a ny o f the m la te ritic ) fo r a c o m p e te nt e a rly sm e lte r to m a ke suffic ie nt iro n fo r lo c a l use , p ro d uc tio n o n a slig htly la rg e r sc a le se e m s to ha ve re q uire d ric h c o nta c tm e ta m o rp hic o re s. This w a s no t b e c a use iro n m a d e fro m le a n o re s w a s w o rse in q ua lity b ut b e c a use it w a s m o re e xp e nsive , re q uiring m o re fue l a nd la b o r to p ro d uc e a unit o f finishe d m e ta l. He nc e , o re -d e fic ie nt a re a s suc h a s so uthe rn C a m b o d ia a nd so uthe rn Vie tna m m a y ne ve r ha ve b e e n p ro d uc e rs o f iro n. It d o e s no t fo llo w , ho w e ve r, tha t a ll a re a s w ith iro n o re s ne c e ssa rily use d the m . Luzo n a nd We st Ma la ysia , b o th o f w hic h p o sse ss e xc e lle nt d e p o sits o f a c c e ssib le iro n o re s, ne ve r se e m to ha ve b e e n iro n p ro d uc e rs o n m o re tha n a stric tly lo c a l sc a le . The c a se o f Ja va is e ve n m o re striking . The m a g ne tite sa nd s a lo ng its so uthe rn c o a st a re no t o nly a b und a nt e no ug h to ha ve b e e n c o nsid e re d fo r use b y m o d e rn ste e l m a king firm s b ut a re o f a typ e tha t w a s o fte n p re fe rre d b y e a rly sm e lte rs. Sim ila r iro n sa nd s a c c o unte d fo r a la rg e p ro p o rtio n o f the iro n p ro d uc e d in tra d itio na l furna c e s in so uthe rn Ind ia a nd Ja p a n. Ye t the Ja va ne se ha ve ne ve r b e e n kno w n to sm e lt this o r a ny o the r iro n o re , fro m the tim e the Po rtug ue se a rrive d in the e a rly sixte e nth c e ntury thro ug h to the m id -tw e ntie th c e ntury. Ra ffle s (1830,1:240) is q uite c le a r tha t in the e a rly nine te e nth c e ntury Ja va p ro d uc e d no iro n a t a ll. As fa r a s is kno w n, e ve ry kilo g ra m o f iro n use d fo r hund re d s o f ye a rs in o ne o f the m o st d e nse ly p o p ula te d p a rts o f So uthe a st Asia ha s c o m e fro m o the r isla nd s, the Asia n m a inla nd , o r Euro p e . This im b a la nc e e ithe r o f re so urc e s o r inte re st in using the m re sulte d in a n a c tive iro n tra d e in a nd a ro und the Ja va Se a . In re c e nt c e nturie s, a num b e r o f re g io na l c e nte rs a re kno w n to ha ve p ro vid e d ra w o r w o rke d iro n to b e fe d into the tra d itio na l m a ritim e tra d e ne tw o rk o f w e ste rn Ind o ne sia . Exa m p le s inc lud e the Ng a ju Da ya k o f So uth Ka lim a nta n, w ho se iro n a nd 95 ste e l w e re fa b ric a te d a t Ne g a ra ne a r Ba nje rm a sin a nd e xp o rte d b y se a to o the r isla nd s (He nd riks, 1842); the We st To ra ja a nd To Ba d a o f c e ntra l Sula w e si, w ho se to o ls sup p lie d the Mo luc c a s (Kruyt, 1901:148-9) a nd w ho se nic ke l-c o nta ining unw o rke d iro n, the fa m e d p a m o r luwu, w a s c a rrie d a s fa r a s no rthe rn Sum a tra (G ro ne m a n, 1910:138); the inha b ita nts o f Be litung a nd Ka rim a ta , w ho se b a r iro n a nd m uc h-e ste e m e d p a ra ng s a nd a xe s w e re use d thro ug ho ut Ind o ne sia (e .g ., Da g hre g iste r, v.1679: 121, 137, 178, 222, 229, 342; Re id , 1988: 110-1); a nd the Mina ng ka b a u o f Sum a tra , no te d kris e xp o rte rs (Va le ntyn, 1726,5:2) a nd sup p lie rs o f iro n to se ve ra l o the r p a rts o f tha t isla nd (Ma rsc ha ll, 1968: 130-2). The sa m e histo ric a l so urc e s, the m o st im p o rta nt o f w hic h w e re p ro d uc e d in Ba ta via (m o d e rn Ja ka rta ) b y the Dutc h Ea st Ind ia C o m p a ny (o r “ V.O .C .” ), m a ke it c le a r tha t w e ste rn Ind o ne sia n so urc e s c o uld no t ke e p up w ith d e m a nd fo r fe rro us m e ta ls. The Jo urna ls o r “ Da g hre g iste rs” o f the V.O .C ., o f w hic h a num b e r o f sixte e nth-c e ntury vo lum e s ha ve b e e n p ub lishe d , c o nta in num e ro us re fe re nc e s to im p o rts o f iro n to Ja va . In the d e c a d e 1673-1682, 9 C hine se ship s fro m Xia m e n, a nd “ C hinc he o ” (e ithe r Q ua nzho u o r Zha ng zho u) in so uthe rn Fujia n p ro vinc e b ro ug ht 55,214 iro n p a ns, 22 ha m p e rs o f p a ns, 92 iro n sho ve ls a nd 6 iro n c a nno n to Ba ta via a s w e ll a s q ua ntitie s o f c e ra m ic s a nd o the r g o o d s. During the sa m e p e rio d , 47 C hine se a nd Euro p e a n ship s c o m ing fro m C a nto n a nd Ma c a o in G ua ng zho u p ro vinc e b ro ug ht a furthe r 4,125 p a ns, 6,542 ne sts o f p a ns, 332 ke ttle s, 50 knive s a nd a c a se o f ne e d le s. Still m o re iro n p a ns c a m e in C hine se ship s sa iling fro m Ja p a n. Ind ia sup p lie d q ua ntitie s o f b a r iro n a s w e ll a s na ils a nd “ ha m m e r ste e l” (Bro nso n 1986: 22). Ship s c o m ing d ire c tly fro m Euro p e b ro ug ht iro n c a nno n, c a nno n b a lls, m isc e lla ne o us ha rd w a re a nd , a g a in, na ils. The V.O .C .’ s re c o rd s a re inc o m p le te . But the y sho w unm ista ka b ly tha t in the se ve nte e nth c e ntury, w he n Ind o ne sia n e c o no m ie s still w e re ve ry sim ila r to tho se o f the p re -Euro p e a n p e rio d b e fo re 1500, the re g io n w a s b y no m e a ns se lf-suffic ie nt in iro n. A ve ry sub sta ntia l p e rc e nta g e o f the iro n c o nsum e d in Ind o ne sia w a s im p o rte d fro m Ea st Asia , So uth Asia , a nd e ve n Euro p e . Tha t the isla nd re g io n o f So uthe a st Asia sim p ly d id no t p ro d uc e e no ug h iro n fo r its ne e d s se e m s a n ine sc a p a b le c o nc lusio n. Why this sho uld ha ve b e e n so is no t o b vio us. Afte r a ll, a s p o inte d o ut a b o ve , the re g io n is no t e sp e c ia lly p o o r in o re , a nd the c o nve rsio n o f o re into iro n is no t suc h a d iffic ult p ro c e ss: ind e e d , jud g ing fro m the fa c t tha t a lm o st e ve ry p a rt o f Eura sia a nd Afric a kne w the sm e lting o f iro n in a ntiq uity, it is a p ro c e ss tha t a lm o st e ve ry so c ie ty c a n (a nd d id ) m a ste r. Furthe r, Ind o ne sia ns o f the histo ric a l p e rio d w e re no t a t a ll p rim itive in te rm s o f fa b ric a ting o b je c ts fro m a lre a d y-sm e lte d iro n. As To m e Pire s no te d in 1515, the sw o rd s a nd d a g g e rs o f Ja va w e re p rize d e no ug h to b e e xp o rte d to Ma la c c a in Ma la ysia a nd e ve n to Ind ia (C o rte sa o , 1944: 93, 179). But w hy, the n, d id a nc ie nt Ind o ne sia no t sm e lt e no ug h iro n to b e c o m e se lf-suffic ie nt, a s w a s m o st o f Afric a , Ind ia a nd Ma inla nd So uthe a st Asia b y the e a rly first m ille nnium A.D.? Pa rt o f the a nsw e r lie s in te c hno lo g y. Due to Ind o ne sia ’ s e xc e lle nt m a ritim e c o m m unic a tio ns a nd e xte nsive tra d e links w ith Ea st a nd So uth Asia , w o uld -b e iro n m a ke rs the re m ust ha ve b e e n e xp o se d to se ve re c o m p e titio n fro m lo w -c o st p ro d uc e rs in Ind ia a nd C hina w ho w e re p ro b a b ly the m o st e ffic ie nt in the w o rld d uring p re ind ustria l tim e s. Furthe r, b o th Ea st a nd So uth Asia n iro n m a ke rs w e re te c hnic a lly a d va nc e d in te rm s o f the kind s o f iro n the y m a d e . Ind ia le d the a nc ie nt w o rld in the p ro d uc tio n o f ste e l, e m p lo ying a va rie ty o f c ruc ib le p ro c e sse s to m a ke a unifo rm , m e d ium -c a rb o n m e ta l tha t w a s unm a tc he d e lse w he re in the w o rld b e fo re the nine te e nth c e ntury (Bro nso n, 1986). And C hina , b e g inning a b o ut 500 B.C ., ha d e vo lve d a uniq ue c o m p le x o f iro n-m a king te c hno lo g ie s tha t w o uld no t b e d isc o ve re d in the We st until m o d e rn tim e s (Wa g ne r, 1996). 96 8.2 Iron-Making Technology The d iffe re nc e s b e tw e e n the te c hniq ue s use d fo r m a king iro n in C hina o n the o ne ha nd a nd in So uthe a st a nd So uth Asia o n the o the r a re c ruc ia l to und e rsta nd ing the im p o rta nc e o f the iro n c a rg o o n the Ja va Se a Wre c k. Fo r tha t re a so n, it is w o rth d e vo ting a fe w p a ra g ra p hs to te c hnic a l issue s. The first suc h issue re la te s to the fa c t tha t until the m id -nine te e nth c e ntury m o st o f the iro n use d in the w o rld w a s o f the lo w -c a rb o n va rie ty kno w n a s w ro ug ht iro n. This is c ha ra c te rize d b y a hig h m e lting te m p e ra ture , w hic h m a ke s it im p o ssib le to sha p e b y c a sting ; b y re la tive so ftne ss a nd d uc tility a t re d o r w hite he a t, m a king it e a sy to sha p e b y fo rg ing ; a nd b y re la tive to ug hne ss a nd lo w stre ng th. A p ure w ro ug ht iro n c o nta ins a lm o st no c a rb o n a nd is in fa c t le ss stro ng a nd ha rd tha n m a ny b ro nze s. Ho w e ve r, it ha s tw o a d va nta g e s o ve r a ny b ro nze o r o the r c o p p e r a llo y: (1) b e c a use iro n o re s a re ve ry a b und a nt, it is m uc h c he a p e r, a nd (2) thro ug h a d d ing so m e b ut no t to o m uc h c a rb o n b y o ne o f se ve ra l m e tho d s it c a n b e c o nve rte d to ste e l, w hic h in te rm s o f c o m b ine d to ug hne ss, stre ng th a nd ha rd ne ss is sup e rio r no t o nly to b ro nze b ut to m o st o the r a nc ie nt o r m o d e rn m a te ria ls. Lo w -c a rb o n w ro ug ht iro n a nd its d e riva tive , ste e l, w e re the o nly typ e s o f iro n use d in m o st p la c e s fo r m o st o f histo ry. Ea st Asia , ho w e ve r, b e g a n a t a n e a rly d a te to e m p lo y a third typ e : the ve ry ha rd , b rittle a nd m o ld a b le hig h-c a rb o n m e ta l kno w n a s "c a st" iro n w hic h, tho ug h a g o o d m a te ria l fo r m a king o b je c ts like ke ttle s a nd sto ve s, is unsuita b le fo r func tio ns re q uiring sho c k re sista nc e , a s in a xe s o r sw o rd s, a nd w hic h c a nno t b e sha p e d b y fo rg ing . The m e tho d s o f ha nd ling c a st iro n se e m to ha ve b e e n unkno w n to the o the r te c hno lo g ic a lly a d va nc e d na tio ns o f a ntiq uity, g iving C hina a w o rld m o no p o ly o n c a st iro n p ro d uc tio n fo r p e rha p s a tho usa nd ye a rs. The te c hno lo g y o f c a st iro n w a s p ic ke d up b y the Ko re a ns a nd Ja p a ne se so m e tim e in the e a rly first m ille nnium A.D. a nd b y C e ntra l Asia ns se ve ra l c e nturie s a fte r tha t; it w a s no t le a rne d b y Euro p e a ns until a b o ut A.D. 1300. And ye t e ve n in C hina the m a rke t fo r a b rittle , c a sta b le iro n w a s lim ite d . As in o the r c o untrie s a g re a t d e a l o f the iro n use d b y the C hine se w a s o f the fo rg e a b le w ro ug ht va rie ty. The se c o nd issue c o nc e rns the w a y in w hic h fo rg e a b le iro n is m a d e , fo r it c a n b e o b ta ine d thro ug h e ithe r o f tw o p ro c e sse s (Ro sto ke r a nd Bro nso n, 1990). O ne is the so -c a lle d "d ire c t" p ro c e ss tha t w a s p re fe rre d b y e a rly Euro p e a ns, Afric a ns, a nd m o st Asia ns, inc lud ing Ind o ne sia ns. A m ixture o f iro n o re a nd fue l (g e ne ra lly w o o d c ha rc o a l) w a s he a te d a t a re la tive ly lo w te m p e ra ture (b e tw e e n 1200 a nd 1250 d e g re e s C e lsius) in a lo w furna c e , p e rha p s a b o ut a m e te r o r so hig h o r p e rha p s a c a re fully sha p e d ho le in the g ro und . Mo st suc h furna c e s w e re e q uip p e d w ith tw o o r m o re m e d ium-size d b e llo w s. The b e llo w s w e re w o rke d w hile im p uritie s ra n o ff in the fo rm o f liq uid sla g , w ith m o re fue l b e ing a d d e d a s ne e d e d , until a so lid lum p o r "b lo o m '' o f iro n fo rm e d a t the b o tto m o f the furna c e . At tha t p o int, the b e llo w s w e re sto p p e d a nd the furna c e a llo w e d to c o o l until the b lo o m c o uld b e e xtra c te d . Histo ria ns o f te c hno lo g y c a ll suc h furna c e s b lo o m e rie s b e c a use o f the na ture o f the ir p ro d uc t. Afte r e xtra c tio n, the b lo o m w a s ha m m e re d w hile still ho t until m o st o f the sla g w a s sq ue e ze d o ut. The re sult w a s a p ie c e o f lo w -c a rb o n (<0.1%) m e ta l, g e ne ra lly o f hig h c he m ic a l p urity d ue to the lo w sm e lting te m p e ra ture s invo lve d , re a d y fo r im m e d ia te use b y a b la c ksm ith. The o the r m e tho d fo r m a king a lo w -c a rb o n w ro ug ht iro n, the "ind ire c t" p ro c e ss, a p p e a rs to ha ve b e e n use d in e a rly tim e s o nly in C hina , the n la te r in Ko re a a nd Ja p a n, a nd no t until re c e nt c e nturie s in the We st. As its na m e im p lie s, the p ro c e ss invo lve d m o re tha n o ne sta g e . The o re a nd fue l (e ithe r c ha rc o a l, m ine ra l c o a l o r c o ke ) w e re first he a te d , a lm o st a lw a ys in a 97 true b la st furna c e , a la rg e r a nd ta lle r struc ture tha n the b lo o m e rie s use d in the d ire c t p ro c e ss, to a te m p e ra ture hig h e no ug h a c tua lly to liq ue fy the iro n (a b o ut 1350 d e g re e s C e lsius). Muc h la rg e r b e llo w s ha d to b e use d , w hic h m e a nt e ithe r w a te r p o w e r o r a la rg e num b e r o f b e llo w s o p e ra to rs. Due to the hig h te m p e ra ture s re a c he d , no t o nly the sla g b ut a lso the iro n c o uld b e ta p p e d fro m the furna c e in liq uid fo rm thro ug h a sm a ll o p e ning in the lo w e r p a rt o f the furna c e . This m a d e it p o ssib le to o p e ra te suc h furna c e s c o ntinuo usly, o fte n fo r p e rio d s o f w e e ks o r m o nths, w hic h sa ve d fue l a nd inc re a se d p e r-d a y p ro d uc tio n. The liq uid m e ta l tha t is ta p p e d fro m a ny b la st furna c e c o o ls q uic kly, so lid ifying a s a p ie c e o f b rittle c a st iro n w ith a ve ry hig h c a rb o n c o nte nt in the 3-5% ra ng e a s w e ll a s sig nific a nt a m o unts o f p ho sp ho rus, sulfur a nd silic o n. It is o f c o urse p o ssib le to re m e lt this typ e o f iro n a nd to p o ur it into m o ld s the n a nd the re — the te c hniq ue s a nd te m p e ra ture s ne e d e d fo r m o ld ing c a st iro n d o no t d iffe r g re a tly fro m tho se ne e d e d in c a sting b ro nze . C a st iro n a s a m e ta l is g o o d fo r m a king b e lls, is e xtre m e ly ha rd b ut e a sily b ro ke n, a n o nly fa ir c o nd uc to r o f he a t (w hic h m a ke s it he a t e ve nly w he n use d fo r c o o king o r ind ustria l p urp o se s), re sista nt to c he m ic a l d a m a g e , a nd c a p a b le o f b e ing fo rm e d into ve ry c o m p le x sha p e s w ith o nly m inim a l e xp e nd iture o f la b o r. Ho w e ve r, if e a rly C hine se iro n w o rke rs w a nte d a so fte r a nd m o re m a lle a b le m e ta l w hic h c o uld b e sha p e d in a b la c ksm ith’ s fo rg e , it w a s ne c e ssa ry to p ut this hig h-c a rb o n c a st iro n thro ug h a se c o nd p ro c e ssing ste p in a se c o nd furna c e , a fine ry. This "fining " ste p invo lve d re he a ting the iro n until it a g a in b e c a m e a liq uid a nd the n e xp o sing it to o xyg e n fo r lo ng e no ug h to b urn m o st o f the c a rb o n o ut, yie ld ing a so lid m a ss o f lo w -c a rb o n w ro ug ht iro n. Fining to o k a lm o st a s m uc h fue l p e r unit o utp ut a s b lo o m e ry sm e lting , a nd the p ro c e ss w a s q uite la b o rinte nsive . Why the c o m p le x a nd se e m ing ly w a ste ful tw o -sta g e m e tho d sho uld ha ve b e e n p re fe rre d in a nc ie nt Ea st Asia c a nno t b e d isc usse d he re . It is e no ug h to sa y tha t the ind ire c t p ro c e ss w a s m o re e ffic ie nt in so m e w a ys, tha t the la rg e b la st furna c e s invo lve d w e re c a p a b le o f turning o ut m uc h m o re m e ta l in a g ive n p e rio d o f tim e tha n the sm a lle r b lo o m e ry furna c e s use d in the d ire c t p ro c e ss, a nd tha t a t the p re se nt d a y a lm o st a ll iro n m a ke rs use tw o -sta g e p ro c e sse s no t g re a tly d iffe re nt in p rinc ip le fro m the o ne inve nte d b y the e a rly C hine se . Whe the r m a d e in a b lo o m e ry o r fine ry, e a rly lo w -c a rb o n iro ns te nd to b e ve ry sim ila r. Ind e e d , m o st sp e c ia lists fe e l tha t the y c a nno t b e d isting uishe d b y a ny c urre ntly a va ila b le m e tho d o f a na lysis e xc e p t tha t fine ry iro n, d ue to the ve ry hig h te m p e ra ture s a t w hic h it w a s o rig ina lly sm e lte d , te nd s to c o nta in ra the r m o re p ho sp ho rus, sulfur a nd o the r und e sira b le im p uritie s. The fo rm in w hic h the tw o kind s o f iro n w e re tra d e d m ig ht so m e tim e s o ffe r a c lue . In so m e p a rts o f Ind ia , sla g g y b lo o m s se e m to ha ve b e e n the sta nd a rd fo rm in w hic h iro n w a s tra d e d (se e fo r insta nc e , Buc ha na n, 1807, 2: 437). But e lse w he re in Ind ia a nd in m uc h o f the re st o f e a rly Eura sia , lo w -c a rb o n iro n in histo ric tim e s w a s g e ne ra lly tra d e d in the fo rm o f ro d s o r b a rs: in fa c t, Euro p e a ns ha ve tra d itio na lly use d the te rm “ b a r iro n” a s a syno nym fo r w ro ug ht iro n. The C hine se to o a re kno w n to ha ve tra d e d lo w -c a rb o n iro n in the fo rm o f b a rs (Te g e ng re n, 1923-4:336). G e ne ra lly sp e a king , this b a r iro n d id no t ha ve a p a rtic ula rly hig h re p uta tio n a m o ng fo re ig ne rs in the e ig hte e nth a nd nine te e nth c e nturie s, w he n c o m p a re d w ith e ithe r Euro p e a n m e ta l o r the b lo o m e ry-m a d e iro n o f the re st o f Asia . The C hine se m e ta l o fte n ha d a ra the r hig h p ho sp ho rus c o nte nt, w hic h m a d e the m e ta l “ c o ld -sho rt” : lia b le to b re a k und e r stre ss a t lo w te m p e ra ture s. This is w hy, in the e ye s o f e c o no m ic histo ria ns a nd a rc ha e o m e ta llurg ists, the Ja va Se a Wre c k find s m a y se e m surp rising . Jud g ing fro m la te r histo ric a l re c o rd s like tho se c ite d a b o ve , o ne w o uld e xp e c t C hina to ha ve e xp o rte d q ua ntitie s o f c a st iro n d uring the So ng a nd Yua n 98 p e rio d s. C hine se m e rc ha nts sho uld ha ve fo und c a st iro n im p le m e nts a nd c o o king w a re s to b e id e a l c o m m o d itie s fo r lo ng -d ista nc e tra d e : re la tive ly ine xp e nsive to p ro d uc e , im p o ssib le fo r So uthe a st Asia n c o nsum e rs to c o p y d ue to the c o m p le x te c hno lo g y invo lve d , a nd w ith sp e c ia l p ro p e rtie s (e ve nne ss o f he a t d istrib utio n, stre ng th, c he m ic a l re sista nc e a nd she e r size ) tha t m a d e the m irre p la c e a b le b y ind ig e no us m e ta l w a re s. But b a r iro n, o ne w o uld think, w a s q uite a d iffe re nt m a tte r. The C hine se p ro d uc t w o uld ha ve fa c e d re a l c o m p e titio n fro m lo c a lly m a d e So uthe a st Asia n b lo o m iro n a s w e ll a s fro m Ind ia n iro n a nd ste e l. 8.3 Historical and Archaeological Parallels We d o no t kno w m uc h a b o ut tho se lo c a l p ro d uc e rs a t the tim e tha t the Ja va Se a ship w e nt d o w n, b ut it se e m s c e rta in tha t the y e xiste d . O ne o f the fe w c o nte m p o ra ry iro n-w o rking a re a s in So uthe a st Asia tha t ha ve b e e n stud ie d in a ny d e ta il is the Sa ra w a k Rive r d e lta a ro und Sa ntub o ng in no rthw e ste rn Bo rne o (Ha rrisso n a nd O 'C o nno r, 1969). Mo st d a ta b le a rtifa c ts a sso c ia te d w ith the iro n sla g a nd o the r d e b ris a t Sa ntub o ng w e re C hine se sto ne w a re a nd p o rc e la in o f the e a rly So ng to e a rly Yua n d yna stie s. A fe w c o ins w e re a lso fo und fro m the Ta ng (e a rlie st: A.D. 618) a nd So ng p e rio d s. Thus, the p ro b a b le p e a k o f a c tivity a t the site s o c c urre d in the tw e lfth to thirte e nth c e nturie s. The o rig ina l e xc a va to r, To m Ha rrisso n o f the Sa ra w a k Muse um , b e lie ve d tha t the iro n o re w o rke d a t the site w a s b ro ug ht b y b o a t fro m up stre a m ; the site a t the rive r m o uth w o uld ha ve b e e n c ho se n b e c a use it p ro vid e d m a ng ro ve w o o d , w hic h yie ld s e xc e lle nt fue l fo r the furna c e s, a nd w a s a c c e ssib le to the se a so tha t the p ro d uc ts c o uld b e re a d ily e xp o rte d . The site a lso p ro vid e d a c c e ss to fre sh w a te r. O the r iso la te d site s w ith sla g a nd "c ruc ib le s" w e re fo und b e tw e e n 6 ho urs a nd o ne d a y's sa il in e ithe r d ire c tio n a lo ng the c o a st. Ho w m uc h iro n w a s p ro d uc e d a t the se site s is still unc le a r d ue to d iffic ultie s in d isting uishing sm e lting sla g fro m na tura l c o nc re tio ns, b ut the re m ig ht ha ve b e e n e no ug h iro n to sup p o rt a n e xp o rt tra d e (Ha rrisso n a nd O 'C o nno r, 1969: 203-204). Histo ric a l so urc e s to o ind ic a te tha t Ind o ne sia ns w e re a c tive ly e ng a g e d in p ro d uc ing a nd ship p ing iro n. Ea rly Ara b w rite rs m e ntio n tha t a g ro up , id e ntifie d b y so m e sc ho la rs a s Ind o ne sia ns, tra d e d fo r iro n fro m p la c e s a s d ista nt a s e a st Afric a (Fe rra nd , G . 1922: 66). Zha o Rug ua , w riting in the thirte e nth c e ntury, m e ntio ns no n-C hine se iro n in se ve ra l p la c e s (Hirth a nd Ro c khill,1911: 46, 61,69, 78). Iro n sw o rd s, he sa ys, w e re b e ing m a d e o n isla nd s so m e w he re ne a r Ja va , a nd o the r sw o rd s w e re im p o rte d fro m Ind ia to Ja va a nd Sa nfo q i (o r Srivija ya ), p ro b a b ly in Sum a tra . He e ve n sa ys tha t a no the r So uthe a st Asia n lo c a lity, in no rthe rn Vie tna m , w a s e xp o rting iro n. He m a y b e im p lying tha t this w a s w ro ug ht iro n in unfinishe d fo rm , a ltho ug h Whe a tle y thinks tha t this m e ta l “ m ust ha ve b e e n a re -e xp o rt" (1959: 117). Zha o a lso m e ntio ns tha t C hine se trip o d c a uld ro ns w e re im p o rte d b y tw o p la c e s, o ne o f w hic h is tho ug ht to b e in the Philip p ine s a nd the o the r in Ja va . As suc h ite m s w o uld ha ve ha d to b e m a d e o f c a st iro n, this is w ha t o ne w o uld e xp e c t in the lig ht o f o the r e vid e nc e . But Zha o w a s no t g re a tly inte re ste d in iro n a nd m e ntio ns it infre q ue ntly. The b e st e a rly C hine se so urc e fo r inte rna tio na l tra d e in iro n is Wa ng Da yua n, w ho in the m id -fo urte e nth c e ntury c o m p ile d a n im p o rta nt (a nd p a rtly firstha nd ) a c c o unt o f the c o untrie s o f So uthe a st Asia a nd the re g io ns fa rthe r w e st (Zhu Fa n Zhi, 1993). The list b e lo w sum m a rize s the p la c e s w hic h, a c c o rd ing to Wa ng , im p o rte d C hine se iro n. Altho ug h m a ny c a nno t b e c o nfid e ntly lo c a te d o n a m o d e rn m a p , the re is no d o ub t tha t a hig h p ro p o rtio n w e re in So uthe a st Asia . 99 Pie c e s o f (sc ra p ? ) iro n, p re sum a b ly w ro ug ht ra the r tha n c a st: Rili [Pa tta ni in S. Tha ila nd ? So m e w he re in W. Ma la ysia o r S. Vie tna m ? ]; Sa nd a o [so m e w he re in the Philip p ine s]; Ma yi [Ma it/ Mind o ro , C . Philip p ine s? ] Iro n, va rie ty no t sp e c ifie d : Sia n [Sia m ]; Jia o zhi [N Vie tna m ]; Suluo li [? ]; Dud uya o r Dud ua n [? ]; We nla o g u [Ma luku Is.? ] Iro n w a re o r o b je c ts, va rie ty no t sp e c ifie d : Ashili [? ]; Ba jie la jia n [Pa je ka n, ne a r Sura b a ya , E. Ja va ? ]; Ba nd a li [? ]; Bo ni [Brune i]; Bo shili [? ]; Da w ud ie [O rissa , E. Ind ia ? ]; Do ng ta nm ia o [” Ea st De m a k” , Ja va ? ]; Do ng xizhu [isla nd ne a r Lo ng ya m e n o r p e rha p s Pulo Aur]; La nw uli [La m b ri, Ac e h, N. Sum a tra ]; Pa nha ng [Pa ha ng , Ma la ysia ]; Ta nya ng [Ta m ia ng , NE Sum a tra ]; Xia o juna n [Q uilo n, SW Ind ia ? ]; Zha o w a [Ja va ] Iro n w ire : Xia la iw u [unid e ntifie d ; so m e w he re ne a r Ma la y Pe ninsula ]; Pub in [? ] Iro n trip o d c a uld ro ns: Ba d um a [Ma rta b a n, S Burm a ? ]; Ba nzhu [Pa nc ur, Sing a p o re Rive r Estua ry]; Da jila [? ]; Jia nsha n [? ]; Jinta [in Tha ila nd o r Burm a ? ]; Lo ng ya b o d i [La ng ka w i Is., W. Ma la ysia ? ]; Lo ng ya m e n [Ke p p e l Ha rb o r, Sing a p o re ]; Ma lilu [so m e w he re in no rthe a st Ma la y Pe ninsula ? ]; Ma yi [Ma it/ Mind o ro , C Philip p ine s? ]; Wuzhip a [? ]; Zhe nlu [? ] Iro n w o ks: Sa nfo q i [Ja m b i, in Sum a tra ]; Xia o p a n [? ] Iro n b a rs: Ba nzhu [? ]; Da b a d a n [? ]; G a nm a ili [C a p e C o m o rin, S. Ind ia ? ]; Hua m ia n [Ba ta k a re a , N. Sum a tra ? ]; Jia lila [? ]; Luo w e i [Lig o r/ Na kho n Si Tha m m a ra t, S. Tha ila nd ? ]; Ling sha n [C a p e Va re lla , S. Vie tna m ]; Q ia nlim a [? ]; Sulu [Sulu Isla nd s, S. Philip p ine s]; Wunia ng a ng [Po ntia na k, Bo rne o ]; Wa ng no te s tha t m a ny o f the se a nd o the r p la c e s a lso im p o rte d C hine se c o p p e r o b je c ts, a nd tha t o ne o r tw o (fo r insta nc e , Bo shili) w e re sup p lie d w ith Ja p a ne se a s w e ll a s C hine se iro n. His im p re ssive list c a nno t b e use d to d ra w m a p s o f the ro ute s fo llo w e d b y m e ta l tra d e rs w itho ut m uc h m o re w o rk b y histo ric a l g e o g ra p he rs in id e ntifying a nc ie nt p la c e na m e s. But the list d o e s sho w tw o thing s o f im p o rta nc e to a rc ha e o lo g ists w o rking o n c a rg o e s o f e a rly C hine se ship s sunk in So uthe a st Asia n w a te rs: first, m e ta ls p la ye d a n im p o rta nt ro le in the inte rna tio na l tra d e o f fo urte e nth c e ntury C hina , a nd se c o nd , tha t—c o ntra ry to e xp e c ta tio ns—C hina d id e xp o rt q ua ntitie s o f lo w -c a rb o n b a r iro n a s w e ll a s ute nsils m a d e o f hig h-c a rb o n c a st iro n. Arc ha e o lo g ic a l d a ta o n C hine se -So uthe a st Asia n tra d e ro ute s a nd g o o d s ha s until re c e ntly b e e n e ve n sc a rc e r tha n histo ric a l d a ta , b ut no w re le va nt info rm a tio n fro m te rre stria l a nd , m o re im p o rta ntly, m a ritim e e xc a va tio ns is b e g inning to a p p e a r. With re g a rd to tra d e in m e ta ls, the a rc ha e o lo g ic a l a nd histo ric a l d a ta se e m to sup p o rt e a c h o the r. Re c e nt e xc a va tio ns o n the isla nd o f Ba ng ka , just o ff the Musi Rive r, fo und five p ile s o f tw e lfth-c e ntury q ing b a i b o w ls o n to p o f five p ile s o f iro n w o ks fa c ing up w a rd , w hic h in turn re ste d o n thre e p ile s o f w o ks fa c ing d o w nw a rd , ne a rly 2 m d e e p in a Vishnu te m p le o f the sixth to se ve nth c e ntury (AC RO Up d a te : 1995). This e nig m a tic site ra ise s m a ny q ue stio ns w hic h o nly furthe r e xc a va tio ns c a n re so lve . So m e fra g m e nts o f iro n e xc a va te d a t the Pa rlia m e nt Ho use C o m p le x site in Sing a p o re , o f the fo urte e nth c e ntury, o n a na lysis, p ro ve d to b e c a st iro n a nd the re fo re C hine se im p o rts. The Ding ha i w re c k o f the So ng p e rio d c o nta ine d tw o c o nc re tio ns o f iro n, e a c h 1.5 m sq ua re a nd 1 m hig h (Ke nd e rd ine , 1995). The Pula u Bua ya w re c ksite , w hic h c o nta ine d 30,000 c e ra m ic s o f the la te So ng , fo und ne a r Binta n Isla nd , Ria u, yie ld e d la rg e q ua ntitie s o f iro n w o ks 100 c o nc re te d in sta c ks, a s w e ll a s b und le s o f iro n p a ra ng s still tie d in b unc he s w ith so m e typ e o f ra tta n-like fib e r. The Vung Ta u w re c k, a C hine se lo rc ha o f c . 1690 (Fle c ke r, 1992), ha d the m id ship s c a rg o ho ld full o f la rg e sta c ke d c a uld ro ns a nd w o ks w ith ha nd le s. This ve sse l w a s o n its w a y fro m C hina to Ba ta via w ith a p rim a ry c a rg o o f b lue -a nd -w hite p o rc e la in. Thus the So uthe a st Asia n d e m a nd fo r c a st iro n ve sse ls fro m C hina c o ntinue d fo r m a ny c e nturie s. By w a y o f inte re st, se ve ra l Tha i ship w re c ks o f the fifte e nth a nd sixte e nth c e nturie s ha d o ne o r m o re c a rg o ho ld s fille d w ith iro n. The Pa tta ya w re c k (G re e n, 1983), the Ro ya l Na nha i w re c k (Sjo stra nd , p e rs. c o m m .), a nd the Phu Q uo c w re c k (Bla ke a nd Fle c ke r, 1994) a ll ha d iro n c a rg o e s tha t inte re sting ly ha d fo rm e d a m o rp ho us c o nc re tio ns e ntra p p ing se ve ra l la rg e sto ra g e ja rs. So m e o f the se ja rs w e re c o m p le te ly e nc a se d in iro n c o nc re tio n, sug g e sting tha t the iro n w a s sto w e d a ro und the ja rs. Wo rke d iro n sha p e s c o uld no t b e d isc e rne d w ithin the c o nc re tio ns, so it se e m s unlike ly tha t the iro n is a tra nsship p e d c a rg o o rig ina ting fro m C hina . It ha s b e e n sug g e ste d tha t the o rig ina l c a rg o w a s in the fo rm o f p e lle ts o r hig h g ra d e o re . While lo ng d ista nc e ship p ing o f ra w o r b e ne fic ia te d (p e lle tize d ) iro n o re is no t kno w n to ha ve e xiste d a nyw he re in the w o rld b e fo re the la te nine te e nth c e ntury, the p o ssib ility m ust b e b o rne in m ind a s o the r ship w re c ks a re e xc a va te d in the future . In m e ta llurg ic a l te rm s, the c hie f im p o rta nc e o f the Ja va Se a Wre c k is the p re se nc e o f the hund re d s o f to ns o f iro n b a rs. This ha s no t o nly c o nfirm e d the a c c ura c y o f Wa ng Da yua n’ s a c c o unt b ut ha s p o se d a n im p o rta nt ne w p ro b le m to e c o no m ic a nd so c ia l histo ria ns o f So uthe a st Asia . It ha s lo ng b e e n kno w n tha t c a st-iro n ve sse ls w e re in d e m a nd thro ug ho ut the re g io n. But in sp ite o f w ha t Wa ng re c o rd e d , fe w sp e c ia lists ha d susp e c te d tha t C hina w a s a m a jo r sup p lie r o f a s b a sic a ra w m a te ria l a s w ro ug ht iro n to Ind o ne sia . Why w a s it so ? Ho w d id C hine se m e rc ha nts, w ith a c o m m o d ity tha t c a nno t ha ve b e e n b e tte r tha n lo c a lly p ro d uc e d lo w -c a rb o n iro n, m a na g e to c o m p e te w ith So uthe a st Asia n iro n m a ke rs? C o uld the y ha ve m a d e a p ro fit fro m it, o r d id the tra d e in suc h hig h-te c hno lo g y g o o d s a s c a st iro n a nd ine xp e nsive p o rc e la in p ro d uc e hig h e no ug h p ro fits to sub sid ize the w ro ug ht iro n tra d e ? O ne w o uld a lso like to kno w w he the r the re w a s a link b e tw e e n the c e ra m ic a nd iro n tra d e s. Te g e ng re n (1923-4: 337-8) no te s tha t in the e a rly tw e ntie th c e ntury, the De hua Yo ng c hun-Anxi a re a no t o nly w a s still p ro d uc ing sm a ll q ua ntitie s o f iro n b y tra d itio na l m e tho d s b ut tha t it a lso ha s sig nific a nt re se rve s o f a nthra c ite a s fue l; fro m p e rso na l o b se rva tio n, the p re se nt w rite r c a n c o nfirm tha t sm a ll-sc a le sm e lting in Anxi C o unty (using lo c a l he m a tite o re s b ut a n e le c tric a rc fo r he a ting ) ha s c o ntinue d to the p re se nt d a y. Sig nific a ntly, kilns in De hua , Anxi a nd Yo ng c hun (Ho , 1988) p ro d uc e d a la rg e p ro p o rtio n o f the c e la d o n a nd q ing b a i w a re s re c o ve re d fro m the Ja va Se a Wre c k. It is a lso sig nific a nt tha t la te r C hine se ship s a rriving a t Ba ta via fro m so uthe rn Fujia n in the se ve nte e nth c e ntury o fte n c a rrie d c a rg o e s tha t inc lud e d b o th c e ra m ic s a nd c a st iro n ve sse ls. 8.4 Analysis of Iron from the Wreck O ne iro n b a r a nd a fra g m e nt o f c a uld ro n w e re a na lyze d b y Dr. Jo na tho n Le a d e r, o f the Unive rsity o f So uth C a ro lina (se e Ap p e nd ix J), using e le c tro n m ic ro sc o p y. The c a uld ro n sho w e d hig h c o nc e ntra tio ns o f m a g ne sium , a lum inum , silic o n, c hlo rine , c a lc ium , a nd sulfur. The hig h sulfur c o nte nt is a c le a r ind ic a tio n o f c a sting . The silic o n m a y ha ve b e e n a d e riva tive o f the c a sting p ro c e ss, b ut it c o uld a lso ha ve b e e n fro m sa nd c o nta m ina tio n fro m the w re c k site . Alum inum a nd m a g ne sium m o st like ly c a m e fro m c la y c o nta m ina tio n. The c hlo rine is fro m d isso lve d sa lts in se a w a te r. 101 The re sults fo r the iro n b a r a re ve ry inte re sting . The re a re hig h c o nc e ntra tio ns o f silic o n, c hlo rine a nd sulfur. The p re se nc e o f silic o n a nd c hlo rine ha ve b e e n e xp la ine d , b ut the p re se nc e o f sulfur in a w ro ug ht iro n is a lm o st d e finite p ro o f tha t the b a rs w e re p ro d uc e d in C hina b y the “ fining ” o f c a st iro n (se e Se c tio n 8.2). O nc e sulfur is intro d uc e d into c a st iro n b y the c o a l fue l it is ve ry d iffic ult to re m o ve . C o nte m p o ra ry So uthe a st Asia n, Ind ia n, a nd Euro p e a n w ro ug ht iro n m a nufa c ture rs use d the “ b lo o m ” m e tho d w hic h d id no t intro d uc e sulfur into the e nd p ro d uc t. Sulfur is no t d e sira b le in w ro ug ht iro n. It m a ke s the m e ta l b rittle a nd like ly to sha tte r o n the b la c ksm ith’ s fo rg e . The C hine se p ro d uc t w a s the re fo re infe rio r to m o re lo c a lly p ro d uc e d w ro ug ht iro n. Eithe r the re w a s insuffic ie nt lo c a l p ro d uc t, o r the C hine se iro n w a s sub sta ntia lly c he a p e r. It w o uld no t ha ve b e e n the first c ho ic e o f the Ja va ne se b la c ksm iths. 102 9.0 HIGH-FIRED CERAMICS OF SONG DYNASTY CHINA: THE JAVA SEA CARGO IN CONTEXT b y Ro xa nna Bro wn 9.1 Introduction C hina he ld a wo rld tra d e mo no p o ly o n hig h-fire d c e ra mic s fo r a lmo st two tho usa nd ye a rs. Whe re ve r C hine se tra d e rs we nt, a nd o fte n fa r b e yo nd , the re a re no w tra c e s o f the ir c e ra mic s. C hina 's p o tte ry wa s so sup e rio r, fo r so lo ng , tha t its ve ry na me c a me to sta nd fo r d ishe s ma d e o f c la y. Until Euro p e a ns b e g a n ma king suc c e ssful imita tio ns o f "c hina wa re " in the e ig hte e nth c e ntury, the ma rke t se e me d insa tia b le . C e ra mic s, a lo ng with silk, ma d e C hina ric h. In o rd e r to sto p the o utflo w o f c urre nc y a nd p re c io us me ta ls to c o untrie s o ve rse a s, the e mp e ro rs d e c re e d to wa rd the e nd o f the So ng d yna sty tha t c e ra mic s b e tra d e d inste a d . Ma rke ts a lre a d y fa vo re d mo re hig hly fire d wa re s, o r this p o lic y mig ht no t ha ve b e e n p ra c tic a l. Fo r e xa mp le , the b rig htly c o lo re d e a rthe nwa re te mp o ra rily p o p ula r d uring the Ta ng d yna sty wa s e xtre me ly d e c o ra tive , b ut sto ne wa re , with its g re a te r ha rd ne ss, c o uld b e tra nsp o rte d o ve r g re a te r d ista nc e s witho ut b re a ka g e . Thus hig h-fire d c la y, va lue d fo r its d ura b ility in d a ily use , a c q uire d still mo re va lue . Exp o rt ro ute s a nd re g io ns whe re C hine se c e ra mic s we re imp o rte d d uring the So ng d yna sty. 9.2 China’s Supremacy Whe ne ve r e a rly p e o p le s e sta b lishe d se ttle d c o mmunitie s, the y so me ho w d isc o ve re d tha t c la y sub je c te d to fire will ha rd e n into p e rma ne nt sha p e s; tha t ve sse ls ma d e this wa y c a n b e use d fo r c o o king a nd sto ra g e , a nd to ys a nd fig ure s c a n b e mo d e le d fro m it fo r p la y a nd d e c o ra tio n. O f a ll the na tura l re so urc e s a va ila b le to p rimitive c ulture s, c la y is p ro b a b ly the mo st ve rsa tile (o nly p la stic , the se d a ys, mig ht b e c o nsid e re d c o mp a ra b le ). Ye t it wa s o nly in C hina tha t the p o ssib ilitie s o f the ma te ria l we re so fully e xp lo re d in a nc ie nt time s. Else whe re , until mo d e rn time s, c e ra mic te c hno lo g y d id no t a d va nc e b e yo nd the p ro d uc tio n o f d e c o ra te d e a rthe nwa re . The sup re ma c y o f C hine se c e ra mic s b e g a n with C hina ’ s va st g e o g ra p hy o f mo unta ins a nd 103 rive rs; c la y c o uld b e fo und a lmo st e ve rywhe re . The re wa s a lso p ra c tic a lly unlimite d e ne rg y a va ila b le fro m c o a l (Ma rc o Po lo 's sto ry o f b la c k sto ne s tha t b urne d , it mig ht b e re c a lle d , me t with d isb e lie f a t ho me in Euro p e ). De sp ite the a b und a nc e o f c o a l, c e ra mic te c hno lo g y ma d e its g re a te st p ro g re ss a fte r the So ng c o urt's re lo c a tio n to Ha ng zho u, in so uthe rn C hina , in 1127, whe n a b und a nt sup p lie s o f wo o d la rg e ly re p la c e d c o a l. In o the r c ulture s d iffe re nt ma te ria ls we re d e ve lo p e d to a nswe r p ra c tic a l ne e d s fille d b y sto ne wa re in C hina . In Burma , fo r insta nc e , la c q ue r-ma king e vo lve d to a nswe r b o th utilita ria n a nd a e sthe tic ne e d s. In d e se rt e nviro nme nts, a nima l skins we re e mp lo ye d to c a rry fo o d a nd liq uid s. In the Isla mic wo rld me ta llurg y p ro vid e d mo st d a ily ute nsils; ma ny o f the se me ta l sha p e s, inc id e nta lly, we re c o p ie d into c la y b y C hine se p o tte rs. In fa c t, the histo ry o f a g re a t ma ny sha p e s kno wn in c e ra mic s lie s in the na tura l d e ve lo p me nt o f o the r ma te ria ls. C hine se p o tte rs, a t o ne time o r a no the r, c o p ie d the sha p e s o f the ir o wn a rc ha ic b ro nze s, o f Mid d le Ea ste rn p o uring ve sse ls, o f the a nima l-skin b a g s o f the Mo ng o ls, a nd o f a rtifa c ts o f ma ny c ulture s. O f c o urse , a ll the se ma te ria ls we re use d a t o ne time o r a no the r in C hina a s we ll. But, g ive n the initia l suc c e ss o f a kiln d e sig n tha t c o uld a ssure susta ine d hig h te mp e ra ture s, p lus c la ys tha t c o uld withsta nd tho se te mp e ra ture s, it wa s the fie ld o f c e ra mic s tha t wa s c o ntinua lly e xp lo re d . Exa mp le s o f hig h-fire d g la ze d wa re a p p e a r a s e a rly a s the Sha ng d yna sty, in the p e rio d o f a b o ut 1300-1028 B.C . Tha t a ma zing b e g inning c a n p e rha p s b e a ttrib ute d to luc k; no thing simila r se e ms to ha ve ha p p e ne d a nywhe re e lse in the wo rld . Still, fo r re a lizing the p o te ntia ls o f this te c hno lo g y, o ne must tha nk g e ne ra tio ns o f C hine se p o tte rs a nd e ntre p re ne urs, who ha d , o f c o urse , a ste a d y c lie nte le o f ma ssive numb e rs o f d o me stic c o nsume rs fro m a ll the so c ia l c la sse s, a nd a t time s a va st o ve rse a s tra d e . At a ny ra te , the p a rtic ula r c o mb ina tio n o f c irc umsta nc e s p re va iling in C hina d id sp ur c e ra mic te c hno lo g y to he ig hts o f a rt a nd ma te ria l sc ie nc e tha t c o uld o nly b e a p p ro xima te ly imita te d a nywhe re e lse until c o mp a ra tive ly re c e nt time s. 9.3 Sources and Properties of Clay The wo rd s p o tte ry a nd c e ra mic s re fe r to a ny p ro d uc t ma d e fro m c la y. C la ys va ry wid e ly. So me a re to o stic ky to mo d e l e a sily, so me c o nsist o f la rg e g ra ins, so me ha ve fine a nd d e nse g ra ins; the c o lo rs a re p ra c tic a lly infinite . Who le c e ra mic ind ustrie s to d a y a re b a se d o n o ne typ e o f c la y o r a no the r. Stud io p o tte rs sp e nd a s muc h time find ing a nd mixing the ir o wn p e rso na l fo rmula s a s the y d o a c tua lly c o nstruc ting sha p e s. The sp e c ific q ua litie s o f a ny c la y mixture imp o se limita tio ns e ve n a s the y p ro vid e o p p o rtunity. C la ys c a n b e d ivid e d into two g e ne ra l typ e s: p rima ry a nd se c o nd a ry. Prima ry c la ys a re fo und in the c lo se vic inity o f the ir p a re nt ro c k. Witho ut g o ing into the ir e xa c t c he mic a l struc ture , the y c o uld b e d e sc rib e d a s ro c k d isso lve d in wa te r. The y ma y lie b e ne a th ro c ky surfa c e s o r a re a sso c ia te d with the running wa te r o f stre a ms. Prima ry c la ys a re white o r p a le g re y, a nd the y ha ve a la rg e g ra in size tha t ma ke s the m re la tive ly no n-p la stic . Rive r va lle ys, whic h we re usua lly the first p la c e s to sup p o rt la rg e p o p ula tio ns, yie ld se c o nd a ry c la ys. Se c o nd a ry c la ys ha ve b e e n wa she d a wa y fro m the p a re nt ro c k a nd ha ve usua lly g a ine d a numb e r o f mine ra l imp uritie s a lo ng the wa y. The mo st c o mmo n o f the se is iro n, whic h, in c o nc e ntra tio n, c a n c o lo r the c la y re d d ish. The sma lle r g ra in size o f se c o nd a ry c la ys ma ke s the m e a sie r to mo d e l tha n p rima ry c la ys. Be ing a b le to re c o g nize va rio us fire d c la y b o d ie s is o ne o f the mo st imp o rta nt c lue s in id e ntifying o ld tra d e wa re s. C e ra mic s sp e c ia lists a lwa ys c he c k the b a se o f a ny o b je c t the y ha nd le : b e sid e s lo o king fo r a p o ssib le ma rk, o r no ting the wa y the fo o t is c ut, the y a re se a c hing fo r a n ung la ze d p a rt o f the p o t tha t sho ws the c la y b o d y. 104 9.4 Firing Temperatures C la y sub je c te d to he a t will b e c o me ha rd . The g re a te r the he a t, the ha rd e r the p o tte ry. Ea rthe nwa re fire d a t 900° C is ha rd e r tha n e a rthe nwa re fire d a t 500°. With to o muc h he a t, ho we ve r, the c la y will slump into a visc o us ma ss a nd e ve ntua lly liq ue fy. Be c a use o f the g re a t va rie ty o f c la ys, it is d iffic ult to b e p re c ise a b o ut the e xa c t te mp e ra ture a t whic h c ha ng e s o c c ur, b ut the y a re a p p ro xima te ly a t 500° a nd a g a in a t a b o ut 1200° C . Imp uritie s tha t a c t a s fluxe s c a n lo we r the te mp e ra ture re q uire d . The se c o nd c ha ng e , vitrific a tio n, tra nsfo rms the c la y into a g la ss-like struc ture . The c he mic a l c ha ng e s a re tra nsla te d into thre e re c o g niza b le c a te g o rie s o f fire d p o tte ry: e a rthe nwa re , sto ne wa re a nd p o rc e la in. Ho we ve r, C hine se te rmino lo g y re c o g nize s o nly two c a te g o rie s: da o , lo w-fire d ; a nd c i, hig h-fire d . The b o rd e rline te mp e ra ture b e twe e n the m fa lls a p p ro xima te ly a t 1150°-1250° C . Po rc e la in, a te rm d e vise d in the We st, re fe rre d initia lly to she ll-like c ha ra c te ristic s o f the e nd p ro d uc t ra the r tha n the c he mistry o f its ma king . Po rc e la in is tra nsluc e nt a nd re so na nt. A stro ng lig ht c a n b e se e n thro ug h its wa lls a nd , if ta p p e d , a p o rc e la in ve sse l "ring s." C o nc e rning the d iffe re nc e s in the c a te g o rie s o f c e ra mic s, o ne c o uld sa y tha t e a rthe nwa re c o nsists o f a n imp ure c la y fire d a t lo w te mp e ra ture ; sto ne wa re c o nsists o f p ure r c la y (fe we r imp uritie s) fire d a t a hig he r te mp e ra ture ; a nd p o rc e la in is a p ure c la y fire d a t ve ry hig h te mp e ra ture . Ea rthe nwa re a nd sto ne wa re a re e a c h ma d e with a sing le c la y, e ve n tho ug h it ma y b e a mixture o f c la ys fro m d iffe re nt so urc e s. Po rc e la in is ma d e fro m two d istinc t ma te ria ls: ka o lin, a p ra c tic a lly p ure p rima ry c la y, a nd the n p e tuntse , a p re p a re d fo rm o f d e c a ye d g ra nite . It is the struc ture o f the p e tuntse tha t ho ld s a p o t to g e the r a t hig h te mp e ra ture whe n the re ma ind e r o f the ma ss is visc o us. Sto ne wa re c la y fire d a t hig h te mp e ra ture s ma y b e e no ug h like p o rc e la in to b e c a lle d p o rc e lla ne o us. 9.5 Glazes Ano the r wa y to c a te g o rize c e ra mic s is a c c o rd ing to the ir g la ze s. Esse ntia lly a typ e o f g la ss c o a ting , g la ze s a d d p hysic a l stre ng th to the fo rm, d e c o ra te it, a nd ma ke it imp e rme a b le . With g la ze , a p o t d o e s no t b re a k q uite so e a sily, a nd g la ze d ja rs p ro vid e sa nita ry c o nta ine rs fo r liq uid s a nd fo o d p ro d uc ts. This q ua lity, ind e e d , is a so urc e fo r the Mid d le Ea ste rn myth tha t a p e rso n wo uld b e wa rne d a b o ut p o iso ne d fo o d if it we re se rve d in C hine se c e la d o n-g la ze d d ishe s: the d ish, the y b e lie ve d , wo uld c ha ng e c o lo r. O nly the sp e c ific link b e twe e n e a ting a nd p o iso n wa s misid e ntifie d . The p o iso ning c a me , c e rta inly, fro m the lo c a lly p ro d uc e d le a d -g la ze d d ishe s tha t we re the a lte rna tive to C hine se wa re s; tho se who a te fro m the m o fte n e no ug h wo uld ha ve suffe re d fro m le a d p o iso ning . At a ny ra te , the so lutio n wo rke d : d ining fro m hig h-fire d C hine se wa re so lve d the p ro b le m. Ta ng d yna sty C hina is we ll kno wn fo r its le a d -g la ze d e a rthe nwa re ; the fa mo us thre e -c o lo r ho rse s, c a me ls, a nd huma n fig ure s p rize d b y c o lle c to rs to d a y, fo r insta nc e . The So ng d yna sty, is fa me d fo r mo no c hro me sto ne wa re — the b lue -g la ze d Ju wa re s o f no rthe rn C hina , the white -g la ze d wa re s o f Fujia n, a nd , o f c o urse , c e la d o n. Blue -a nd -white is a sso c ia te d with the Ming d yna sty. The n the re a re the c o lo rful, intric a te ly p a inte d , e na me l-d e c o ra te d p o rc e la ins tha t typ ify the Q ing d yna sty. A simp listic b ut he lp ful g e ne ra liza tio n o f C hine se c e ra mic histo ry is thus c o nta ine d in the p hra se "So ng c e la d o n, Ming b lue -a nd -white , Q ing p o lyc hro me ." 105 Blue -a nd -white wa re s, in fa c t, se e me d to ha ve a p p e a re d d uring the Yua n d yna sty, se ve ra l d e c a d e s b e fo re the b e g inning o f the Ming . With e vid e nc e c urre ntly a va ila b le , the c lo se st o ne c a n d a te its a p p e a ra nc e is within the q ua rte r c e ntury b e twe e n 1325 a nd 1350. This imp o rta nt inno va tio n wa s in p a rt the re sult o f inte nse c o mp e titio n fo r the we a lthy Muslim Mid d le Ea ste rn ma rke t, a tra d e a c tive ly e nc o ura g e d b y the Mo ng o l rule rs who ha d c o nq ue re d so uthe rn C hina b y 1280. 9.6 High-Temperature Glazes To g e the r with hig h-fire d c la y b o d ie s, C hine se p o tte rs se a rc he d fo r hig h-te mp e ra ture g la ze s to c o ve r the m. The le a d g la ze s fo r e a rthe nwa re we re unsuita b le b e c a use le a d vo la tize s a t a b o ut 1150°. (This limita tio n c o uld b e o ve rc o me , a s it wa s la te r, b y first firing the sto ne wa re o r p o rc e la in, the n a d d ing the c o lo rs in a se c o nd lo w-te mp e ra ture firing .) Hig h-fire d C hine se g la ze s c a n b e c a lle d a lka line (me a ning in e ffe c t, le a d -fre e ), o r fe lsp a thic (c o mp o se d la rg e ly o f fe ld sp a rs, a na tura l c o mp o ne nt o f c la y), a nd a sh g la ze s. Esse ntia lly, the te c hniq ue e mp lo ye d a mixture o f c la y, a she s, a nd wa te r. A b a sic c e la d o n g la ze , fo r e xa mp le , mig ht b e c o mp o se d o f wo o d a sh ke p t fro m a p re vio us firing o f the kiln mixe d with the sa me c la y a s use d fo r the b o d y, a nd wa te r. A sma ll a mo unt o f iro n p re se nt in the c la y, no t mo re tha n 1 to 4%, is re sp o nsib le fo r the g re e n c o lo r. So me time s o ne se e s b ro wn c e la d o n, sho wing a slig htly g re a te r p e rc e nta g e o f iro n. The typ e o f wo o d fro m whic h the a sh is ta ke n ma y c a use the sha d e o f g re e n to b e b luish o r g re e n. Po tte rs in no rthe rn Tha ila nd , fo r insta nc e , c a n p ro d uc e five d istinc t sha d e s o f c e la d o n b y va rying o nly the typ e o f wo o d a sh. White g la ze s a re ma d e fro m a n iro n-fre e mixture . Be sid e s the p re se nc e o f mine ra ls a nd the e ffe c t o f a sh, a no the r influe nc e o n the c o lo r o f g la ze s is the kiln a tmo sp he re . Two kiln a tmo sp he re s a re p o ssib le , tho ug h in p ra c tic e b o th will o c c ur a t d iffe re nt p o ints within a sing le firing . In the thirte e nth c e ntury, suc h a firing re q uire d a b o ut thre e d a ys. An o xid izing a tmo sp he re c o nsists o f a fre e flo w o f a ir; the he a te d g la ze the n a c q uire s o xyg e n fro m the a ir. Fe rro us o xid e , fo r insta nc e , will b e c o me fe rric o xid e . With re d uc tio n, the kiln is sud d e nly c lo se d , so tha t the fire b urns a wa y fre e o xyg e n, the n p ulls o xyg e n mo le c ule s fro m the mo lte n g la ze . Ind uc e d a t va rying p o ints in the firing c yc le , a t c e rta in te mp e ra ture s a nd fo r sho rt o r p ro lo ng e d p e rio d s, re d uc tio n c a n c a use a va rie ty o f e ffe c ts. Pro p e r c o ntro l o f the c yc le , a tta ine d o nly with re p e a te d e xp e rime nta tio n, c o uld c o nsiste ntly p ro d uc e b lue c e la d o n, the le g e nd a ry Ju wa re o f no rthe rn C hina , fo r insta nc e . Fo r the fa mo us c e la d o n wa re s o f the So ng d yna sty, the b a sic p rinc ip le s fo r c o ntro l o f re d uc tio n b e g a n with the Yue h wa re s o f no rthe rn C he kia ng p ro vinc e . The b e st, mo st fa mo us o f the se d a te to the ninth a nd te nth c e nturie s. Alo ng with white -g la ze d Hsing wa re s, e xa mp le s o f the se ha ve b e e n d isc o ve re d a s fa r a fie ld a s Eg yp t. 9.7 Glaze Color O nly thre e mine ra ls c a n influe nc e c o lo r in hig h-fire d c e ra mic s: iro n, c o p p e r a nd c o b a lt. Iro n is the mo st c o mmo n. In the o xid ize d a tmo sp he re o f a kiln with fre e a ir flo w, iro n will fire , d e p e nd ing o n its c o nc e ntra tio n, to a va rie ty o f b ro wnish sha d e s to b la c k. If fire d in a re d uc tio n a tmo sp he re , a sma ll a mo unt o f iro n, 3% - 4% o f the g la ze mixture , will p ro d uc e sha d e s o f g re e n, i.e ., c e la d o n. Witho ut re d uc tio n the p o ssib le g la ze c o lo rs o n hig h-fire d wa re s wo uld b e ho p e le ssly limite d . C o p p e r, in a n o xid ize d a tmo sp he re , will a lso p ro d uc e g re e n; a nd in re d uc tio n, re d . But the firing c o nd itio ns in e ithe r c a se must b e fine ly ho ne d — c o p p e r re d is no to rio usly d iffic ult to a c hie ve . This is o ne o f re a so ns why re d -g la ze d wa re s a re so ve ry hig hly p rize d . In the fo urte e nth c e ntury, fo r 106 insta nc e , b o th und e rg la ze b lue a nd und e rg la ze re d we re a tte mp te d , b ut und e rg la ze -re d d e c o ra te d wa re s we re q uic kly d isc o ntinue d b e c a use o f the d iffic ultie s o f p ro d uc tio n. Mo re o fte n tha n no t, the g la ze fire d to a b ro wn o r g ra y c o lo r. C o b a lt, o xid ize d o r re d uc e d , will p ro d uc e b lue . It is no a c c id e nt tha t a b lue -a nd -white c o lo r sc he me is a sso c ia te d with p o rc e la in. O f the thre e mine ra l c o lo ra nts kno wn, c o b a lt is the le a st d iffic ult to fire , a nd the mo st c o lo rful. 9.8 The Java Sea Ceramics Cargo The c e ra mic s re c o ve re d fro m the Ja va Se a Wre c k we re ma nufa c ture d in C hina , e xc e p t fo r a ra ng e o f ung la ze d e a rthe nwa re in unusua l ritua l sha p e s. Ra re C izho u typ e wa re wa s fo und in sma ll q ua ntitie s. The re ma ind e r o f the c e ra mic s a re mo no c hro me wa re s with g re e n, b ro wn, b la c k, white o r q ing b a i (b luish white ) g la ze . The ve ry fine st p ie c e s, whic h a re fe w in numb e r, a re q ing b a i wa re s fro m the Jing d e zhe n kilns o f inla nd Jia ng xi p ro vinc e . All o the r wa re s a p p e a r to ha ve b e e n ma d e in Fujia n p ro vinc e . The fine ly p o tte d e a rthe nwa re b e a rs a g e ne ra l re se mb la nc e to wa re s a sso c ia te d with the so uthe rn Tha i re g io n o f Pa ta ni. X-ra y flo re sc e nc e c o mp o ne nt a na lysis sho ws d istinc t simila ritie s to p o tte ry fro m Ko k Mo h, in Pa ta ni. The d isc o ve ry o f hund re d s o f the se ve sse ls o n the wre c k c le a rly d e mo nstra te s the imp o rta nc e o f e a rthe nwa re a s in intra -So uthe a st Asia tra d e c o mmo d ity, a fa c t a b se nt fro m a ny d o c ume nta ry re c o rd s. Se ve ra l sha p e s a re c o mp le te ly unp re c e d e nte d , in p a rtic ula r to ro id ke nd is, whic h we re p re vio usly o nly kno wn fro m Ming d yna sty C hina . 4 JAVA SEA KENDI THAI EARTHENWARE JAVANESE EARTHENWARE SUMATRAN EARTHENWARE 3.5 PRINCIPAL COMPONENT 1 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 1 2 3 4 PRINCIPAL COMPONENT 2 X-ra y flo re sc e nc e a na lysis o f e a rthe nwa re ke nd is. 107 5 6 7 Up rig ht sha p e s d e c o ra te d with p a inte d d e sig ns in und e rg la ze b la c k, a nd o rig ina lly c o ve re d in a g re e n le a d g la ze , c o nstitute a n unusua l find . In g e ne ra l the ir c la y a nd d e c o ra tive mo tifs a re simila r to tho se a sso c ia te d to the C izho u kiln c o mp le x. The y a re usua lly d e c o ra te d with flo ra l d e sig ns in slig ht re lie f, with the b a c kg ro und p a inte d so lid und e rg la ze b la c k. De sig ns p a inte d in b la c k o n a fla t surfa c e a re le ss c o mmo n. The re is a n inte re sting g ro up o f white to q ing b a i g la ze d c o ve re d b o xe s. Ma ny ha ve the c o ve r se a le d to the b a se b y d rip s o f g la ze , p ro ving tha t c o ve re d b o xe s we re fire d , p a c ke d a nd ship p e d with the c o ve rs in p la c e . The se b o xe s we re so me time s use d to ho ld mirro rs in C hina , a nd in So uthe a st Asia the y a re kno wn to ha ve b e e n e mp lo ye d a s c o nta ine rs fo r c o sme tic s a nd je we lry. In sma ll a nd minia ture size s the y ha ve se rve d a s a mule ts. The b o xe s, a nd simila rly g la ze d sma ll va se s, we re ma nufa c ture d in mo ld s. 108 Kiln site s a nd ma jo r ma rke ts in Fujia n Pro vinc e . A sma ll g ro up o f b la c k g la ze d te a b o wls a p p e a r to b e “ so uthe rn Te mmo ku,” ra the r tha n the fa mo us C h’ ie n te a b o wls. The ma jo rity o f the wa re s a re g re e n-g la ze d b o wls o f va rying size a nd q ua lity. The g la ze is so me time s o p a q ue a nd so me time s tra nsluc e nt, a nd the sha d e s o f g re e n d iffe r e ve n o n p ie c e s tha t wo uld o the rwise b e id e ntic a l. Suc h wid e va ria tio n in c o lo r a nd te xture c a n b e c a use d b y firing c o nd itio ns tha t va ry within the kiln. C o nsiste nt, sta nd a rd ize d g la ze e ffe c ts we re p ra c tic a lly imp o ssib le to a tta in in a nc ie nt wo o d -fire d kilns. The b e tte r q ua lity wa re s a re hig he r fire d a nd a re d e c o ra te d with c ursive c lo ud a nd flo ra l d e sig ns inc ise d into the c la y p rio r to g la zing . Bro wn-g la ze d ja rs in the c a rg o a re d istinc t in the ir struc ture a nd p urp o se . Ra the r tha n b e ing ite ms o f tra d e , the y we re use d to sto re fo o d a nd wa te r fo r the ship ’ s c re w, a nd fo r p a c king o rg a nic p ro d uc ts fo r tra d e . To p re se rve the c o nte nts, the mo uths o f the ja rs we re o fte n se a le d with a d isk o f wa x o r wo o d , se c ure d with tie string s lo o p e d thro ug h sma ll ha nd le s o n the ja r sho uld e r. Sta mp e d C hine se c ha ra c te rs a d o rn the sho uld e rs o f the ma jo rity o f the la rg e r ja rs. The la te So ng d yna sty wa s a p ro sp e ro us time fo r the c e ra mic s ind ustry. A g re a t ma ny kilns we re in o p e ra tio n in Fujia n p ro vinc e . The y se rve d the g re a t p o rt o f Q ua ng zho u, the mo st p ro b a b le p o rt o f d e p a rture o f the Ja va Se a ship . 109 10.0 THIRTEENTH CENTURY POTTING TECHNIQUES: AS EVIDENCED BY THE JAVA SEA CARGO b y Ro xa nna Bro wn By the la te So ng d yna sty, a c e ra m ic s fa c to ry w a s hig hly o rg a nize d a nd c a p a b le o f m a ss p ro d uc tio n. The re c o uld b e a d o ze n o r m o re d ivisio ns o f la b o r, d e p e nd ing o n the c o m p le xity o f the e nd p ro d uc t. 10.1 Collecting and Preparing the Materials First c a m e the c o lle c tio n a nd p re p a ra tio n o f m a te ria ls. As a rule , ha ula g e w a s m inim a l b e c a use a fa c to ry w o uld b e lo c a te d ne a r a g o o d so urc e o f c la y. Fo r re a d y a c c e ss to unlim ite d q ua ntitie s o f w a te r, fa c to rie s w e re a lso no rm a lly lo c a te d ne a r a rive r o r la rg e stre a m . O nc e the c la y w a s c o lle c te d , w o rke rs ha d to c le a n a nd re fine it. This p ro c e ss w o uld c o nsum e va st a m o unts o f w a te r. Tho ro ug hly sub m e rg e d , in a la rg e p o t o r sp e c ia lly c o nstruc te d p it, the c la y w a s the n stirre d so tha t la rg e r im p uritie s c o uld b e skim m e d o ff the surfa c e . It w a s filte re d in a va rie ty o f w a ys. So m e tim e s he a p s o f c la y w e re le ft o utsid e fo r m a ny m o nths to b e na tura lly w e a the re d b e fo re a ny o the r p re p a ra tio n p ro c e sse s w e re b e g un. C o a rse r c la y w a s use d fo r sto ra g e ve sse ls, b ut fine r-g ra ine d c la y w a s ne c e ssa ry fo r a ny w he e l p o tting . Afte r se p a ra ting the d iffe re nt g ra d e s o f c la y, w o rke rs fo rm e d the c la y into b a lls o f w o rka b le size fo r the p o tte rs. The b a lls o f c la y ha d to b e tho ro ug hly kne a d e d to e xtra c t a ny b ub b le s o f a ir, w hic h c o uld c a use a ve sse l to b re a k d uring firing . 10.2 Preparing the Glazes Me a nw hile , g la ze m ixture s w e re b e ing p re p a re d . Eve ry kiln m a ste r und o ub te d ly ha d his o w n tra d e se c re ts, b ut g la ze s in the la te So ng p e rio d w e re g e ne ra lly m a d e fro m a m ixture o f fine ly g ro und c la y m ixe d w ith a sh. The p a rtic ula r typ e o f w o o d fro m w hic h the a sh w a s o b ta ine d c o uld a ffe c t the sha d e o f the fire d g la ze . So m e tim e s a typ e o f lim e sto ne w a s b urne d to g e the r w ith the w o o d . The m o st im p o rta nt c o lo ring a g e nt fo r p o tte ry thro ug ho ut the So ng d yna sty w a s iro n, a na tura l im p urity in m o st c la ys. A la rg e iro n c o nte nt in a g la ze w o uld p ro d uc e b ro w n a nd b la c k; a m inute q ua ntity in a re d uc tio n firing c o uld p ro d uc e va rio us sha d e s o f g re e n. If a le a d g la ze w e re use d , a s se e m s to b e the c a se in the p a inte d w a re s o f the Ja va Se a c a rg o , the n a le a d -b e a ring c la y w a s re q uire d . Fo r p a inting a n und e rg la ze d e c o ra tio n in b la c k, a c la y w ith ve ry hig h iro n c o nte nt w a s a p p lie d w ith a b rush a fte r b e ing m ixe d w ith w a te r to a b rusha b le c o nsiste nc y. O nc e fo rm e d , d rie d , a nd d e c o ra te d , a ll the C hine se p o tte ry o f the Ja va Se a c a rg o w a s g la ze d . The g la zing a p p e a rs to ha ve b e e n a c c o m p lishe d b y d ip p ing the p ie c e s into the g la ze , a ltho ug h the re a re sig ns tha t it m a y ha ve b e e n a p p lie d b y b rush a s w e ll. A he a vie r g la ze c o uld b e a c hie ve d b y d ip p ing a ve sse l into the m ixture m o re tha n o nc e . The c e la d o n-like o live -g re e n g la ze d p ie c e s w e re p ro b a b ly d ip p e d a t le a st tw ic e . 108 10.3 Furnishing the Kiln A third g ro up o f w o rke rs m a nufa c ture d suc h kiln furniture a s sp a c e r d isks, sta nd s, a nd sa g g a rs, the ta ll ro und b o xe s, so m e tim e s w ith c o ve rs, into w hic h fine r p ie c e s a re se t fo r firing . Fine w a re s ha d to g rit, p e rha p s fa lling fro m fla m e o r b la sts o f ho t a ir. c la y a nd the m se lve s fire d b e ke p t sp o tle ssly c le a n p rio r to firing . A sing le sp e c k o f d irt o r a b it o f the kiln w a lls, c o uld m a r the m . The y c o uld b e d a m a g e d b y d ire c t Sa g g a rs, d e sig ne d to p ro te c t the m , w e re m a d e fro m a ro ug h, d ura b le b e fo re use . The sa g g a rs w e re fo rm e d o n a p o tte r’ s w he e l, le ft to d ry fo r a tim e , the n sha p e d w ith a knife . The sa g g a r m a ke rs so m e tim e s use d the sa m e ro ug h c la y to m a ke c o m m o n e a rthe nw a re ve sse ls fo r the ir p e rso na l d a ily use a t ho m e . C rud e r w a re s c o uld b e fire d w itho ut b e ing p a c ke d w ithin sa g g a rs, a nd b its o f g rit c a ug ht o n the surfa c e o f the g la ze d uring firing is e vid e nt o n the m . Fo r the c o a rse r va rie tie s o f b o w l, a n ung la ze d ring ro und the ir inte rio r b o tto m a llo w e d the m to b e sta c ke d d ire c tly o ne up o n the o the r, the fo o tring o f the b o w l a b o ve se t into the ung la ze d ring o f the b o w l b e lo w . So m e tim e s kiln sta c king sup p o rts fo r se p a ra ting w a re s in the kiln a re a lso re q uire d . Ap p a re ntly the se w e re no t c o nsiste ntly use d fo r the w a re s o f this ship w re c k; o nly a fe w p ie c e s sho w tra c e s o f c irc ula r sc a rs o n the ir b a se s fro m the tub ula r sup p o rts, o r p o ntils, o nto w hic h the p o ts w e re se t. 10.4 Making the Molds Ano the r g ro up o f m o re skille d w o rke rs p re p a re d m o ld s fo r suc h sha p e s a s the c o ve re d b o xe s, e w e rs a nd va se s. The m o ld s w e re m a d e fro m a w hite p la ste r into w hic h liq uid c la y c o uld b e p o ure d o r d a m p c la y c o uld b e p re sse d . O n the b o x c o ve rs fro m the Ja va Se a Wre c k, o ne c a n so m e tim e s se e fing e r im p re ssio ns o n the insid e w he re the c la y ha s b e e n p re sse d into the m o ld . The b o xe s w e re fo rm e d in tw o p ie c e s, the up p e r a nd lo w e r ha lve s. Up rig ht sha p e s w e re m o re c o m p lic a te d . Ew e rs, fo r e xa m p le , w ith the ir ha nd le s, sp o uts a nd c o ve rs, re q uire d the g re a te st skill; the m a ny d iffe re nt p a rts ha d to b e fo rm e d in se p a ra te p ie c e s, the n lute d to g e the r. In luting , the d ry c la y e d g e s a re slig htly ro ug he ne d o r sc o re d w ith a p o inte d to o l, so a ke d w ith w a te r, the n jo ine d . Jo in m a rks a re usua lly visib le o n the inte rio rs o f suc h p ie c e s. Am o ng w a re s fro m the Ja va Se a Wre c k, jo ins c a n b e se e n o n the e xte rio r surfa c e s a s w e ll. This is p ro b a b ly a c o nse q ue nc e o f the p re ssure s o f m a ss p ro d uc tio n. Mo ld s ha d to b e m a d e c o ntinuo usly, a s the y w o uld b e c o m e w o rn w ith c o nsta nt use . The m o ld m a ke rs a lso ha d to b e ve ry fa m ilia r w ith the shrinka g e p ro p e rtie s o f the c la ys, fo r the finishe d p ie c e s w o uld a lw a ys b e sm a lle r tha n the m o ld a fte r firing . This w a s p a rtic ula rly im p o rta nt fo r e nsuring tha t b o x c o ve rs fitte d o n b a se s. At a ny o ne fa c to ry o nly thre e o r fo ur w o rkm e n m ig ht ha ve the skill to p ro d uc e sim ila r m o ld s c o nsiste ntly. Ano the r se t o f w o rke rs w o uld jo in the finishe d se c tio ns o f p o tte ry. 10.5 The Potter's Wheel C e rta in sha p e s, suc h a s tho se tha t a re rib b e d , lo b e d o r a ng ula r, a re m o re e a sily a nd e c o no m ic a lly p ro d uc e d w ith m o ld s. The ro und b o w l sha p e s, o n the o the r ha nd , w e re m o re 109 e a sily a nd q uic kly m a d e o n a fa st-turning p o tte r's w he e l. Fo r this func tio n ye t a no the r se t o f skille d w o rke rs w e re e m p lo ye d . So m e w e re tra ine d in turning sm a lle r p ie c e s, w hile o the rs m a d e la rg e r sha p e s. The w he e l, e sse ntia lly a ro und w o o d e n ta b le se t o n a p e rp e nd ic ula r a xle , is m a d e to turn c o ntinuo usly. The p o tte r ra ise s the sha p e fro m a p re p a re d b a ll o f c la y, using his fing e rs a nd ha nd s. A skille d p o tte r c a n m a ke the b a sic fo rm o f a d ish sha p e in a fe w m inute s. Va se s, b o ttle s, a nd e w e rs o f so m e sha p e s c o uld a lso b e g in o n the p o tte r's w he e l. Afte r d rying , the ve sse l w o uld b e re turne d to the w he e l fo r fina l to uc he s. 10.6 Finishing the Form The finishing w o rk, the fina l c le a ning a nd sha p ing o f the d rie d c la y, w a s c a rrie d o ut b y a no the r se t o f w o rke rs w ith the ir o w n sp e c ia l to o ls. Knive s, fo r insta nc e , w e re use d to p a re a w a y sup e rfluo us c la y. This p a ring o f d rie d p ie c e s a c c o unts fo r the c ha tte r m a rks se e n a ro und the lo w e r w a lls o f so m e o f the Ja va Se a c a rg o 's und e c o ra te d g re e n-g la ze d b o w l sha p e s. C ra ftsm e n a lso use d knive s to c ut o ut a fo o tring fro m the so lid fo o t o f c la y le ft b y the w he e l p o tte r. The fo o tring c o uld no t b e c ut until the d ish o r ve sse l w a s d ry e no ug h to b e se t up sid e d o w n. With this fina l c utting a nd p o lishing the p o tte rs' w o rk w a s d o ne . 10.7 Decoration In the So ng d yna sty fa c to rie s, a no the r g ro up o f sp e c ia lly skille d w o rke rs w o uld a p p ly inc ise d o r c a rve d d e c o ra tio n to the surfa c e s o f ro und sha p e s b e g un b y w he e l. Va rio us ha nd to o ls, suc h a s knive s a nd b a m b o o c o m b s, w e re use d fo r this w o rk. A flo ra l d e c o ra tio n, fo r e xa m p le , w ill first ha ve a he a vy o utline c a rve d , a nd the n the p e ta ls a nd le a ve s w ill b e e nha nc e d w ith stro ke s o f a c o m b . C o m p a re d to la te r d e sig ns in und e rg la ze b lue , the und e rg la ze -b la c k d e sig ns o f the So ng d yna sty, a s e vid e nc e d b y the Ja va Se a c a rg o , w e re no t ve ry c o m p lic a te d . It is p o ssib le tha t, a ltho ug h a fe w d e c o ra to rs m a y ha ve b e e n sp e c ia lly tra ine d in b rushw o rk, tho se w ho b e c a m e skille d in inc ise d a nd c a rve d d e sig n m a y ha ve a lso ha nd le d the p a inte d m o tifs. 10.8 Firing Sta c king the kiln c o uld ta ke a d a y o r m o re , d e p e nd ing o n its size . The fine r w a re s w o uld first b e se t in sa g g e rs, the n c a rrie d in sta c ks to the kiln. Insid e the firing c ha m b e r, the p o ts w e re a rra ng e d to ta ke a d va nta g e o f e ve ry sq ua re inc h o f sp a c e w itho ut inhib iting the flo w o f he a t fro m the fire b o x to the c him ne y. O ld C hine se kilns w e re lo ng a nd na rro w , a nd b uilt up a n inc line to w a rd the c him ne y. The he a t w o uld b e m o st inte nse a t the up p e r e nd , so w a re s re q uiring m o re o r le ss he a t w e re p o sitio ne d a c c o rd ing ly. A suffic ie nt fue l sup p ly ha d to b e m a inta ine d fo r the kiln firing s, w hic h usua lly re q uire d thre e d a ys o f c o ntinuo usly susta ine d he a t. In no rthe rn C hina , c o a l w a s no rm a lly use d , b ut in the la nd s so uth o f the Ya ng tse Rive r, w o o d -b urning kilns w e re m o re c o m m o n. The m o st e xc iting m o m e nt in the lo ng invo lve d p o tte ry p ro c e ss w a s the o p e ning o f the kiln. This ha d to b e tim e d p e rfe c tly. If it w a s o p e ne d to o so o n a fte r firing e nd e d , the sud d e n c o o lne ss w o uld c a use une ve n c o ntra c tio n b e tw e e n the c la y b o d y o f a p o t a nd the g la ze . The g la ze w o uld c o nse q ue ntly c ra ze o r c ra c kle , a n e ffe c t tha t w a s so m e tim e s inte ntio na l. Ma ny o the r kiln a c c id e nts w e re p o ssib le , ruining w e e ks o f w o rk. Whe n b e a utiful p o ts e m e rg e d , a ll 110 tho se tha t c o ntrib ute d to the ir c re a tio n m ust ha ve fe lt inte nse p le a sure a nd re lie f. Any c e le b ra tio ns a t the c o m p le tio n o f a suc c e ssful firing , ho w e ve r, p ro vid e d o nly a sho rt b re a k. Afte r the c e ra m ic s w e re ta ke n o ut o f the kiln, the y ha d to b e p a c ke d fo r tra nsp o rt. In the m e a n tim e , a ll the d e p a rtm e nts o f the fa c to ry w o uld ha ve b e e n sim ulta ne o usly p re p a ring fo r the ne xt firing , a nd the o ne a fte r tha t. 10.9 Illustrating the Potting Process 1. CLAY As the p rima ry ma te ria l invo lve d in p o tte ry-ma king , c la y und e rg o e s a se rie s o f p urific a tio n a nd p re p a ra tio n p ro c e sse s b e fo re b e ing intro d uc e d to the p o tte r. Altho ug h the ir o p inio ns o n the suita b ility o f a ny o ne c la y mixture a re ta ke n into a c c o unt, the whe e l p o tte rs first se e the ma te ria l in p re p a re d lump s o f a p p ro p ria te size fo r imme d ia te ly thro wing o nto the whe e l. He re , o ne o f the lump s is b e ing kne a d e d a fina l time to ma ke c e rta in tha t its te xture is unifo rm a nd tha t it c o nta ins no tiny a ir p o c ke ts. Any b its o f g rit in the c la y wo uld sc a r the surfa c e o f a p o t a s it is b e ing thro wn, a nd a ir p o c ke ts mig ht e xp lo d e d uring firing . 2. WHEEL-THROWING Po tte rs a b le to thro w sha p e s o n a p o tte r's whe e l a re c o nsid e re d skille d la b o r. The y a re c re a to rs who se tra ining ma y ta ke ye a rs. He re a p o tte r d ra ws a lump o f c la y up wa rd into a ja r sha p e . The p o tte r o fte n ho ld s a we t ra g in o ne ha nd to ke e p the c la y p lia b le . By a p p lying p re ssure with his fing e rs a nd ha nd s, the p o tte r c o ntro ls the c o nto urs o f the ve sse l. 3. MOLDING Else whe re in the fa c to ry liq ue fie d c la y is p o ure d into mo ld s ma d e fro m white p la ste r. De p e nd ing o n the skill o f the mo ld d e sig ne rs, the va rie ty o f sha p e s ma d e b y this me tho d is p ra c tic a lly unlimite d . Se p a ra te mo ld s ma y p ro vid e multip le p a rts fo r a sing le fina l fo rm. Be sid e s p ro vid ing a wa y to utilize c la ys tha t la c k e no ug h p la stic ity to b e e a sily fo rme d o n a p o tte r's whe e l, the me tho d is e c o no mic a l. With mo ld s, a n o rd e r fo r a hund re d ja rs a ll in the sa me sha p e a nd size c o uld b e q uic kly a nd e ffic ie ntly fille d with a mo stly unskille d la b o r fo rc e . 111 4. FINISHING O nc e the b a sic sha p e is fo rme d , whe the r b y whe e l o r b y mo ld , it is a llo we d to d ry a nd thus slig htly ha rd e n fo r a d a y o r mo re . Mo uthrims a re sha ve d smo o th, e xtra ne o us b its o f c la y a re re mo ve d , a nd fla t b a se s a re c ut o r fo o tring s c a rve d . Fo r o b je c ts ma d e fro m p ie c e mo ld s, the jo in line s a re smo o the d a wa y. 5. INCISED DECORATION O ne o f the o ld e st fo rms o f p o tte ry d e c o ra tio n is to c ut d e sig ns o nto the surfa c e o f the c la y. The d e sig ns, inc ise d with a va rie ty o f to o ls, a re mo stly flo ra l o r ve g e ta l in na ture . 6. UNDERGLAZE DECORATION O nc e the c la y is c o mp le te ly d ry a nd ha rd , und e rg la ze d e c o ra tio n c a n b e a d d e d with a b rush. Iro n b la c k a nd c o b a lt b lue a re the mo st c o mmo n c o lo rs. Stra ig ht line s a ro und the b o d y o f a p o t c a n b e a p p lie d e a sily if the p o t itse lf mo ve s o n a turning ta b le . 112 7. GLAZING Afte r the ve sse l ha s b e e n d e c o ra te d , it is d ip p e d into a va t o f g la ze , a visc o us liq uid . The mo st c o mmo n mixture is ma d e with c la y a nd wo o d a sh. Afte r d ip p ing , the g la ze is a llo we d to d ry. 8. FIRING Fina lly the c la y p o ts a re b a ke d in kilns. Kilns ha ve b e e n ma d e in a ll sha p e s a nd size s a nd the te c hno lo g y o f a p p lying the a p p ro p ria te a mo unt o f he a t, the p e rio d o f firing a nd c o ntro lling the kiln a tmo sp he re is c o mp lic a te d . The e xa c t c o mb ina tio n o f firing c o nd itio ns is a lso usua lly c o nsid e re d p a rt o f the sp e c ia l tra d e se c re ts a sso c ia te d with fine c e ra mic s. In the p a st, the fue l fo r kilns wa s wo o d o r c o a l. To d a y it is g a s o r e le c tric ity. 113 11.0 CERAMICS INVENTORY b y Ro xa nna Bro wn 11.1 Painted Ware No kiln site ha s b e e n d o c um e nte d a s a so urc e fo r the o nc e c o lo rful c e ra m ic s d e sc rib e d in this se c tio n. The y m ig ht c o m e fro m the C izho u kilns, o r fro m the Q ua nzho u (o r C iza o ) kilns, w he re le a d -g la ze d ke nd i w e re p ro d uc e d ฀ so m e o f the m w ith the sa m e g re e n g la ze tha t o rig ina lly c o ve re d the p a inte d w a re s (se e Hug he s-Sta nto n a nd Ke rr, 1980, 32; a nd Ad hya tm a n, 1987, No s. 58-61). The va rie ty o f the se p ie c e s in So uthe a st Asia m a y ind ic a te tha t the y w e re m a d e o nly fo r a sho rt p e rio d . Fro m c o lle c tio ns o f tra d e c e ra m ic s, o nly o ne e xa m p le in sim ila r style ha s b e e n p ub lishe d (So uthe a st Asia n C e ra m ic So c ie ty, 1983, no . 180), a nd it w a s te nta tive ly id e ntifie d a s b e ing fro m No rthe rn C hina . So m e e q uiva le nt e xa m p le s w e re re c o ve re d fro m the Bre a ke r Sho a l ship w re c k d isc o ve re d in the Philip p ine s (Dup o iza t, 1995, Fig s. 40-41). The sha p e s fro m the Ja va Se a Wre c k ra ng e fro m b o w ls a nd c up s to e w e rs a nd c o ve re d b o xe s. The d e c o ra tio n is so m e tim e s in sim p le und e rg la ze b la c k, b ut m o re o fte n the d e sig n is e ithe r inc ise d , o r m o ld e d in re lie f, w ith the Pa inte d e we r o n the se a b e d . g ro und p a inte d b la c k. The w ho le p ie c e w a s the n c o ve re d in a b rig ht sha d e o f g re e n le a d g la ze , a lo w -te m p e ra ture g la ze tha t w o uld ha ve b e e n a p p lie d a fte r the first sto ne w a re firing o f the p o tte ry. A se c o nd lo w -te m p e ra ture firing w o uld m a ture the g la ze . The p a inte d w a re d e sig ns a re b a sic a lly flo ra l, usua lly fe a turing a p e o ny sp ra y, so m e tim e s a lo ng w ith le a f sc ro lls. The re a re a lso e xa m p le s o f the p ho e nix fro ze n in flig ht o n the c o ve rs o f b o xe s, b ut sta nd ing w he n the y a p p e a r o n up rig ht sha p e s. The re a re tw o b o x c o ve rs w ith a sinuo us d ra g o n d ra w n in und e rg la ze b la c k. The c la y b o d y o f the w a re is ha rd a nd g ra yish-w hite , a ltho ug h it c a n b e b uff-g ra y o n e xp o se d surfa c e s w he re the o rig ina l g la ze ha s e ro d e d . The p o tting o f the up rig ht sha p e s is so m e tim e s so thin a s to se e m fra g ile ; m a ny o f the m w e re c o nstruc te d fro m p a rts fo rm e d in m o ld s. The d ish sha p e s a nd c o ve re d b o xe s ha ve a m o re sub sta ntia l fe e l a b o ut the m . BOWL SHAPES The d ish sha p e s ra ng e fro m a sm a ll c o nic a l b o w l to a la rg e fla re d d ish. The d e sig ns va ry in d e ta il b ut inc lud e fo lia g e a nd p e o ny sc ro lls inc ise d in o utline a nd re se rve d a g a inst a n und e rg la ze b la c k b a c kg ro und . Usua lly the e xte rio r is p la in b ut it m a y a lso b e p a inte d w ith a d e sig n in und e rg la ze b la c k o f sc ro lling fo lia g e . The e ntire d ish, inc lud ing the b a se (p re sum a b ly w ith the e xc e p tio n o f the fo o tring o n w hic h it w o uld ha ve se t fo r firing ), w a s the n c o ve re d in g re e n g la ze . The p re se nt e xp o se d surfa c e o f the c la y, w he re the g la ze ha s e ro d e d a w a y, is b uffg ra y. 116 Small Bowl C o nic a l, w ith a sho rt c a rve d fo o tring . The inte rio r ha s a sc ro lling flo ra l sp ra y inc ise d b e lo w a n und e c o ra te d b a nd a t the m o uthrim . The e xte rio r ha s a p a inte d d e sig n o f sc ro lling fo lia g e . Exa m p le : 1 Dia m e te r: 14 c m Large Bowls Se ve ra l so m e w ha t sim ila r fra g m e nts a re fro m la rg e r size b o w ls w ith a stra ig ht m o uthrim b ut c urve d w a lls. The la rg e st o f the se sho w s tra c e s o f a c irc ula r sta c king sc a r o n the inte rio r b o tto m , p e rha p s fro m the fo o tring o f a d ish se t up o n it fo r firing . Exa m p le s: 4 d a m a g e d Estim a te d d ia m e te r o f la rg e st b o w l: 25 c m 117 Large Dishes Dishe s w ith a na rro w e ve rte d m o uthrim , d e c o ra te d o n the inte rio r w ith sc ro lling fo lia g e , the e xte rio r p la in. Exa m p le s: 3 d a m a g e d La rg e st d ia m e te r: 30 c m COVERS C up -sha p e d , he a vily-p o tte d , a nd d e c o ra te d w ith inc ise d sc ro lling fo lia g e a ro und the e xte rio r re se rve d o n a n und e rg la ze b la c k g ro und the n o rig ina lly c o ve re d in g re e n g la ze . Exa m p le s: 3 Dia m e te r: 6.8 - 7.5 c m 118 C o nc a ve c e nte r a re a se t w ith a tiny ring ha nd le a t o ne sid e a nd w id e , fla t m o uth fla ng e , c o ve re d o n the up p e r sid e w ith b rig ht g re e n g la ze . Exa m p le s: 11 Dia m e te r: 8 c m Do m e -sha p e d w ith a w id e m o uth fla ng e a nd tw o tiny p e rfo ra tio ns a t o ne sid e . The y a re m o ld e d w ith the d e sig n o f a p lum b lo sso m re se rve d o n a n und e rg la ze b la c k m e d a llio n a t the c e nte r. The re a re tra c e s o f b rig ht g re e n g la ze o n the fla ng e . Exa m p le s: 14 Dia m e te r: 7.2 - 7.5 c m C o nc a ve d e p re ssio n a ro und a sho rt kno b ha nd le , a nd w id e fla t m o uth fla ng e w ith tw o sm a ll p e rfo ra tio ns a t o ne sid e . Sm a lle r Exa m p le s: 17 Dia m e te r: 7 cm La rg e r Exa m p le s: 2 w ith a re ta ining ring to o ne sid e in p la c e o f the p e rfo ra tio ns Dia m e te r: 8 cm C o ve r w ith a ring o f o ve rla p p ing lo tus p e ta ls in slig ht re lie f a ro und a kno b ha nd le , the und e rsid e w ith a sho rt ve rtic a l fla ng e ; w ith tra c e s o f g re e n g la ze o n b o th the up p e r a nd lo w e r surfa c e s. Exa m p le s: 3 Dia m e te r: 5.2 c m 119 EWERS The e w e rs a re m o stly p e a r-sha p e d w ith a b ulb o us lo w e r b o d y c urving up w a rd into a g ra c e ful ne c k fla re d a t the m o uth. The y a re unusua l in b e ing m o ld -m a d e , in p a rts, ra the r tha n w he e lthro w n. A stra p ha nd le is a p p lie d to o ne sid e a nd a ta ll c urve d sp o ut o p p o site . The y a re d e c o ra te d e ithe r w ith p a inte d flo ra l d e sig ns in und e rg la ze b la c k, sc ro lling fo lia g e inc ise d in o utline a g a inst a n und e rg la ze b la c k d e sig n, o r w ith the w hite d e sig ns in re lie f (the c la y ha ving b e e n p re sse d a g a inst a m o ld to o b ta in the m o tifs) tha t inc lud e the p ho e nix a m id st sc ro lling fo lia g e , a ll o n a n und e rg la ze b la c k g ro und , the n c o ve re d in b rig ht g re e n g la ze . The va rio us style s sho w slig htly d iffe ring p ro p o rtio ns. The fo o t o f the se ve sse ls is p a rtic ula rly unusua l. Ra the r tha n b e ing c a rve d o ut w ith a knife a fte r p re lim ina ry sha p ing , it w a s m a d e b y the c la y b e ing p re sse d into a m o ld tha t a lso fo rm e d the lo w e r w a lls. Thus it im ita te s w a re s w ith a c a rve d fo o t, b ut the fo o tring is unc ha ra c te ristic a lly ro und e d a nd the b a se c o nc a ve ra the r tha n b e ing fla t. This p o tting te c hniq ue is se e n c le a rly o n se ve ra l e w e r fra g m e nts intric a te ly m o d e le d w ith e ig ht ve rtic a l p a ne ls o f flo ra l a nd p ho e nix m o tifs. O ne e w e r a lso ha s C hine se c ha ra c te rs in re lie f o n the b a se . Exa m p le s: 27 in d a m a g e d c o nd itio n p lus fra g m e nts o f m o re He ig ht: 23.5- 24.5 c m 120 121 122 123 WINE POTS The se ha ve lo b e d w a lls, a n inse t b a se , a stra p ha nd le a p p lie d to o ne sho uld e r a nd a sho rt c urve d sp o ut a t the o the r. A c irc ula r d e p re ssio n a ro und the m o uth sug g e sts the sha p e w a s m e a nt to b e c o m b ine d w ith a c o ve r. Sm a ll e xa m p le : 1 He ig ht: 10 c m La rg e r e xa m p le s: 2 d a m a g e d He ig ht: 15 c m 124 COVERED BOXES Exa m p le s a re in va rio us size s, w ith ro und e d w a lls o r w ith fla tte ne d p a ne ls o n the sid e s. The d o m e d c o ve rs a re so m e tim e s slig htly fla tte ne d . Mo st c o ve rs a re d e c o ra te d w ith inc ise d o r m o ld e d d e c o ra tio n (usua lly flo ra l) o n a n und e rg la ze b la c k g ro und , the n o rig ina lly c o ve re d in b rig ht g re e n g la ze . Ve ry o c c a sio na lly the c o ve r fe a ture s a n und e rg la ze p a inte d d e sig n. Tw o sho w a sinuo us d ra g o n, a no the r (a c o m p le te , se a le d b o x 7.5 c m s in d ia m e te r) fe a ture s a p e o ny sp ra y; the lo w e r p o rtio ns o f the b o xe s a re und e c o ra te d e xc e p t fo r the g re e n g la ze . Dia m e te r: 9 - 13.5 c m 125 BOTTLES The m a in b o d y is ro ug hly sp he ric a l, w ith a ta ll fla re d ne c k a nd c a rve d fo o tring w ith tie rs o n its e xte rio r sid e ; d e c o ra te d w ith sc ro lling fo lia g e o n a n und e rg la ze b la c k g ro und . The c la y is unusua lly thin, a nd the g la ze is e ro d e d . Exa m p le : 1 He ig ht to b re a k a t ne c k: 19 c m The m a in b o d y is ro ug hly sp he ric a l, w ith a ta ll ne c k fla re d to w a rd the m o uth, a nd a c a rve d sp la ye d fo o tring w ith tie rs o n its e xte rio r sid e . It is d e c o ra te d w ith p e o ny sc ro lls re se rve d o n a n und e rg la ze b la c k g ro und , a nd w ith a sc ulp tura l re p re se nta tio n o f a lo ng sinuo us d ra g o n w ra p p e d ro und the lo w e r ne c k. The m o d e le d d ra g o n a tta c he d to the lo w e r ne c k o f this ve sse l is the sa m e a s tha t se e n o n sim ila r b o ttle s w ith q ing b a i g la ze d e sc rib e d la te r. Exa m p le : 1 He ig ht to b re a k a t up p e r ne c k: 24 c m 126 Pe a r-sha p e d b o ttle , w ith a c a rve d sp la ye d fo o tring a nd sha rp ly e ve rte d m o uth fla tte ne d o n its up p e r sid e , d e c o ra te d in und e rg la ze b la c k w ith sp ra ys o f fo lia g e . Its o rig ina l lo w -te m p e ra ture , b rig ht-g re e n le a d b a se d g la ze is c o m p le te ly g o ne . Exa m p le : 1 He ig ht: 21.5 c m JAR Ba rre l-sha p e d ja r, w ith in inse t b a se a nd d e p re ssio n ro und the w id e m o uth m e a nt to b e fit w ith a c o ve r; d e c o ra te d in re lie f w ith inc ise d p e o ny sc ro lls o n a g ro und o f und e rg la ze b la c k ro und the up p e r b o d y a nd w ith a b a nd o f ta ll lo tus p e ta ls ro und the lo w e r w a lls; w ith so m e tra c e s o f the o rig ina l b rig ht g re e n g la ze . Exa m p le : 1 He ig ht: 12.5 c m 127 VASES Va se in m e ip ing sha p e , sturd ily p o tte d , w ith a n e ve rte d fla tte ne d m o uthrim ; the c a rve d fo o t w ith a n inse t b a se ; d e c o ra te d ro und the up p e r b o d y w ith inc ise d p e o ny sp ra ys, the n c o ve re d in b rig ht g re e n g la ze ; the c la y b o d y d a rk g ra y. (Whe the r und e rg la ze b la c k w a s o rig ina lly a p p lie d is unc le a r in the ve sse l’ s p re se nt c o nd itio n; o nly tra c e s o f the g re e n g la ze re m a in.) Exa m p le s: 1 c o m p le te a nd a sho uld e r fra g m e nt o f a se c o nd . He ig ht: 28.4 c m Va se , w ith a m o re w hitish, m o re c o m p a c t c la y b o d y tha n a p p a re nt o n o the r p a inte d w a re sha p e s; the m a in b o d y a lm o st sp he ric a l, the fo o t fla re d , a nd w ith a ta ll g ra c e ful ne c k tha t o p e ns o utw a rd into a lo tus le a f sha p e d m o uthrim ; d e c o ra te d ro und the b o d y w ith a n inc ise d p e o ny sc ro ll se t o n a n und e rg la ze b la c k g ro und . Exa m p le : 1 He ig ht: 17 c m Va se , up p e r p o rtio n o nly, w ith ro und e d sho uld e rs 128 a nd fa irly stra ig ht sid e s, the ne c k stra ig ht, sla nte d inw a rd a nd ung la ze d , a s tho ug h it w e re m e a nt to ha ve a c o ve r – p ro b a b ly o ne o f the c up -sha p e d c o ve rs a lso re c o ve re d ; d e c o ra te d o n the b o d y w ith inc ise d p e o ny sp ra ys re se rve d o n a n und e rg la ze b la c k g ro und ; the c la y b o d y d a rk g ra y. Exa m p le s: 1 Pre se nt he ig ht: 14 c m AMBROSIA BOTTLES Po tte d so lid ly, w ith a b ulb o us lo w e r b o d y, a ta ll ne c k a nd b ulb o us m o uth. The sha p e fo rm e d to b e ha nd -he ld a t the ne c k. With tra c e s o f c ursive ly p a inte d und e rg la ze b la c k d e c o ra tio n, b ut w ith no tra c e s o f g la ze p re se ntly a p p a re nt; the fla t b a se so m e tim e s w ith thre e sp ur m a rks o r, o n o ne , tra c e s o f a c irc ula r kiln sup p o rt sc a r; the p re se nt surfa c e o f the c la y o ra ng e -g ra y in c o lo r. This sha p e is ra re a m o ng e xisting p o tte ry in So uthe a st Asia , b ut it is w e ll-kno w n fro m Ind ia n-style sc ulp ture w he re suc h b o ttle s a re o fte n he ld in the ha nd o f g o d s a nd sa id to ho ld the e lixir o f im m o rta lity. It w a s p e rha p s a c o nta ine r fo r e sp e c ia lly tre a sure d m e d ic ine s. A fe w sim ila r e xa m p le s a re re c o rd e d fro m the Bre a ke r Sho a l ship w re c k in the Philip p ine s (Dup o iza t, 1995, Fig . 38), a nd a sing le w hite -g la ze d o ne w a s fo und in a Yua n-d yna sty (1280-1369) c o nte xt in Sa ra w a k (C hin, 1988, Pla te 37). Exa m p le s: 2 inta c t, 3 d a m a g e d He ig ht: 10 c m 129 11.2 Black-Glazed Ware The re a re o nly b o w ls in this c a te g o ry, a nd the y a re a sta nd a rd size a nd sha p e va lue d a s a te a -d rinking b o w l. The g la ze is “ te m m o ku” b la c k w ith b ro w nish p a tc he s, thin a t the m o uthrim b ut flo w ing thic kly o nto the lo w e r e xte rio r w a lls. The m o uth is p o tte d w ith a slig ht c urve to fo rm a lip fro m w hic h a liq uid c o uld b e sip p e d . The fo o tring is ro ug hly c a rve d le a ving a sha llo w b ut thic k b a se . So m e b o w ls w e re m a d e w ith a ro ug h g ra iny g ra y c la y; o the rs d isp la y a sim ila rly g ra iny b ro w n c la y b o d y . A sim ila r b o w l in g ra y c la y, illustra te d in a n e xhib itio n b y the So uthe a st Asia n C e ra m ic So c ie ty [1983, No . 159] is id e ntifie d a s m a d e a t Jizho u, Jia ng xi. It is sa id to ha ve o rig ina lly ha d c le a r g la ze a p p lie d to the m o uth. Exa m p le s: 10 m o stly inta c t, 36 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r : 12 - 12.5 c m He ig ht: 5.5 - 6 c m 130 11.3 Molded White/Qingbai Ware This g ro up o f w a re m a d e e xc e lle nt use o f a na tive w hite Fujia n c la y tha t w a s a p p a re ntly re la tive ly no n-p la stic ; the p ro b le m o f its no t b e ing e a sily sha p e d o n a p o tte r’ s w he e l w a s so lve d b y thinning the c la y to a visc o us c o nsiste nc y a nd p o uring o r p re ssing it into m o ld s tha t fo rm e d b o th the sha p e s a nd d e c o ra tio n in re lie f. Sm a ll va se s a nd c o ve re d b o xe s, p a rtic ula rly, c o uld b e m a d e e a sily in q ua ntity. The va se s w e re p ro b a b ly use d a t a lta rs to c o nta in flo w e rs o r p e rha p s stic ks o f inc e nse , a nd the b o xe s c o uld b e use d fo r sto ring c o sm e tic s, p e rfum e s a nd m e d ic ine s ฀ o r fo r the m a ny m isc e lla ne o us use s fo r w hic h b o xe s m ig ht b e use d e ve n to d a y. In Ind o ne sia n b uria ls, b o xe s so m e tim e s c o nta in je w e lry. In la te r ye a rs sc ulp tura l fig ure s w o uld b e a d d e d to the Fujia n w hite w a re re p e rto ire . The g la ze c o lo r va rie s fro m w hite to g ra y to b luish-g re e n. Pro b a b ly the va rying sha d e s w e re c ha nc e re sults fro m ind ivid ua l p la c e m e nt in kilns a nd na tura lly va rying firing c o nd itio ns. Am o ng this w a re , the sp e c ific c o lo r w a s m o stly fo rtuito us. At o the r kilns the se e ffe c ts c o uld b e p la nne d a nd a tta ine d w ith p ro p e r g la ze p ro p o rtio ns a nd stric t c o ntro l o f firing c o nd itio ns. All the w hite -g la ze d w a re o f the c a rg o re p re se nt c e ra m ic s m a d e in Fujia n p ro vinc e , a t b o th the De hua a nd Anxi kilns (Hug he s-Sta nto n a nd Ke rr, 1980). VASE Ma d e w ith fo ur m o ld -p ro d uc e d se c tio ns tha t w e re sub se q ue ntly lute d to g e the r: the ne c k w ith fla ring m o uthrim , up p e r a nd lo w e r ha lve s o f the m a in b o d y, a nd a fla re d fo o t d o m e d inw a rd o n its und e rsid e . The c la y is w hitish a nd so m e w ha t g ra iny, w ith a sug a ry fe e l to its ung la ze d surfa c e . De c o ra tio n is in re lie f, w ith rib b ing o n the m a in b o d y a nd lo tus p e ta ls ro und the fo o tring . The inte rio r is ung la ze d e xc e p t a t the fla ring m o uth. Exa m p le s: 5 inta c t, 65 d a m a g e d He ig ht: a ve ra g e 11 c m ; a d d itio na l b ro ke n m inia ture , 6 c m in he ig ht 131 BOTTLE Up p e r b o d y fra g m e nt, w ith a sp he ric a l m a in body a nd c urve d ne c k, d e c o ra te d o n the sho uld e r in re lie f w ith tw o ring s fro m w hic h a b o rd e r o f p e ta l d e sig n ha ng s. Exa m p le : 1 Pre se nt he ig ht: 3.5 c m COVERED BOXES Mo ld -m a d e in up p e r a nd lo w e r ha lve s, so m e und e c o ra te d e xc e p t fo r re lie f stria tio ns d o w n the w a lls, fro m a ring ro und the o ute r c o ve r, tha t d ivid e the sid e s into c urve d p a ne ls. O the rs a re d e c o ra te d w ith a flo ra l sp ra y o n the up p e r c o ve r a nd / o r w ith rib b e d w a lls. The fla t b a se m o st o fte n is c o nc a ve ; a nd the inte rio rs a re sp la she d w ith g la ze tha t a lso c o ve rs the e xte rio r to the lo w e r w a lls. All the b o xe s a re c irc ula r (ra the r tha n sq ua re ), tho ug h so m e ha ve fla tte ne d p a ne ls a ro und the o ute r w a lls. 132 Tw o hund re d a nd sixty-e ig ht b o xe s w e re re c o ve re d se a le d . Ma ny, m a yb e e ve n m o st, o f the m w e re ship p e d in this sta te . The y a re se a le d b y g la ze ha ving run fro m the c o ve r o nto the lo w e r p o rtio n. Why the y w e re ship p e d in this w a y is a m yste ry. Pe rha p s it w a s a so rt o f g ua ra nte e se a l, o ne tha t c o uld b e b ro ke n b y a jud ic io us ha m m e r b lo w , a nd m a yb e lo c a l b ro ke rs p ro vid e d this se rvic e , in the w a y tha t c e rta in p e rso ns b e c o m e skille d a t c ra c king o p e n c o c o nuts. Mud a nd w a te r d id g ra d ua lly se e p thro ug h o p e n c ra c ks b e tw e e n the tw o ha lve s d uring the ir tim e und e rw a te r, so tha t the se se a le d e xa m p le s a re p re se ntly he a vy; o the rw ise the y w e re ship p e d e m p ty. Exa m p le s: 268 b o xe s w e re re c o ve re d se a le d ; 6 ve ry sm a ll, 80 sm a ll, 60 m e d ium , a nd 120 la rg e , w ith a p p ro xim a te ly 600 se p a ra te c o ve rs a nd 900 b a se s in va rio us size s Very Small Covered Boxes The se a re d e c o ra te d w ith fine , lush sp ra ys o f a va rie ty o f flo w e rs a t the fla tte ne d c e nte r o f the c o ve r a nd w ith b a nd s o f rib b ing a t the sho uld e r a nd ro und the lo w e r se c tio n. The ung la ze d b a se is fla t ra the r tha n c o nc a ve a s o n la rg e r e xa m p le s. Dia m e te r: 5 c m 133 Small Covered Boxes With a p e o ny o r lo tus sp ra y in re lie f o n the c o ve r c e nte r a nd se p a ra te b a nd s o f ve rtic a l rib s ro und the c o ve r sho uld e r a nd ro und the lo w e r b o x se c tio n. The b a se is slig htly c o nve x. Dia m e te r: a ve ra g e 6 c m Medium Covered Boxes With w a lls d ivid e d into e ig ht sid e s, a nd d e c o ra te d w ith a p e o ny sp ra y in re lie f o n the c e nte r o f the slig htly d o m e d c o ve r e nc irc le d w ith a b a nd o f stria tio ns, so m e tim e s to g e the r w ith a ring o f d o ts. Dia m e te r: a ve ra g e 8.5 c m 134 Fruit-Shaped Covered Boxes In m e d ium size , w ith e ig ht lo b e s a nd the d e sig n o f a fruit ste m a t the d e p re sse d c e nte r o f the c o ve r; the b a se slig htly inse t. Dia m e te r: a ve ra g e 8 c m Melon-Shaped Covered Boxes In m e d ium size , w ith rib b e d w a lls e xte nd ing to a flo ra l d e sig n a t the d e p re sse d c e nte r c o ve r; the b a se fla t. Dia m e te r: a ve ra g e 8.5 c m Large Covered Boxes The o ute r w a lls e ithe r 8-sid e d o r w ith b a nd s o f rib b ing o ve r the sho uld e r o f the c o ve r a nd ro und the lo w e r se c tio n, m o st w ith a flo ra l sp ra y (o fte n a p e o ny) in re lie f o n the slig htly d o m e d c e nte r c o ve r. He ig ht (w ith rib b ing ): 6.5 c m He ig ht (o c ta g o na l) : 4.5 c m Dia m e te r: a ve ra g e 11 c m 135 Unusual Examples of Covered Boxes O ne sm a ll und e c o ra te d , p e rha p s w he e l-thro w n b o x, w ith a ha nd m o d e le d a nd d e ta ile d sc ulp tura l re p re se nta tio n o f a n e ntw ine d , c o p ula ting c o up le a tta c he d to the insid e b o tto m . Dia m e te r: 5.6 c m Va rio us c o ve rs w ith uniq ue d e sig ns, inc lud ing o ne w ith a Bud d hist sw a stika , a no the r w ith fish, a nd o ne w ith a g e o m e tric p a tte rn, a ll fro m la rg e b o xe s. Dia m e te r: 11.5 c m 136 Chinese Characters and Marks A num b e r o f e xa m p le s fro m the m o re sta nd a rd ize d b o x sha p e s a re m a d e uniq ue b y ha ving d e sig ns in re lie f o n the ir b a se . The se a re so m e tim e s sim p le flo ra l m o tifs, a nd so m e tim e s C hine se c ha ra c te rs tha t se e m to re fe r to fa m ily na m e s, o r w hic h m a y b e kiln fa c to ry na m e s, so m e thing like a tra d e m a rk (se e fo llo w ing p a g e s). In C hina b o xe s ha ve b e e n d o c um e nte d w ith m a rks suc h a s “ m irro r b o x” o r so m e tim e s the y ha ve na m e s o f m e d ic ine s w ritte n o n the m in b la c k ink. 11.4 Qingbai Ware A ra the r sm a ll b ut d e finite g ro up o f w a re c o uld b e c a lle d q ing b a i. The ir b luish-g re e n g la ze w a s a n inte ntio na l e ffe c t, d e lib e ra te ly a nd c o nsiste ntly a c hie ve d . A sm a ll num b e r, re c o g niza b le b y the sure ne ss o f the ir p o tting , the ir w hitish c o m p a c t c la y a nd a thic k e ve nly a p p lie d g la ze m ust c o m e fro m the rig htfully fa m o us Jing d e zhe n kilns o f inla nd Jia nxi p ro vinc e . O the rs, w ith a b ro w nish-g ra y g ra iny c la y p ro b a b ly c o m e fro m the sa m e a re a s o f Fujia n a s the g re e n-g la ze d w a re . A ra ng e o f e w e rs d isp la ys the sa m e g ra yish-w hite c la y a s so m e o f the fine r g re e n-g la ze d w a re . Struc tura lly c o m p lic a te d sha p e s, the y ha ve a sho rt fo o t w ith a sm o o th c o nc a ve b a se tha t a p p e a rs to ha ve b e e n ha nd -fo rm e d ra the r tha n c a rve d w ith a to o l. The m a in b o d y w a s w he e l-thro w n, the n ne c k-a nd -m o uth, ha nd le , a nd sp o ut se c tio ns w e re a tta c he d se p a ra te ly. All the e w e rs w e re o rig ina lly m e a nt to ha ve c o ve rs tha t w o uld ha ve ha d a m a tc hing re ta ining ring ha nd le suc h a s se e n o n the stra p ha nd le s. A string w o uld ha ve b e e n tie d thro ug h the m so a s to se c ure the c o ve r to the ve sse l. DISHES Dish, w ith a fo lia te d rim , ve ry sho rt fo o t a nd fla t ung la ze d b a se . De c o ra te d w ith a n inc ise d flo ra l d e sig n o n the inte rio r a nd c o ve re d in m o stly unc ra ze d b luish-g re e n q ing p a i g la ze . Fro m the Jing d e zhe n kilns. Exa m p le s: 1 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 15 c m 137 Zi ฀ Ind e c ip he ra b le ฀ m o ld e d o n the b a se o f a q ing b a i b o x Ind e c ip he ra b le ฀ m o ld e d o n the b a se o f a C izho u-typ e e w e r Li ฀ a surna m e ฀ m o ld e d o n the b a se o f a q ing b a i b o x C he n Zhe Ying ฀se a l o f the C he n fa m ily ฀ m o ld e d o n the b a se o f a q ing b a i b o x Liu Shi ฀ ‘ 60’ ฀ m o ld e d o n the b a se o f a C izho u-typ e d e c a g o na l b o x Zhe ng ฀ a surna m e ฀ m o ld e d o n the b a se o f a ro und C izho u-typ e b o x 138 “ Zhe ng ” — a surna m e — m o ld e d o n the b a se o f a q ing b a i b o x Ind e c ip he ra b le ฀ m o ld e d o n the b a se o f a q ing b a i b o x Yi La ng ฀- a surna m e ฀ m o ld e d o n the b a se o f a q ing b a i b o x Da ฀ ‘ b ig ’ , To ng ฀ ‘ b ra ss/ c o p p e r’ , o nly tw o c ha ra c te rs d e c ip he ra b le ฀ m o ld e d o n the b a se o f a q ing b a i b o x 139 C he n ฀ a surna m e ฀ m o ld e d o n the b a se o f a q ing b a i b o x Wu ฀ a surna m e ฀ m o ld e d o n the b a se o f a q ing b a i b o x Dish, o r p e rha p s a c o ve r, Jing d e zhe n q ing b a i w a re , w ith c o nic a l w a lls a nd g la ze d a ll o ve r e xc e p t a t the stra ig ht m o uthrim . It is p la in w ith no inc ise d o r m o ld e d d e c o ra tio n. Exa m p le : 1 Dia m e te r: 9 c m COVERED BOX O va l-sha p e d a nd und e c o ra te d , w ith a ne a tly c a rve d sha llo w inse t b a se . C o ve re d to the lo w e r w a lls in a n o p a q ue ve ry p a le b luish g la ze . Pro b a b ly Jing d e zhe n w a re . Exa m p le s: 2, o ne o f the m se a le d Dia m e te r: 5.4 c m COVERED BOX COVER Fine ly p o tte d w ith c o m p a c t w hite c la y, d e c o ra te d w ith a sp ra y o f tw o p e o nie s in hig h re lie f w ithin a ring e nc irc le d b y a b a nd o f c la ssic sc ro ll o n its up p e r surfa c e . Pro b a b ly fro m Jing d e zhe n. Exa m p le : 1 Dia m e te r: 11 c m 140 VASES Sm a ll a nd c o m p a c t, w ith a b ulb o us b o d y, fla re d ne c k a nd a n e ve rte d fo lia te d m o uthrim a nd slig htly sp la ye d c a rve d fo o tring . C o ve re d to the inte rio r o f the ne c k w ith thic k o p a q ue g la ze p re se ntly e ro d e d to a ro ug h finish b ut p ro b a b ly o rig ina lly e xtre m e ly fine . The c la y b o d y is fine , sm o o th a nd g ra y o n the inte rio r b ut d isp la ys a ro ug h te xture o n the ung la ze d b a se . Po ssib ly fro m Jing d e zhe n. Exa m p le : 1 He ig ht: 9.5 c m With a b ulb o us lo w e r b o d y, fla re d fo o t a nd ta ll c urve d ne c k. Ma d e in fo ur ho rizo nta l se c tio ns sub se q ue ntly lute d to g e the r ฀ the fo o t p lus thre e b o d y se c tio ns. The w ho le is d ivid e d into e ig ht lo b e s, e a c h c o nta ining a flo ra l sp ra y in re lie f. C o ve re d in a n unusua lly b luish o p a q ue g la ze . The c la y b o d y p a le g ra y. Exa m p le : 1 He ig ht: 20.5 c m (b ro ke n a t up p e r ne c k) 141 A m o uth se c tio n fro m a va se o r p e rha p s b o ttle , m a d e w ith e ig ht lo b e s o n the e xte rio r w hic h a t the fla re d m o uth a re d ra w n o utw a rd to m a ke a fo lia te d rim ; the b luishg re e n g la ze c ra c kle d ; the c la y b o d y g ra y. Exa m p le : 1 He ig ht: 5.5 c m Mo uth d ia m e te r: 7.4 c m The fo llo w ing p ie c e s a re m a d e fro m b ro w nish-g ra y o r b uff c la y. DISHES Sm a ll a nd thin, w ith a fla t ung la ze d b a se a nd a w id e ring ro und the inte rio r b o tto m , o the rw ise p la in. Exa m p le s: Tw o b a se fra g m e nts o nly Dia m e te r a t w id e st p o int: 7.5 c m 142 With a n inc ise d ring a t the inte rio r b o tto m se t d ire c tly a b o ve the c irc um fe re nc e o f a ve ry sho rt c a rve d fo o tring . The b a se is slig htly c o nc a ve a nd ung la ze d . Fa intly im p re sse d d e c o ra tio n a t the c e nte r is no lo ng e r c le a r. The b luish g la ze is he a vily c ra ze d . The c la y b o d y is g ra y a nd g ra iny. Exa m p le : 1 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 18 c m A d a m a g e d d ish m a d e w ith fine g ra yish c la y, w ith a slig htly e ve rte d fo lia te d m o uthrim a nd a fine ly c a rve d fo o tring . De c o ra te d o n the inte rio r w ith a stylize d sw irling flo ra l m o tif w ith a n inc ise d ring a t the b o tto m a nd inc ise d c urls ne a r the m o uthrim . A sm a ll kno b o f c la y is visib le a t the inte rio r c e nte r. The g la ze is thic k, o p a q ue a nd , in so m e p la c e s, m o re p a le g re e nish tha n b lue in c o lo r. Exa m p le : 1 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 20 c m 143 Fra g m e nts o nly, o f a sa uc e r-like d ish w ith a sho rt c a rve d fo o tring a nd e ve rte d m o uth w ith fo lia te d rim . Ela b o ra te ly d e c o ra te d w ith a sw irling flo ra l m o tif o n the inte rio r in suc h hig h re lie f tha t the d ish m ust ha ve b e e n fo rm e d b y p re ssing the c la y into a m o ld . A sm a lle r inc ise d o r m o ld e d flo w e r sp ra y d e c o ra te s a ring a t the inte rio r c e nte r. C o ve re d in thic k b luish-g re e n g la ze . The e xte rio r w a lls a re p la in. Fra g m e nts sim ila r to this a nd the fo llo w ing d ish ha ve b e e n d isc o ve re d a t the Jing d e zhe n kilns, (O rie nta l C e ra m ic So c ie ty o f Ho ng Ko ng , 1984, No . 11.) Exa m p le s: 7 b a se fra g m e nts Dia m e te r: 16.5 c m Furthe r fra g m e nts, in the sa m e sha p e a s the p re vio us g ro up , d isp la y c a rve d p e ta ls o n the inte rio r ra d ia ting o utw a rd fro m a n e nc irc le d inc ise d flo ra l d e sig n a t the c e nte r. Sim ila r p e ta ls a re a lso c a rve d o n the e xte rio r w a lls. Exa m p le s: 2 Dia m e te r: 16.5 c m 144 BOWLS Sturd ily p o tte d , w ith the fo o tring c a rve d so tha t the b a se is o nly slig htly inse t a nd so unusua lly thic k. The inte rio r is inc ise d a nd c o m b e d w ith d e nse flo ra l sc ro lling . The g la ze is b luish-g re e n a nd the c la y b o d y p a le g ra y. All e xa m p le s ha ve tra c e s o f a c irc ula r kiln sta c king sc a r o n the b a se . Exa m p le s: 3 fra g m e nts Dia m e te r: 22 c m a t w id e st p o int EWERS Ve ry thinly p o tte d , w ith e ig ht fla tte ne d p a ne ls a ro und the w a lls, e a c h o f the p a ne ls inc ise d w ith a flo ra l d e sig n a c c e nte d w ith c o m b ing . At the up p e rm o st p o int o f the lo ng stra p ha nd le sits a sm a ll re ta ining ring . A sim ila r ring o n the o rig ina l c o ve r w o uld ha ve a llo w e d the tw o to b e tie d to g e the r. Exa m p le s: 3 d a m a g e d He ig ht: 25 c m 145 G o urd -sha p e d a nd lo b e d , the se ve sse ls w e re c o nstruc te d fro m the p a rts fo rm e d in p ie c e m o ld s. Thre e typ e s: (1) p la in, (2) w ith a sing le b a nd o f d e c o ra tio n ro und the lo w e r sho uld e r, a nd (3) w ith ve rtic a l flo ra l sp ra ys in re lie f. Its c urve d ha nd le is intric a te ly m o d e le d into the sha p e o f a le a p ing se a c re a ture , w ith a re ta ining ring a t its up p e r sid e (fo r fa ste ning a string tie fro m c o ve r to ha nd le ) a nd so m e tim e s a p e rfo ra tio n just b e lo w . Exa m p le s: 10 d a m a g e d He ig ht: 20 c m 146 BOTTLES With a b ulb o us b o d y, a c a rve d sp la ye d fo o tring , a nd lo ng sinuo us d ra g o n in sc ulp tura l re lie f se t a ro und the ta ll ne c k. The d ra g o n, unfo rtuna te ly b ro ke n a t the he a d a nd ta il, is a lm o st id e ntic a l to tho se o n the p a inte d b o ttle s o f this sa m e sha p e d e sc rib e d e a rlie r in this inve nto ry. The b o d y o f the ve sse l is d e c o ra te d w ith sc ro lling stylize d fo lia g e in inc ise d a nd sho rt c o m b e d line s. Exa m p le s: 2 He ig ht: 23 c m (b ro ke n a t ne c k) G o urd -sha p e d a nd m o ld -m a d e , this m inia ture b o ttle is d e c o ra te d w ith ve rtic a l ro w s o f kno b s o n the lo w e r p o rtio n a b o ve a b a nd o f tiny lo tus p e ta ls a t the b a se a nd w ith up rig ht p e ta ls o n the up p e r p o rtio n. The fla t b a se sho w s tra c e s o f a c irc ula r sta c king sup p o rt sc a r. The g la ze is fa irly thic k a nd b luish, a nd the c la y b o d y is b ro w nish-g ra y. Exa m p le : 1 He ig ht: 6.5 c m 147 JAR Sm a ll, w ith a b ulb o us up p e r p o rtio n, na rro w m o uth w ith e ve rte d rim a nd a b a se tha t is slig htly inse t. It is d e c o ra te d w ith ho rizo nta l p o tting g ro o ve s. The runny b luish g la ze e nd s in a thic ke ne d tie r a t the lo w e r b o d y. Exa m p le : 1 He ig ht: 10 c m COVERS This g ro up is sim ila r in size a nd c o nstruc tio n b ut va rie d in d e sig n. The up p e r e xte rio r p o rtio n, w hic h is slig htly d o m e d , se ts o ve r a ve rtic a l fla ng e tha t w o uld ha ve fit into the m o uth o f the p a re nt ve sse l. Ea c h ha s a n a tta c he d re ta ining ring to o ne sid e . So m e ha ve flo ra l d e sig ns in re lie f, w ith a sm a ll tw irle d c la y ha nd le . Ano the r typ e fe a ture s a sc ulp te d m o d e l o f a fo ur-le g g e d a nim a l, p o ssib ly a ra m . Exa m p le s: 4 Dia m e te r: 5.5 c m 148 11.5 Celadon and Olive-Glazed Ware While m o st o f the b o w l sha p e s e xc a va te d fro m the ship w re c k c o uld b e d e sc rib e d a s b a sic a lly g re e n-g la ze d , this g ro up m a ke s a n o b vio us a tte m p t to im ita te w a re s tra d itio na lly kno w n a s No rthe rn C e la d o n. Ma ny a rt histo ria ns w o uld p re fe r to d isc a rd the te rm c e la d o n a lto g e the r. Ho w e ve r, in o rd e r to d isting uish this w a re fro m the m a ny o the r g re e n-g la ze d w a re s in the c a rg o , the tra d itio na l te rm ha s b e e n m a inta ine d . So m e p ie c e s in this c a te g o ry a re b e tte r d e sc rib e d a s o live -g la ze d . All a re re la tive ly he a vily p o tte d a nd m o st a re d e c o ra te d w ith c ursive c a rve d a nd inc ise d d e sig ns. The g la ze va rie s in sha d e s o f g re e n b ut te nd s to d a rk ra the r tha n lig ht. BOWLS Pla in, w ith a stra ig ht m o uthrim , a sturd ily c a rve d fo o tring , a sing le ring inc ise d a ro und the up p e r inte rio r w a lls, a nd a c a rve d ring ro und the b o tto m inte rio r. The g re e n g la ze is he a vily c ra ze d a nd e nd s une ve nly a t the lo w e r e xte rio r w a lls. Exa m p le s: 3 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 17 c m De e p w ith a slig htly e ve rte d m o uthrim a nd a c a rve d fo o tring b e ve le d o n its inne r sid e to a re la tive ly sha llo w b a se . Insid e , a n und e c o ra te d c e nte r is d e line a te d b y a c a rve d ring . De c o ra te d in c a rve d a nd c o m b e d line s w ith c ursive c lo ud fo rm s o n the inte rio r w a lls, a nd w ith c a rve d , stylize d lo tus p e ta ls a ro und the e xte rio r. Da rk g re e n o p a q ue g la ze runs une ve nly to the lo w e r w a lls. Tiny b its o f g rit so m e tim e s m a r the inte rio r. Exa m p le s: 2 inta c t, 3 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: a ve ra g e 12.3 c m 149 He a vily p o tte d , w ith a slig htly e ve rte d m o uthrim a nd a c a rve d fo o tring b e ve lle d o n its inne r sid e to a sha llo w ly-c ut b a se . Inc ise d o n the inte rio r w ith a c ursive , stylize d flo ra l d e sig n inc lud ing thre e b lo sso m s a c c e nte d w ith w isp s o f c o m b ing , a nd o n the e xte rio r w ith stria tio ns d o w n the w a lls. The g la ze is thin a t the m o uthrim a nd e nd s une ve nly just a b o ve the fo o t. The b uff-g ra y c la y is g ra iny. Exa m p le s: 5 inta c t, 20 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 18 c m He a vily p o tte d , w ith a n unusua l m o uth tha t c urve s inw a rd the n o ut, a nd a he a vily-c a rve d fo o tring sho w ing silve r-g ra y g ra iny c la y o n the ung la ze d b a se . De c o ra te d o n the inte rio r w ith a c a rve d ring a ro und the b o tto m a nd w ith c ursive c lo ud -like d e sig ns o f inc ise d a nd c o m b e d line s, a nd o n the e xte rio r w ith c urve d stria tio ns. The c la y b o d y is silve r-g ra y a nd g ra iny. Exa m p le s: 7 inta c t, 20 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 17.5 - 18.5 c m 150 Wid e a nd fla ring , he a vily p o tte d , w ith a sho rt c a rve d fo o tring , the se a re d e c o ra te d o n b o th the inte rio r a nd e xte rio r w ith c ursive inc ise d a nd c o m b e d d e sig ns p e rha p s im ita ting c lo ud fo rm s o r stylize d ve g e ta l sc ro lls. The c e nte r inte rio r is d e line a te d w ith a c a rve d ring . Exa m p le s: 3 inta c t, 30 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 24.5 - 25.5 c m De e p a nd w id e , the se ha ve a so m e w ha t d istinc tive m o uthrim tha t is sho rt a nd c urve d . De c o ra te d in a c ursive style , w ith ve g e ta l a nd c lo ud fo rm s in c a rve d a nd c o m b e d line s o n b o th inte rio r a nd e xte rio r w a lls. The re is a c a rve d ring a ro und the inte rio r b o tto m a nd a sho rt c a rve d fo o tring . Exa m p le s: 5 inta c t, 25 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 24 - 25 c m 151 Wid e , sha llo w a nd he a vily-p o tte d , this g ro up is d e c o ra te d o n the inte rio r w ith w isp y c a rve d a nd c o m b e d sw irls a nd w ith a n im p re sse d C hine se m a rk w ithin a c irc le a t the c e nte r. The m a rk is ji, a c o m m o nly use d c ha ra c te r m e a ning “ a usp ic io us.” Sim ila r d ishe s fo und e lse w he re o fte n ha ve tw o c ha ra c te rs, d a ji, a w ish fo r g o o d luc k o r g o o d fo rtune , inste a d o f ji a lo ne (e .g ., So uthe a st Asia n C e ra m ic So c ie ty, 1979, No . 92, fo r the sing le c ha ra c te r; a nd Dup o iza t, 1995, Fig . 6, fo r e xa m p le s w ith b o th c ha ra c te rs). Exa m p le s: 2 inta c t, 5 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: a ve ra g e 22.5 - 24 c m C a rve d w ith in inse t b a se , a nd w ith p ro m ine nt rib s a nd tie rs o f d e e p ly inc ise d lo tus p e ta ls o n the e xte rio r. The inte rio r is p la in e xc e p t fo r a sm a ll flo ra l m o tif a t the e nc irc le d insid e b o tto m . Exa m p le : 1 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r o f fra g m e nt: 21 c m DISHES Wid e ly fla re d d ishe s, intric a te ly d e c o ra te d w ith a c a rve d d e nse d e sig n o f p e o ny b lo sso m s a nd fo lia g e o n the inte rio r a nd sho rt c a rve d c urls o n the e xte rio r. With a sho rt fine ly c a rve d fo o tring , ung la ze d o n its rim a nd b a se . The c la y is p a le g ra yish. Exa m p le s: 4 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: la rg e st fra g m e nt 23 c m 152 11.6 Decorated Green-Glazed Ware The se p ie c e s d o no t fit into a ny c le a r c a te g o rie s o f g la ze typ e . O fte n the y a re sim p ly c a lle d tra nsitio na l w a re , a c o nve nie nt re fe re nc e to the thirte e nth c e ntury c ha ng e fro m So ng to Yua n d yna stie s. Altho ug h o ne b a sic g la ze m ixture w a s p ro b a b ly in use , va rying firing c o nd itio ns p ro d uc e d a va rie ty o f c o lo r sha d e s fro m c re a m y w hite to p a le to d a rk g re e n. At so m e kilns, e sp e c ia lly in la te r tim e s, so m e o f the se va ria tio ns w o uld b e c o d ifie d a nd d e lib e ra te ly a tta ine d w ith m o re c a re ful m o nito ring o f m a te ria l q ua lity a nd c o ntro l o f kiln a tm o sp he re , e sp e c ia lly w ith the fine a rt o f re d uc tio n c o ntro l. Va ria tio ns tha t a p p e a r a c c id e nta l he re inc lud e q ing b a i (b luish-w hite ) a nd w ha t w o uld la te r b e c a lle d shufu (c re a m w hite ) . Be c a use the g la ze is tra nsp a re nt, inc ise d a nd c a rve d d e c o ra tio n is m o re c o m m o n tha n o n the Lo ng q ua n g re e ng la ze d c e la d o n tha t b e c a m e p o p ula r in the fo urte e nth c e ntury. In e xhib itio n c a ta lo g s e xa m p le s o f the fo llo w ing c e ra m ic s ha ve b e e n d a te d fro m the te nth to the thirte e nth c e ntury (So uthe a st Asia n C e ra m ic So c ie ty, 1979 a nd 1983). The g la ze o n m o st o f the m e nd s a t the lo w e r w a lls; no ne ha s a g la ze d b a se . The se c e ra m ic s a re fro m se ve ra l Fujia n p ro vinc e kilns, a ll o f w hic h m a d e fa irly sim ila r p ro d uc ts. Five site s ha ve b e e n d o c um e nte d : Anxi, To ng ’ a n, Na n’ a n, Q ua nzho u, a nd Putia n. Mo st o f the d ish sha p e s a re fro m To ng ’ a n a nd Na n’ a n. DISHES Sm a ll a nd e g g she ll thin, w ith a stra ig ht m o uthrim a nd fla t ung la ze d b a se ; d e c o ra te d o n the inte rio r b o tto m w ith lig htly inc ise d stylize d fo ur-p e ta l sta r-like d e sig ns a c c e nte d w ith c o m b e d m a rks; the c la y b o d y w hitish w ith a sug a ry fe e l, a c la y sim ila r to the typ e use d fo r the m o ld e d w hite w a re s; the g la ze c ra ze d a nd b luish-g re e n in c o lo r. Exa m p le s: 7 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 9 c m Wid e a nd fla t, d e c o ra te d o n the inte rio r w ith a c urso ry inc ise d flo ra l d e sig n a c c e nte d w ith c urio usly d istinc tive zig -za g s o f sho rt c o m b e d line s. The e xte rio r w a lls a re sha rp ly a ng le d to a sm a ll fla t b a se . The g re e n g la ze p o o ls o n the inte rio r b o tto m a nd a t the sid e s o f the b a se . Pro b a b ly fro m the Na n’ a n kilns. Exa m p le s: 4 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 11 c m 153 Sm a ll, w ith g e ntly c urve d w a lls rising to a stra ig ht m o uthrim . The b a se is fla t, ung la ze d a nd ve ry o c c a sio na lly ha s tra c e s o f a kiln sup p o rt sc a r. De c o ra te d w ithin a n e nc irc le d inte rio r m e d a llio n w ith a stylize d , c ursive ly inc ise d flo ra l sp ra y. C o ve re d w ith a so m e w ha t runny g la ze tha t usua lly fire s w itho ut c ra zing to va rio us sha d e s o f g re e n, so m e ve ry g ra yish a nd o the rs m o re b lue . The c la y b o d y is p a le silve r-g ra y a nd so m e w ha t ro ug h. In the fifte e nth c e ntury d ishe s o f e xa c tly this sha p e a nd size , e xc e p t fo r a b a se c a rve d into the b o tto m , w o uld a p p e a r a m o ng b lue -a nd w hite w a re a s the “ ho le b o tto m ” d ishe s. Exa m p le s: 600 inta c t, 300 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: Ave ra g e 10 c m , 1 la rg e r e xa m p le 12.5 c m 154 BOWLS Sm a ll te a -b o w l size , d isp la ying the sa m e d e sig ns, c la y a nd g la ze a s the p re vio us d ishe s, w ith c o nic a l w a lls a nd a sho rt c a rve d fo o tring . The g la ze runs une ve nly o nto the e xte rio r o f the fo o t. The inte rio r flo ra l d e sig n is e nc irc le d . The y ring w he n ta p p e d , c le a rly a sig n o f firing a t a n hig h te m p e ra ture . Exa m p le s: 150 inta c t, 50 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: Ave ra g e 12.5 c m Re la tive ly sha llo w , w ith a slig htly e ve rte d m o uthrim . A c ursive flo ra l sp ra y o n the inte rio r runs o ve r a n e nc irc le d b o tto m up w a rd s to a c a rve d ring a ro und the up p e r w a lls. The e xte rio r is p la in, a nd the b a se insid e the fo o tring is thic k. Exa m p le s: 100 inta c t, 50 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: Ave ra g e 18 155 LOBED DISHES AND BOWLS The se d isp la y the sa m e g la ze a nd b o d y c ha ra c te ristic s a s the p re vio us d e c o ra te d c a te g o rie s. The lo b e s o f the m o uthrim a re furthe r a c c e ntua te d b y sing le stria tio ns a t e a c h rim nic k tha t a p p e a r to b e m a d e w ith thin line s o f slip b e ne a th the g la ze ; o the rw ise the y a re und e c o ra te d . Dishes Sm a ll, w ith fla re d w a lls a nd a w id e fla t inte rio r b o tto m e nc irc le d b y a sing le c a rve d ring . Exa m p le s: 10 inta c t, 10 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 11-12 c m Wid e a nd fla re d , w ith a n e nc irc le d fla t inte rio r b o tto m tha t c o rre sp o nd s to a n a ng le d tie r a t the lo w e r e xte rio r w a lls. Wid e d ishe s suc h a s this, w ith a sha rp ly a ng le d e xte rio r w a ll, a re so m e tim e s id e ntifie d a s b rush w a she s, fo r use in C hine se c a lig ra p hy. Exa m p le s: 20 inta c t, 10 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 16.5 - 17.5 c m 156 Bowls The c urve d e ve rte d m o uthrim o f the se is nic ke d to fo rm five lo b e s tha t a re a c c e nte d w ith a stria tio n b e tw e e n e a c h d o w n the inte rio r w a ll to a c a rve d ring tha t e nc irc le s the b o tto m . The g la ze is p a le g ra yish-g re e n. The re la tive ly he a vy fo o tring is c a rve d a nd ung la ze d . The c la y b o d y is p a le silve r-g ra y, w ith a ro ug h surfa c e . So m e e xa m p le s ha ve a n ung la ze d sta c king ring c a rve d o n the inte rio r. Exa m p le s: 20 inta c t, 20 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: a ve ra g e 12.5 c m Ano the r g ro up is c ha ra c te rize d b y a stra ig ht m o uthrim a nd six lo b e s. Exa m p le s: 18 inta c t, 22 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 18 c m 157 BOWLS WITH SIMPLE COMBED DECORATION With a c a rve d fo o tring a nd p la in e xte rio r; the inte rio r d e c o ra te d w ith c o m b e d c urls o f d e c o ra tio n w ithin a b a nd b e tw e e n the c a rve d ring e nc irc ling the inte rio r b o tto m a nd a n inc ise d ring a t the up p e r w a lls; the c la y a nd g la ze sim ila r to the p re vio us c a te g o rie s, w ith c ha tte r m a rks o fte n e vid e nt o n the lo w e r e xte rio r w a lls a nd p in ho le s in the g la ze . Sm a ll-size d w ith a stra ig ht m o uth a nd a w id e ring a t the b o tto m inte rio r. Exa m p le s: 20 inta c t, 10 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 12- 13 c m Me d ium-size d , w ith the m o uth e ve rte d o nly a t its lip . So m e ha ve a b ro a d e r ring a t the inte rio r b o tto m . Exa m p le s: 400 inta c t, 250 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: a ve ra g e 15-16 c m 158 La rg e -size d , w ith a slig htly e ve rte d m o uthrim . So m e ha ve a n ung la ze d sta c king ring c ut o nto the inte rio r, a nd so m e ha ve b its o f g rit c a ug ht o n the surfa c e o f the g la ze . Exa m p le s: 2 inta c t, 10 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 23 c m BOWLS WITH CLOUD DECORATION Bo w ls in a sta nd a rd m e d ium size , d e c o ra te d o n the inte rio r w ith c o m b e d c lo ud -like m o tifs. The m o uthrim is stra ig ht a nd the fo o tring is c a re fully c a rve d . The g la ze is p a le g re e n to g ra y, a nd the c la y silve r-g ra y a nd slig htly ro ug h. Exa m p le s: 1,000 inta c t, 250 d a m a g e d So m e ha ve a ring o f b ro a d d ia m e te r a t the inte rio r b o tto m . Dia m e te r: 17 - 21 c m 159 O the rs d isp la y a sm a ll b utto n-size e nc irc le d b o tto m a nd slig htly hig he r w a lls. O ne e xa m p le ha s fo ur fish m o tifs sc a tte re d a m o ng the c lo ud d e sig ns. Dia m e te r: 17-21 c m 11.7 Undecorated Green-Glazed Ware The g la ze c ha ra c te ristic s o f the se p ie c e s a re id e ntic a l to the p re vio us, d e c o ra te d typ e s. The y p ro b a b ly c o m e fro m the sa m e kilns. Thre e to fo ur q ua litie s o f w a re w e re o fte n p ro d uc e d fro m a ny sing le kiln firing . The fo llo w ing d ish sha p e s se e m to ha ve b e e n m a d e fo r m a ss sa le s. The c la y is a little m o re ro ug h, the re a re o fte n c ha tte r m a rks o n the e xte rio r w a lls a nd p in ho le s in the g la ze , a nd the fo o tring s a re no t c a re fully c a rve d . BOWLS With a slig htly e ve rte d m o uthrim , usua lly sha ve d fla t o n its up p e r surfa c e , a n ung la ze d sta c king ring c ut o nto the inte rio r b o tto m , inc ise d ring s a t the up p e r a nd lo w e r inte rio r w a lls, a nd c a rve d fo o tring ; o fte n w ith b its o f e xtra ne o us c la y a d he ring to the surfa c e a t o d d p la c e s, a nd w ith p in ho le s in the g la ze . Exa m p le s: 1200 inta c t, 400 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 14-17 c m 160 Muc h like the p re vio us c a te g o ry e xc e p t w ith a m o re sm o o thly e ve rte d m o uthrim , a nd w itho ut the ung la ze d sta c king ring . Exa m p le s: 120 inta c t, 60 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 14 -17 c m Sim ila r to the tw o p re vio us c a te g o rie s b ut w ith a na rro w e r ring c a rve d in slig ht re lie f a t the inte rio r b o tto m . Exa m p le s: 1800 inta c t, 600 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 14-17 c m Wid e a nd sha llo w , the b o w ls in this g ro up a re so he a vily p o tte d tha t the y p ro d uc e ve ry little ring ing so und . The y ha ve a n e ve rte d m o uthrim , a c a rve d ring o n the up p e r inte rio r w a lls, a nd o fte n c ha tte r m a rks o n the lo w e r e xte rio r w a lls. Exa m p le s: 180 inta c t, 30 d a ma g e d Dia m e te r: a ve ra g e 15 c m BOWLS WITH EVERTED MOUTHRIM 161 He a vily p o tte d a nd p la in, w ith a so m e w ha t c a re le ssly a p p lie d g la ze tha t e nd s une ve nly a t the lo w e r e xte rio r w a lls. C ha tte r m a rks a re o fte n e vid e nt o n the e xte rio r. Une ve nly c a rve d fo o tring . Sm a ll-size d , so m e w ith a n ung la ze d sta c king ring o n the inte rio r. Exa m p le s: 100 inta c t, 30 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 12-13 c m Me d ium-size d . Exa m p le s: 100 inta c t, 50 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: a ve ra g e 17 c m 162 COVERS With a sho rt so lid sto p p e r o n the und e rsid e , a nd m a d e in thre e ve rtic a l tie rs, w ith a sing le p e rfo ra tio n thro ug h the c o ve r's w id e fla t m o uth fla ng . G la ze d o n the up p e r surfa c e o nly. Exa m p le s: 1 Dia m e te r: 6 c m With a d e p re sse d c e nte r, the lo w e r p o rtio n o f w hic h w a s d e sig ne d to fit into a ve sse l m o uth, a w id e fla t m o uth fla ng e a nd a ring ha nd le se t to o ne sid e in the d e p re ssio n. G la ze d o n the up p e r surfa c e . Exa m p le s: 3 Dia m e te r: 7.7 c m With a sho rt so lid sto p p e r b e lo w a d e p re sse d c e nte r p o rtio n, a fla re d m o uthrim w ith a ring ha nd le to o ne sid e , a nd a sm a ll c ro ss-ha tc he d kno b ha nd le a t the c e nte r. The g re e nish g la ze is c ra ze d . Exa m p le s: 6 Dia m e te r: 7.5 c m 163 With a w id e fla t m o uth fla ng e , a lo tus-b ud -sha p e d ha nd le , a nd a re ta ining ring to o ne sid e . Exa m p le s: 3 Dia m e te r: 8 c m Ja r c o ve r, he a vily p o tte d , w ith stra ig ht sid e s a nd a fla re d kno b ha nd le ; c o ve re d o n the e xte rio r in p a le g re e n o p a q ue g la ze . The c la y is silve r g ra y a nd m o ttle d , w ith b e ig e und e rto ne s. Exa m p le : 1 Dia m e te r: 13 c m Do m e -sha p e d , w ith a w id e fla t m o uth fla ng e a nd sho rt fla t kno b ha nd le ; g la ze d p a le g ra y-g re e n o n its up p e r surfa c e . Exa m p le : 1 Dia m e te r: 10.7 c m C o ve r, p ro b a b ly fro m a c o ve re d b o x, sturd ily p o tte d fro m silve r-g ra y c la y, w ith a fla t c o ve r c e nte r a ng le d d o w nw a rd to m e e t the stra ig ht sid e s. Exa m p le : 1 Dia m e te r: 5.6 c m 164 11.8 Brown-Glazed Ware This g ro up o f c e ra m ic s c o nta ins a va rie ty o f sha p e s, a ltho ug h the m a jo rity o f the m a re c o nta ine rs o f o ne so rt o r a no the r. The y sha re se ve ra l b a sic struc tura l te c hniq ue s a nd c o uld p e rha p s b e b e st d e sc rib e d a s a kind o f utilita ria n p e a sa nt p o tte ry. Pro b a b ly the y a re m a d e fro m a m ixture o f c la ys, fo r the b a sic m e d ium g ra y c o lo r o f the ir fire d b o d y is fa intly m o ttle d w ith b e ig e . Mo st o f the m w e re p ro b a b ly fa shio ne d o n a turnta b le , ra the r tha n o n a true p o tte r’ s w he e l. Struc tura lly, the y b e g in w ith a so lid d isk o f c la y fro m w hic h the w a lls a re b uilt up w a rd w ith c o ils o f c la y. If the first c o il w a s la id a to p the c la y d isk, it b e c a m e a so lid fo o t; if the c o il w a s b e g un fro m a ro und the e xte rio r o f the d isk, a se p a ra tio n b e tw e e n the initia l d isk a nd the w a lls is visib le o n the b a se . Be c a use a turnta b le w o uld no t ro ta te a s q uic kly a s a w he e l, the c o ils a re ne ve r c o m p le te ly sm o o the d fla t. The se p ie c e s w e re no t, ho w e ve r, m e a nt to b e p rize d fo r the ir b e a uty; the y ha ve m o re p ra c tic a l p urp o se s a s c o nta ine rs fo r o the r p ro d uc ts. The b o w l is a n e xc e p tio n. The g la ze is usua lly thin, b ro w n o r g re e nish b ro w n, a nd it ra re ly c o ve rs the w ho le e xte rio r b o d y. The inte rio rs o f the c lo se d sha p e s a re o nly o c c a sio na lly g la ze d . Mo st o f the se p ie c e s p o ssib ly c a m e fro m the kilns a t Q ua nzho u itse lf, the p o rt fro m w hic h the ship m o st p ro b a b ly sa ile d . Ele ve n kilns, kno w n fo r ha ving p ro d uc e d lo w -fire d utilita ria n w a re , w e re site d a t the e a st g a te o f the c ity. BOWL Lo tus-p o d sha p e d a nd thinly p o tte d , w ith a c a rve d fo o tring a nd stra ig ht m o uthrim . G la ze d b ro w n o r b la c kish to the m id d le o r lo w e r e xte rio r w a lls. The c la y is silve r-g ra y w ith b e ig e und e rto ne s. Exa m p le s: 4 inta c t, 2 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 11.5 c m 165 BASIN He a vily-p o tte d , w ith a fla t, usua lly slig htly c o nc a ve b a se a nd thic ke ne d m o uthrim . The w a lls a re ro ug hly c o nic a l, w ith ho rizo nta l p o tting g ro o ve s. O rig ina lly g la ze d b ro w n o n the inte rio r a nd o nto the up p e r e xte rio r w a ll. The c la y b o d y is m ixture of silve r-g ra y w ith b e ig e und e rto ne s. O ne b a sin ha s im p re sse d stylize d flo ra l m o tifs o n the insid e b o tto m . Exa m p le s: 7 inta c t, 7 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 24.4 - 26 c m He ig ht: 10 c m BOTTLE With b ulb o us b o d y, a ta ll c o nic a l ne c k, a ro lle d m o uthrim , a nd fla t b a se ; b ro w n-g la ze d fro m a c o up le o f c e ntim e te rs w ithin the m o uth to the lo w e r b o d y; the c la y b o d y re la tive ly lig htw e ig ht. Exa m p le s: 15 inta c t, 14 d a m a g e d He ig ht: 24 c m , o ne 30 c m POURING VESSEL This o ne is a n unusua l sha p e , p e rha p s fo r w ine , d o c um e nte d e lse w he re o nly a m o ng tw e lfth-c e ntury C a m b o d ia n sto ne w a re . Thinly p o tte d , w ith a re la tive ly sho rt b ut w id e , b ulb o us b o d y a nd fla t b a se . The sho rt ne c k c urve s o utw a rd into a c up -sha p e d m o uth, into w hic h a c o ve r w a s p ro b a b ly m e a nt to sit. Bro w ng la ze d to the lo w e r e xte rio r w a lls. Exa m p le s: 5 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: o ne 17 c m , o the rs 14 c m 166 JARLETS Bulb o us, w ith a sho rt na rro w ne c k a nd ro und e d m o uthrim . The fla t b a se is slig htly c o nc a ve . The c la y is lig htw e ig ht a nd silve r-g ra y, a nd the g la ze is c o m p le te ly e ro d e d a w a y. Exa m p le s: 2 He ig ht: 6.5 c m Sq ua t a nd b ulb o us, w ith a m o uth c ut d ire c tly into the up p e r surfa c e , c o ve re d in a n une ve n line to the lo w e r w a lls in b ro w n g la ze . The c la y b o d y is g ra y. This sing le e xa m p le is c hip p e d a t o ne sid e o f the m o uth, p e rha p s d e lib e ra te ly in o rd e r to b e use d a s a la m p , w ith the c hip p ro vid ing a p la c e fo r the w ic k. Exa m p le : 1 He ig ht: 3.8 c m JARS Re la tive ly sm a ll in size w ith a fla t b a se , na rro w m o uthrim , a nd p o tting g ro o ve s e vid e nt a ro und the w a lls. G la ze d o nly o n the up p e r sho uld e r a nd m o uth. The c la y is silve r-g ra y w ith b e ig e und e rto ne s. Exa m p le s: 1 He ig ht: 11.6 c m 167 Ta ll a nd c o nic a l, w ith a na rro w ro und e d m o uthrim a nd fla t b a se ; g la ze d o nly a t the up p e r sho uld e r a nd m o uth. The c la y is silve rg ra y w ith b e ig e und e rto ne s. The se “ sm a llm o uth” ja rs a re b e lie ve d to ha ve he ld m e rc ury, a sub sta nc e sa id to ha ve ha d m e d ic ina l use s. Exa m p le s (m e d ium ): 4 He ig ht: 18 c m Exa m p le s (la rg e ): He ig ht: 2 inta c t, 1 d a ma g e d 30 c m Bulb o us, w ith a c urve d ne c k a nd e ve rte d ro und e d m o uth; the fo o t fla t. So m e a re g la ze d g re e nish-b ro w n o n the inte rio r, o the rw ise the y m a y b e g la ze d o nly o n the e xte rio r to the lo w e r w a lls; in va rio us size s. Exa m p le s: 8 He ig ht: 8.6 - 16 c m Sq ua t, w ith a w id e b o d y d ra w n into a sho rt na rro w ne c k w ith fla re d m o uthrim ; the b a se fla t; the c la y p a le silve r-g ra y; g la ze d d a rk b ro w n. Exa m p le s: 60 inta c t, 20 d a m a g e d Dia m e te r: 9-16 c m 168 The se ja rs a p p e a r in va rio us size s a nd p ro p o rtio ns b ut a ll o f the m ha ve fo ur a p p lie d stra p ha nd le s a ro und the sho uld e r, a nd a fla t b a se o r fla t rud im e nta ry fo o t. The y w e re o rig ina lly g la ze d fro m insid e the m o uth to the lo w e r w a lls, usua lly in g re e nishb ro w n g la ze . The c la y is m e d ium g ra y, so m e tim e s he a vily p o tte d a nd so m e tim e s lig hte r in w e ig ht. Ma ny e xa m p le s sho w a c irc ula r sta c king sc a r o n the b a se . The la rg e st size so m e tim e s ha s a sing le inc ise d w a vy line a ro und its m id se c tio n, a nd a se rie s o f c a rve d ring s a t the ne c k. O c c a sio na lly the re is a C hine se m a rk w ithin a ve rtic a l re c ta ng ula r b o rd e r sta m p e d a t p la c e s a ro und the up p e r sho uld e r (se e fo llo w ing p a g e ). Exa m p le s: 80, so m e w ith m ino r d a m a g e He ig ht: 12 - 37 c m 169 Gong Zi Hao ฀trademark of Gong ฀stamped on a storage jar Chuan Xing ฀ name or trademark ฀ stamped on a storage jar Bing Sheng ฀ a cyclical date/60 year cycle ฀ stamped on storage jar Bing Zi Nian ฀ a cyclical date/60-year cycle ฀ stamped on storage jar shard Chang Zi Hao ฀trademark of Chang — stamped on storage Zi Shou ฀ a surname — stamped on storage jar Zi Hao ฀trademark of...— stamped on storage jar 170 COVER With a slig htly d o me d c e nte r surm o unte d b y a ha nd le in the fo rm o f a strip o f c urle d c la y, a w id e c o ve r rim , a nd a ve rtic a l fla ng e b e lo w w hic h w o uld fit w ithin the m o uth o f a ve sse l. Exa m p le s: 2 Dia m e te r: 6-7 c m EWERS Bulb o us, w ith a w id e ne c k a nd e ve rte d ro und e d m o uthrim . A stra p ha nd le is a p p lie d to o ne sho uld e r a nd a c urve d sp o ut a t the o p p o site sid e . A sing le w a vy line a t the up p e r b o d y is sim ila r to o ne s se e n o n so m e o f the fo ur-stra p ha nd le d ja rs. Ro ug hly p o tte d a nd o rig ina lly g la ze d to the lo w e r e xte rio r w a lls. Exa m p le : 1 d a m a g e d He ig ht: 15.6 c m La rg e a nd intric a te ly m o d e le d w ith a n unid e ntifia b le a nim a l a t the sp o ut, p o ssib ly w ith a lo ng sno ut a nd the ho rns o f a ra m , a nd w ith a w id e sturd y stra p ha nd le a t the o p p o site sho uld e r. The w id e fla re d ne c k a nd ring e d e ve rte d m o uthrim w e re m a d e se p a ra te ly a nd lute d to the m a in b o d y. C o ve re d in runny b ro w n g la ze . Exa m p le : 1, a fra g m e nt He ig ht: 15.5 c m 171 11.9 Indian-Style Earthenware All the ve sse ls o f this unusua l w a re a re e la b o ra te ly m o d e le d . The ir style sug g e sts a so uthe rn Tha i o rig in. This is stro ng ly sup p o rte d b y c o m p a ra tive X-ra y flo re sc e nt a na lysis (se e Se c tio n 9.8). The y w e re p ro b a b ly use d in Hind u-Bud d hist ritua ls, fo r sim ila r sha p e s a re so m e tim e s se e n in re lig io us sc ulp ture s a nd b a s-re lie fs. So m e o f the m , like the w id e -b o d ie d ke nd i, m a y a lso ha ve b e e n e m p lo ye d in the b re w ing o f m e d ic ine s a nd m e d ic ina l te a s. Ea c h o f the p ie c e s is uniq ue in its e xa c t p ro p o rtio ns, a n ind ic a tio n tha t e a c h w a s m a d e ind ivid ua lly. So m e a re kund ika , a n a nc ie nt Ind ia n sha p e tha t w a s c o p ie d into so m e C hine se w a re s d uring the e a rly Ta ng d yna sty (A.D. 618-906). The kund ika sha p e is b e lie ve d to p re c e d e the ke nd i, w hic h p ro b a b ly e vo lve d in So uthe a st Asia , m o st like ly in Ind o ne sia , the d e stina tio n o f this c a rg o . The o rig ina l surfa c e o f the se ve sse ls a p p e a rs to ha ve b e e n b urnishe d to a b ro w nish-re d , tra c e s o f w hic h re m a in. No w the y ha ve a m o stly b a re surfa c e a nd a re c o lo re d o ra ng e -b ro w n; re c e nt b re a ks in sm a lle r e xa m p le s sho w a slig htly ye llo w ish ivo ry-c o lo re d c la y, slig htly p o ro us, w ith a fe e l so m e thing like fre sh-c a rve d ivo ry. Whe re the c la y is m o re thic k, b re a ks sho w a b la c k c o re in p ro file . The c la y m a y ha ve o rig ina lly b e e n g ra y. Alto g e the r the re a re a b o ut 360 e xa m p le s o f va rio us ke nd i a nd kund ika , a ll o f the m w ith so m e d a m a g e . KUNDIKA This b a sic sha p e fe a ture s a n o va l, so m e tim e s e g g -sha p e d b o d y se t o n a fla re d fla t fo o t. So m e tim e s the re is a c a rve d b a nd a t the lo w e r b o d y tha t a p p e a rs to sim ula te a n o rig ina l p o t se t o nto a sta nd . A stra ig ht c o nic a l sp o ut is se t, p o inting d ra m a tic a lly up w a rd , a t the up p e r sho uld e r. The ta ll ne c k, w he re o ne w o uld g ra sp the ve sse l, is o rna m e nte d w ith ho rizo nta l b a nd s, b ulg e s a nd fla ng e s. He ig ht: 12-17 c m 172 O ne kund ika ha s a m o re a ng ula r b o d y a nd c ylind ric a l sha p e , w ith tra c e s o f fa intly inc ise d (p o ssib ly m ystic ) d e sig ns a ro und the lo w e r w a lls. KENDI Wid e -b o d ie d , w ith a w id e stra ig ht ne c k a nd e ve rte d fla ng e d m o uthrim ; d e c o ra te d w ith c a rve d ring s a nd w ith stria tio ns a ro und the m a in b o d y. The sp o ut is sho rt a nd b ulb o us w ith a fla ng e a t its tip . The fo o t is fla t. He ig ht: sm a ll 11 c m la rg e 14 c m 173 Wid e -b o d ie d , w ith a w id e stra ig ht ne c k, a n e ve rte d fla ng e d m o uthrim , a lo ng b ulb o us sp o ut w ith a fla ng e a t its tip a nd a fla t fo o t. This typ e is und e c o ra te d e xc e p t fo r a sm a ll fla ng e a t the lo w e r ne c k. He ig ht: 15 c m G o urd -sha p e d , w ith a w id e fla re d fo o t, a fla ng e a nd m ultip le b a nd s a t the m id -se c tio n, a nd a b ulb o us sp o ut se t into the up p e r se c tio n. Exa m p le s: 10 d a m a g e d He ig ht: a ve ra g e 16 c m 174 To ro id sha p e , w ith a sp o ut a t the up p e r sho uld e r o f the tub ula r ring tha t fo rm s the b o d y, a nd a n a tta c he d fo o t. Exa m p le s: 13 d a m a g e d He ig ht: a p p ro xim a te ly 25 c m Ke nd i Ma ling o r “ Thie ve s’ ke nd i” in Ind o ne sia n. The b o d y is sq ua t, w ith a w id e b a nd e d ne c k, a nd the c o ve r is to ta lly se a le d . A funne l le a d s into the inte rio r o f the ve sse l fro m the fla t b a se . This is a tra d itio na l sha p e in Ind o ne sia , w he re it is still m a d e to d a y (Ad hya tm a n, 1987, No . 141142). Exa m p le : 1 inta c t, 2 d a m a g e d He ig ht: 12.7 c m 175 HOOKAH This sha p e ha s a n o vo id b o d y, fla re d fo o t a nd fla t b a se . It re se m b le s a n Ind ia n o r Mid d le Ea ste rn ve sse l use d fo r sm o king . The sho uld e r is surm o unte d b y a lo ng ne c k w ith b ulb o us se c tio ns a nd fla ng e s tha t se e m to te rm ina te in a sm a ll na rro w m o uth (its tip b ro ke n). The sp o ut-like a p p e nd a g e is sha rp ly c urve d up w a rd . If this w e re in fa c t a sm o king d e vic e , the sm o ke d sub sta nc e w o uld sit (p ro b a b ly to g e the r w ith a b it o f c ha rc o a l to p ro vid e he a t) w ithin the to p o f the sp o ut a nd the sm o ke w o uld b e d ra w n thro ug h the w a te r-fille d b o d y up into the m o uth tip . Exa m p le s: 1 inta c t, 3 fra g m e nts He ig ht: 28 c m BOTTLE With a w id e , fla re d fla t fo o t, ho llo w o n its insid e ; a nd m ultip le c a rve d b a nd s a nd fla ng e s b e tw e e n tw o b ulb o us b o d y se c tio ns a nd a t the ta ll w id e ne c k. Exa m p le : 1 He ig ht to b ro ke n ne c k: 19.6 c m 176 RICE POT Wid e a nd sq ua t, w ith a ro und e d b a se , a nd ta ll w id e ne c k w ith a w id e -fla ng e d e ve rte d m o uthrim , d e c o ra te d w ith c a rve d ring s, a ng ula r b a nd s a t the ne c k a nd stria tio ns d o w n the w a lls o f the m id -se c tio n. Exa m p le s: 10 Dia m e te r: 20 c m COVERS Pro b a b ly fo r a ric e c o o king p o t. It is he a vily p o tte d a nd w ith a c irc ula r ve rtic a l fla ng e a s a ha nd le , c urve d o n its und e rsid e , a nd o ne c e ntim e te r thic k. Exa m p le : 1 Dia m e te r: 12.5 c m Wid e a nd ta ll in a ro ug hly g o urd sha p e , w ith b o th a ng ula r a nd b ulb o us tie rs rising up w a rd to a lo tus-b ud -sha p e d , kno b -like ha nd le ; the inte rio r is ho llo w . Exa m p le : 1 He ig ht: 13 c m (b ro ke n a t the m o uth se c tio n) 177 UINIDENTIFIED Pro b a b ly fo r re lig io us ritua l use , p e rha p s a sta nd up o n w hic h a no the r ve sse l w a s se t. The ho llo w w ithin the w id e , ta ll fla re d fo o tring e xte nd s up w a rd to the w id e m o uth at the up p e r c ylind ric a l p o rtio n, w ith a b o w l-like se c tio n surro und ing the c e nte r c o lum n. Exa m p le : 1 He ig ht: 13 c m 11.10 Miscellaneous Ceramics Ta b le o r sta nd , p ro b a b ly m a d e fro m a he a vy, no w g ritty e a rthe nw a re c la y (o r p o ssib ly c a rve d fro m a sto ne suc h a s sa nd sto ne ). C irc ula r, w ith thre e so lid le g s (o ne m issing ). C a rve d o n the und e rsid e w ith a n unid e ntifia b le a nim a l (p e rha p s a lio n) in a c e nte r m e d a llio n e nc irc le d w ith tw o b a nd s o f sa w to o th d e sig n se p a ra te d b y a no the r b a nd w ith lo tus p a ne ls. The c e ntra l p o rtio n o f the up p e r sid e is p la in a nd fla t, w ith c a rve d b o rd e rs a ro und its c irc um fe re nc e . Exa m p le : 1 Dia m e te r: 31.5 (in fra g m e nts, w ith o ne p o rtio n m issing ) 178 179 OIL LAMP O il la m p , thic kly p o tte d a nd p inc he d o utw a rd a t o ne sid e , w ith a fla re d fo o t. Sim ila r w a re is kno w n fro m Ma ja p a hit-Ja va (Miksic & So e ka tno , 1995). The find o f a sing le e xa m p le im p lie s this w a s use d o nb o a rd the ship a nd w a s no t a n ite m o f tra d e . Sa nd y d a rk g re y c la y. Exa m p le s: 1 Dia m e te r: 8 c m RICE MEASURE The inte rio r is g la ze d b ro w n w ith no g la ze o n the e xte rio r. De c o ra te d w ith a c a rve d fing e rp rint-like d e sig n a nd a p p liq ué d o ts a ro und the ne c k. It c o p ie s a n a rc ha ic C hine se sha p e . Exa m p le s: 1 He ig ht: 5 cm 180 DISK Lo w -fire d a nd m a d e fro m c la y p re sse d into a m o ld . It d e p ic ts fo ur w o m e n, e a c h w ith a b a ske t in the le ft ha nd a nd stic k in the rig ht, w a lking o ve r a b rid g e . Exa m p le : 1 Dia m e te r: 9 c m 181 12.0 CONCLUSION The na ture o f the C hine se c e ra m ic s c a rg o , a nd ra d io c a rb o n d a ting o f a re sin sa m p le , sug g e st tha t the Ja va Se a w re c k sho uld b e d a te d to a p p ro xim a te ly the m id d le o f the 13th c e ntury. Altho ug h o the r w re c ks o f a p p ro xim a te ly the sa m e a g e a re kno w n in Ind o ne sia n w a te rs, no d a ta o n the p re c ise lo c a tio n, c o m p o sitio n o f c a rg o , o r na ture o f struc tura l re m a ins ha s e ve r b e e n p ub lishe d . The lo c a tio n o f the ship , in the Ja va Se a , ha lf w a y b e tw e e n Ba ng ka a nd Ja ka rta , is the first a rc ha e o lo g ic a l e vid e nc e fo r the use o f w ha t is no w a b usy m o d e rn ship p ing la ne . Fro m the p o sitio n a lo ne , the ship m a y ha ve p a sse d thro ug h e ithe r Ba ng ka o r G a sp a r Stra it. But g ive n the na ture o f p a rt o f the c a rg o , it is m o st p ro b a b le tha t Ba ng ka Stra it w a s use d . The a rra y o f a rtifa c ts, re p re se nting no n-c e ra m ic s tra d e g o o d s, c o nstitute s the first re lia b le info rm a tio n o n p re -Euro p e a n tra d e in Ind o ne sia . O nly w ith suc h info rm a tio n, a nd m o re like it, is it p o ssib le to e va lua te the re la tive im p o rta nc e o f m a ritim e tra d e in the e c o no m ie s o f Ind o ne sia a nd he r tra d ing p a rtne rs d uring this e a rly p e rio d . At p re se nt, sc ho la rs a re una b le to d ra w p re c ise c o nc lusio ns o n the c o ntrib utio n o f fo re ig n tra d e to the a nc ie nt Ind o ne sia n e c o no m y, in c o m p a riso n to a g ric ulture a nd c o tta g e ind ustry. G ive n the c o m p le te a b se nc e o f c o he sive hull struc ture , it is im p o ssib le to e sta b lish the o rig in o f the ship firm ly. Ho w e ve r, w o o d id e ntific a tio n, inte rna l la yo ut (a s d e te rm ine d fro m the iro n c o nc re tio n d isp o sitio n), fa ste ning d e ta ils, a nd a nc ho r typ e , p ro vid e suffic ie nt info rm a tio n to c o nc lud e tha t the ship w a s no t c o nstruc te d in C hina . Whe the r the ship w a s b uilt in Tha ila nd o r Ind o ne sia re m a ins o p e n to c o nje c ture . The e xiste nc e o f b ulkhe a d s tip s the sc a le s in fa vo r o f Tha ila nd , w hilst the p re se nc e o f Ja va ne se -typ e b ro nze a rtifa c ts m ig ht ind ic a te a n Ind o ne sia n o rig in. The w re c k c o nta ins a w id e va rie ty o f c e ra m ic s, a s w e ll a s o the r c o m m e rc ia l c o m m o d itie s inc lud ing iro n, ivo ry, re sin, g la ss a nd b ro nze w a re . Mo st o f the c e ra m ic s w e re m a nufa c ture d in C hina (m a inly Fujia n). The iro n c a uld ro ns a nd b a rs tha t m a d e up the b ulk o f the c a rg o w e re p ro d uc e d in C hina . The e a rthe nw a re ke nd is a re p ro b a b ly fro m so uthe rn Tha ila nd . Re sin a nd ivo ry a re like ly to ha ve b e e n o b ta ine d fro m Sum a tra . G la ss is m a inly fro m C hina . The b ro nze w a re is typ ic a l o f Ma ja p a hit a nd p re -Ma ja p a hit c ra ftsm a nship , a nd m a y ha ve b e lo ng e d to the Ind o ne sia n c re w , o r re m a ine d o n b o a rd fro m a p re vio us trip to Ja va . This ra ng e o f a rtifa c ts fro m va rio us p o rts is c o nsiste nt w ith the o rie s re g a rd ing the "p e d d ling na ture " o f so m e So uthe a st Asia n c o m m e rc e d uring this p e rio d , so m e w ha t re m inisc e nt o f a n e a rly tw e ntie th-c e ntury tra m p ste a m e r. Tra d e in iro n is m e ntio ne d in se ve ra l a nc ie nt te xts, b ut until no w , the re ha ve b e e n no d o c um e nte d a rc ha e o lo g ic a l site s to c o nfirm just ho w im p o rta nt the C hine se iro n tra d e w a s. We c a n no w b e g in to jud g e the re la tive im p o rta nc e o f iro n in the tw o -w a y tra d e a nd the p re c ise fo rm s o f the a rtifa c ts invo lve d . The va st m a jo rity o f the ship 's c e ra m ic s c a rg o w a s fro m C hina . Inte re sting ly, no ne o f the m a ny va rie tie s o f c e ra m ic s se e m s to ha ve c o m e fro m Lo ng q ua n, o ne o f the m o re p ro d uc tive kilns o f this p e rio d . Ma ny o f the fo rm s (the q ing b a i e w e rs, c o nic a l b o w ls, c o ve re d b o xe s, a nd va se s), a re w e ll kno w n to stud e nts o f C hine se c e ra m ic s o f this p e rio d . So m e va rie tie s, ho w e ve r, suc h a s the q ing b a i d ishe s w ith he a vily m o ld e d b o d ie s, a re q uite unusua l. The hig h fre q ue nc y o f b o xe s w ith insc rip tio ns o n the b a se s a re a no the r p a rtic ula rly inte re sting find , sinc e ve sse ls o f this typ e a re no t c o m m o n in So uthe a st Asia , a ltho ug h the y ha ve b e e n stud ie d in C hina . The g re e n p o rc e la in se e m s to b e lo ng to w e ll-kno w n typ e s fro m Fujia n, p rinc ip a lly the To ng a n kiln c o m p le x. 182 The la rg e r sto ra g e ja rs a re a lso in g e ne ra l fro m kno w n typ e s, b ut the hig h fre q ue nc y o f ja rs w ith sta m p e d c ha ra c te rs o n the sho uld e rs is unusua l. The e la b o ra te e w e rs, b o xe s, a nd b o w ls w ith w hite flo ra l m o tifs o n a b a c kg ro und o f b ro w n g la ze a re ve ry ra re . In g e ne ra l the ir c la y a nd d e c o ra tive m o tifs a re sim ila r to tho se a sso c ia te d w ith the C izho u kiln c o m p le x, b ut e xa m p le s in w hic h b ro w n flo ra l d e c o ra tio ns w e re p la c e d o ve r a w hite b a c kg ro und a re tho ug ht to b e unkno w n. The re ve rse p ro c e ss, w ith the p o ssib le a d d itio n o f g re e n o ve rg la ze , in c o m p le x d e c o ra tive c o m p o sitio ns, is a m o st surp rising a nd intrig uing d isc o ve ry w hic h w ill e xc ite the a tte ntio n o f c e ra m ic c o nno isse urs. The la rg e num b e rs o f ke nd is fro m so uthe rn Tha ila nd a re the first ind ic a tio n tha t e a rthe nw a re w a s tra d e d b e tw e e n So uthe a st Asia n c o untrie s, a n ite m c o m p le te ly a b se nt fro m a ny surviving d o c um e nta ry re c o rd s. The re a re se ve ra l unp re c e d e nte d sha p e s. The to ro id ke nd is, in p a rtic ula r, w e re p re vio usly o nly kno w n fro m C hine se ve rsio ns m a d e d uring the Ming p e rio d . In sum m a ry, the a rc ha e o lo g ic a l re sults o f this p ro je c t ha ve yie ld e d c o nsid e ra b le d a ta , b o th q ua lita tive a nd q ua ntita tive , w hic h w ill a d d to the kno w le d g e o f m a ny a sp e c ts o f e a rly tra d e b e tw e e n C hina a nd Ind o ne sia , a nd , e q ua lly im p o rta nt, the intra -So uthe a st Asia n tra d e . This sig nific a nt to p ic ha s re c e ive d little a tte ntio n c o m p a re d to tra d e b e tw e e n So uthe a st Asia a nd o the r re g io ns. It is ho p e d tha t the d isc o ve rie s m a d e o n this site w ill stim ula te a re c o nsid e ra tio n o f this fie ld o f stud y. 183 184 BIBLIOGRAPHY SECTION 2.0 by Dr. John Miksic An Jia ya o , G la ss tra d e in So uthe a st Asia , in Anc ie nt Tra d e s a nd C ultura l C o nta c ts in So uthe a st Asia . Ba ng ko k, O ffic e o f the Na tio na l C ulture C o m m issio n, 1996, p p .127-138. Ara sa ra tna m , V.S., Me rc ha nts o f C o ro m a nd e l in Tra d e a nd Entre p re ne urship c irc a 1650-1700, in Em p o ria , C o m m o d itie s a nd Entre p re ne urs in Asia n Ma ritim e Tra d e , C . 1400-1750, e d ite d b y Ro d e ric h Pta k a nd Die tm a r Ro the rm und , Stuttg a rt, Fra nz Ste ine r Ve rla g , 1991. C ha ng Pin-tsun , C hine se Ma ritim e Tra d e : the c a se o f 16th-c e ntury Fu-c hie n (Fukie n) , Ph.D. The sis, Princ e to n Unive rsity, Ea st Asia n Stud ie s, 1983. C h'e n, J., Sung Bro nze s - a n Ec o no m ic Ana lysis, BSO AS 28/ 3, 1965: 613-626. C hristie , J.W., Tra d e a nd se ttle m e nt in e a rly Ja va : inte g ra ting the e p ig ra p hic a nd a rc ha e o lo g ic a l d a ta , in I. G lo ve r, P. Suc hitta , a nd J. Ville rs, e d s., Ea rly Me ta llurg y, Tra d e a nd Urb a n C e ntre s in Tha ila nd a nd So uthe a st Asia , Ba ng ko k, White Lo tus, 1992, p p . 181-197. C hristie , J.W., O n Po -ni: the Sa ntub o ng site s o f Sa ra wa k, Sa ra w a k Muse um Jo urna l 34, 1985: p p . 77-89. C ra w furd , J., De sc rip tive Dic tio na ry o f the Ma la y Arc hip e la g o , 1856. Fe rra nd , G ., L'Em p ire Sum a tra na is d e Srivija ya , Jo urna l Asia tiq ue 20, 1992, p p . 1-104. Ha rrisso n, T., O 'C o nno r, S.J., Exc a va tio ns o f the Pre histo ric Iro n Ind ustry in We st Bo rne o , Itha c a , C o rne ll Unive rsity, So uthe a st Asia Pro g ra m , Da ta Pa p e r Num b e r 72, 1969, tw o Vo lum e s. Ho C huim e i, The Sig nific a nc e o f We st Asia n C e ra m ic s in Ea st a nd So uthe a st Asia in the 9th -10th C e ntury , Tra d e C e ra m ic Stud ie s No . 14, 1994, p p .35-59. Ke nd e rd ine , Sa ra h, Ba i Jia o I-the e xc a va tio n o f a So ng Dyna sty ship wre c k in the Ding ha i a re a , Fujia n Pro vinc e , C hina , 1995, Inte rna tio na l Jo urna l o f Na utic a l Arc ha e o lo g y 24,4, 1995, p p . 247266. Kw e e Hui Kia n, Da o Yi Zhi Lue a s a Ma ritim e Tra d e rs' G uid e b o o k, HT, 1996-97. Li Hui-Lin (e d .) Na n-fa ng Ts'a o -m u C hua ng , A Fo urth C e ntury Flo ra o f So uth-Ea st Asia , Ho ng Ko ng , C hine se Unive rsity Pre ss, 1979. Ma Jun-c ha o , La w re nc e , C o m m e rc e De ve lo p m e nt a nd Urb a n C ha ng e in Sung C hina , Ann Arb o r, Ph.D. The sis, Unive rsity o f Mic hig a n, 1971. Ma ng uin, Pie rre -Yve s, Tra d ing ship s o f the So uth C hina Se a : Ship b uild ing te c hniq ue s a nd the ir ro le in the histo ry o f the d e ve lo p m e nt o f Asia n tra d e ne two rks, Jo urna l o f the Ec o no m ic a nd So c ia l Histo ry o f the O rie nt 36, 1993, p p . 253-280. Ne e d ha m , J., The De ve lo p m e nt o f Iro n a nd Ste e l Te c hno lo g y in C hina , Lo nd o n, 1958. 185 Pta k, R., C hina a nd the tra d e in to rto ise -she ll (Sung to Ming p e rio d s) , in Em p o ria , C o m m o d itie s a nd Entre p re ne urs in Asia n Ma ritim e Tra d e , C . 1400-1750. Ed ite d b y Ro d e ric h Pta k a nd Die tm a r Ro the rm und , Stuttg a rt, Fra nz Ste ine r Ve rla g , 1991. Re id , A., Flo ws a nd se e p a g e s in the lo ng -te rm C hine se inte ra c tio n with So uthe a st Asia , in So jo urne rs a nd Se ttle rs: Histo rie s o f So uthe a st Asia a nd the C hine se , e d ite d b y Antho ny Re id , St Le o na rd s, Alle n a nd Unw in, 1996, p p . 15-49. Ro c khill, W.W., No te s o n the re la tio ns a nd tra d e o f C hina with the Ea ste rn Arc hip e la g o a nd the c o a st o f the Ind ia n O c e a n d uring the fo urte e nth c e ntury , To ung Pa o 15:, p t. 1, p p . 419-447; p t. 2, p p . 61-159, 236-271, 374-392, 435-467, 604-626, 1914. Tre lo a r, F.E., C he m ic a l a na lysis o f so m e m e ta l o b je c ts fro m C ha nd i Bukit Ba tu Pa ha t, Ke d a h: sug g e ste d o rig in a nd d a te , JMBRAS 41, 1968, p p . 193-198. Wa ng G ung w u, The Na nha i tra d e . A Stud y o f the Ea rly Histo ry o f C hine se Tra d e in the So uth C hina Se a , Jo urna l o f the Ma la ya n Bra nc h o f the Ro ya l Asia tic So c ie ty 31,2, 1958, p p .1-135. Whe a tle y, P., G e o g ra p hic a l No te s o n so m e C o m m o d itie s invo lve d in Sung Ma ritim e Tra d e , Jo urna l o f the Ma la ya n Bra nc h o f the Ro ya l Asia tic So c ie ty 32,2, 1959 p p . 1-140. Wic ks, Ro b e rt S., Mo ne y, Ma rke ts, a nd Tra d e in Ea rly So uthe a st Asia . The d e ve lo p m e nt o f ind ig e no us m o ne ta ry syste m s to AD 1400. Wic ks, R.S., Anc ie nt c o ina g e o f m a inla nd So uthe a st Asia , JSEAS, 1985. Wo ng , G ra c e , A c o m m e nt o n the trib uta ry tra d e b e twe e n C hina a nd So uthe a st Asia , So uthe a st Asia n C e ra m ic s So c ie ty, Tra nsa c tio n No . 7, 1979. Wo ng , G ra c e , C hine se b lue -a nd -white p o rc e la in a nd its p la c e in the m a ritim e tra d e o f C hina , in C hine se Blue a nd White C e ra m ic s, 1978. SECTIONS 6.0 & 7.0 by Michael Flecker Bla ke , W., Fle c ke r, M,. A Pre lim ina ry Surve y o f a So uthe a st Asia n Wre c k, Phu Q uo c Isla nd , Vie tna m , Inte rna tio na l Jo urna l o f Na utic a l Arc ha e o lo g y, Vo l 23(2), 1994. Fle c ke r, M., Exc a va tio n o f a n O rie nta l Wre c k o f c . 1690 o ff C o n Da o , Vie tna m , Inte rna tio na l Jo urna l o f Na utic a l Arc ha e o lo g y, Vo l 21(3), 1992. G o d d io , F., Disc o ve ry a nd Arc ha e o lo g ic a l Exc a va tio n o f a 16th C e ntury Tra d ing Ve sse l in the Philip p ine s, Wo rld Wid e First, 1988. G re e n, J., The Shina n Exc a va tio n, Ko re a : a n Inte rim Re p o rt o n the Hull Struc ture , Inte rna tio na l Jo urna l o f Na utic a l Arc ha e o lo g y, Vo l 12(4), 1983. G re e n, J., The So ng Dyna sty Ship wre c k a t Q ha nzo u, Fujia n Pro vinc e , Pe o p le s Re p ub lic o f C hina , Inte rna tio na l Jo urna l o f Na utic a l Arc ha e o lo g y, Vo l 12(3), 1983. 186 G re e n, J., Ha rp e r, R., The Exc a va tio n o f the Pa tta ya Wre c k Site a nd Surve y o f Thre e O the r Wre c k Site s in Tha ila nd , 1982, Austra lia n Institute o f Ma rine Arc ha e o lo g y, Sp e c ia l Pub lic a tio n No . 1, 1983. G re e n, J. e t a l, The Ma ritim e Arc ha e o lo g y o f Ship wre c ks a nd C e ra m ic s o f So uthe a st Asia , Austra lia n Institute o f Ma rine Arc ha e o lo g y, Sp e c ia l Pub lic a tio n No . 4, 1987. G uy, J., O rie nta l Tra d e C e ra m ic s in So uthe a st Asia , 9th to 16th C e ntury , O xfo rd Unive rsity Pre ss, 1990. Ho ffm a n, P. e t a l, The 14th C e ntury Shina n Ship - Pro g re ss in C o nse rva tio n , Inte rna tio na l Jo urna l o f Na utic a l Arc ha e o lo g y, Vo l 20(1), 1991. Ho rrid g e , A., The Pra hu - Tra d itio na l Sa iling Bo a t o f Ind o ne sia , O xfo rd Unive rsity Pre ss, 1985. Ho rrid g e , A., The La sh-Lug Bo a t o f the Ea ste rn Arc hip e la g o e s, Ma ritim e Mo no g ra p hs a nd Re p o rts, No . 54, Na tio na l Ma ritim e Muse um , G re e nw ic h, 1982. Ho rrid g e , A., The De sig n o f Pla nke d Bo a ts in the Mo luc c a s, Ma ritim e Mo no g ra p hs a nd Re p o rts, No . 38, Na tio na l Ma ritim e Muse um , G re e nw ic h, 1978. Ke ith, D.H., Buys, C .J., Ne w Lig ht o n Me d ie va l C hine se Se a g o ing Ship C o nstruc tio n , Inte rna tio na l Jo urna l o f Na utic a l Arc ha e o lo g y, Vo l 10(2), 1981. Ke nd e rd ine , S., Ba i Jia o 1 - The Exc a va tio n o f a So ng Dyna sty Ship wre c k in the Ding ha i Are a , Fujia n Pro vinc e , C hina , 1995, Inte rna tio na l Jo urna l o f Na utic a l Arc ha e o lo g y, Vo l 24(4), 1995. Li, G .Q ., Arc ha e o lo g ic a l Evid e nc e fo r the use o f C hu-na m o n 13th C Q ua ng zho u Ship , Fujia n Pro vinc e , C hina , Inte rna tio na l Jo urna l o f Na utic a l Arc ha e o lo g y, Vo l 18(4), 1989. Ma ng uin, P-Y., The So uthe a st Asia n Tra d ing Ship : a n Histo ric a l Ap p ro a c h , Jo urna l o f So uthe a st Asia n Stud ie s, Vo l 11(2), Sing a p o re Unive rsity Pre ss, 1980. Miksic , J.N., Se o ka tno , (Ed ), The Le g a c y o f Ma ja p a hit, Na tio na l He rita g e Bo a rd , Sing a p o re , 1995. Miksic , J.N. e t a l, X-Ra y Flo re sc e nc e Ana lysis o f G la ss fro m Fo rt C a nning , Sing a p o re , Bule tin d e l’ Ec o le Fra nc a is d ’ Extre m e -O rie nt, Vo l 83, 1996. Ne e d ha m , J., Sc ie nc e a nd C iviliza tio n in C hina , Vo l 4(3), 1971. Sha ffe r, L.N., Ma ritim e So uthe a st Asia to 1500, M.E. Sha rp e , Ne w Yo rk, 1996. Va n Tilb urg , H., C hine se Ma ritim e Histo ry a nd Na utic a l Arc ha e o lo g y: Whe re ha ve a ll the Ship s G o ne ? , The Bulle tin o f the Austra lia n Institute o f Ma ritim e Arc ha e o lo g y, Vo l 18(2), 1994. Wa ng G ung -Wu, The Na nha i Tra d e , a Surve y o f the Ea rly Histo ry o f C hine se Tra d e in the So uth C hina Se a , Jo urna l o f the Ma la ya n Bra nc h o f the Ro ya l Asia tic So c ie ty, Vo l 31(2), 1958. Wa te rs, D.W., C hine se Junks: the Antung Tra d e r, Ma rine r’ s Mirro r, Vo l 24, 1938. Wa te rs, D.W., C hine se Junks: the Pe c hili Tra d e r, Ma rine r’ s Mirro r, Vo l 25. 1939. 187 Wo ng , G ., A C o m m e nt o n the Trib uta ry Tra d e Be twe e n C hina a nd So uthe a st Asia , So uthe a st Asia n C e ra m ic So c ie ty, Tra nsa c tio n No . 7, 1979. Wo rc e ste r, G .R.G ., Junks a nd Sa m p a ns o f the Ya ng tze , Vo ls I & II, 1947. Wo rc e ste r, G .R.G . Sa il a nd Swe e p in C hina , Sc ie nc e Muse um , Lo nd o n, 1966. Zim , H., Sha ffe r, P., Ro c ks a nd Mine ra ls, G o ld e n Pre ss, Ne w Yo rk, 1957. SECTION 8.0 by Dr. Bennet Bronson Ab e nd a no n, E. C . , Mid d e n-C e le b e s Exp e d itie : G e o lo g isc he e n G e o g ra p hisc he Do o rkruising e n va n Mid d e n-C e le b e s (1909-10) , Le id e n, Vo l 4, 1917. Be m m e le n, R. W. va n, The G e o lo g y o f Ind o ne sia , The Ha g ue , Vo l 2, 1949. Bro nso n, B., No te s o n the Histo ry o f Iro n in Tha ila nd , Jo urna l o f the Sia m So c ie ty 73, p p . 205-225, 1985. Bro nso n, B., The Histo ry a nd Ma king o f Wo o tz, A C ruc ib le Ste e l o f Ind ia . Arc he o m a te ria ls 1, p p . 13-51, 1986. Buc ha na n, F., A Jo urne y fro m Ma d ra s thro ug h the C o untrie s o f Myso re , C a na ra a nd Ma la b a r, 3 vo ls. Lo nd o n, 1807. C ha kra b a rti, D.K., The Ea rly Use o f Iro n in Ind ia , De lhi, 1992. C o rte sã o , A., (tra ns. a nd e d .) The Sum a O rie nta l o f To m é Pire s, Lo nd o n, 1944. Da g hre g iste r 1887-1931 Da g h-Re g iste r g e ho ud e n in 't C a ste e l Ba ta via , 1628-1682, 41 vo ls, va rio us e d ito rs. The Ha g ue a nd Ba ta via , 1887-1931. Hum m e l, C . L. a nd Pra c hua b Pha w o nd o n, G e o lo g y a nd Mine ra l De p o sits o f the Phuke t Mining Distric t, So uth Tha ila nd , Re p o rt o f Inve stig a tio n no . 5, De p a rtm e nt o f Mine ra l Re so urc e s, DMR-5, Ba ng ko k, 1967. DMR Ma p s, Mine ra l Re so urc e s o f Tha ila nd (1:2,500,000 Ma p Se rie s). De p a rtm e nt o f Mine ra l Re so urc e s, Ba ng ko k, 1975. G ro ne m a n, J., De r Kris d e r Ja va ne r, Inte rna tio na le s Arc hiv für Ethno g ra p hie 19: p p . 90-109, 123-161, 178-211, 1910. He nd riks, A., Le ts o ve r d e Wa p e nfa b rika tie o p Bo rne o , Ve rha nd e ling e n va n he t Ba ta via a sc h G e no o tsc ha p 18, 2: 1-30, 1842. Hirth, F. a nd Ro c khill, W.W., (tra ns. a nd e d .), C ha u Ju-Kua ’ s C hu-Fa n-C hi, “ A De sc rip tio n o f Ba rb a ro us Pe o p le s” . St. Pe te rsb urg , 1911. Ho , C huim e i, Minna n Blue a nd White , An Arc ha e o lo g ic a l Surve y o f Anc ie nt Kiln Site s in So uth Fujia n , 230 p p . British Arc ha e o lo g ic a l Re se a rc h, Inte rna tio na l Se rie s, vo l. 428. O xfo rd , 1988. 188 Kruyt, A.C ., He t Ijze r in Mid d e n-C e le b e s, Bijd ra g e n vo o r Ta a l-, La nd - e n Vo lke nkund e 53: 150, 1901. MRDS-39, Mine ra l Re so urc e s o f the Lo we r Me ko ng a nd Ad ja c e nt Are a s o f Khm e r Re p ub lic , La o s, Tha ila nd a nd Re p ub lic o f Vie t-Na m , Mine ra l Re so urc e s De ve lo p m e nt Se rie s, No . 39, Unite d Na tio ns, 1972. Ma rsc ha ll, W., Me ta llurg ie und Frühe Be se id lung sg e sc hic hte Ind o ne sie ns, Ethno lo g ic a 4: 29-263, 1968. Mo ura , J., Le ro ya um e d u C a m b o d g e , Vo l. 1. Pa ris, 1883. Ra ffle s, T.S., The Histo ry o f Ja va , Vo l 2. Lo nd o n, 1830. Re id , A., So uthe a st Asia in the Ag e o f C o m m e rc e , Vo l 1: The La nd s b e lo w the Wind s. Ne w Ha ve n, 1988. Ro sto ke r, W. a nd Bro nso n, B., Pre -Ind ustria l Iro n, Its Te c hno lo g y a nd Ethno lo g y, Arc he o m a te ria ls Mo no g ra p h No . I, Phila d e lp hia , 1990. Surve y, Surve y o f Wo rld Iro n Re so urc e s, De p a rtm e nt o f Ec o no m ic a nd So c ia l Affa irs, Unite d Na tio ns, 1970. Te g e ng re n, F. R., The Iro n O re s a nd Iro n Ind ustry o f C hina , Me m o irs, G e o lo g ic a l Surve y o f C hina , Se r. A, No . 2. Pe king , 1923-4. Va le ntyn, F., O ud e n Nie uw O o o st-Ind ie n , Do rd re c ht a nd Am ste rd a m , 1726. Wa g ne r, D.B., The Ea rlie st Use o f Iro n in C hina . To b e p ub lishe d in Pa ul T. C ra d d o c k a nd J. La ng e d s., Asp e c ts o f Ea rly Mining a nd Extra c tive Me ta llurg y, 1996. Zhu Fa n Zhi, (e d . a nd p ub .), Wa ng Da yua n’ s Da o Yi Zhi Le , in Sha ng ha i Antiq ue Bo o ks e d . a nd p ub ., p p 71-104. Sha ng ha i [in C hine se ], 1993. SECTIONS 9.0, 10.0 & 11.0 by Roxanna Brown Ad hya tm a n, Sum a ra h, ‘ Ke nd i’ , Him p una n Ke ra m ic Ind o ne sia , Ja ka rta , 1987. C hin, Luc a s, C e ra m ic s in the Sa ra wa k Muse um , Kuc hing , Sa ra w a k, 1988. Dup o iza t, Ma rie -Fra nc e , The C e ra m ic C a rg o o f a So ng Dyna sty Junk Fo und in the Philip p ine s a nd its Sig nific a nc e in the C hina -So uth Ea st Asia Tra d e , in So uth Ea st Asia & C hina : Art, Inte ra c tio n & C o m m e rc e , Lo nd o n, Pe rc iva l Da vid Fo und a tio n o f C hine se Art, 1995, p p . 205-224. Hug he s-Sta nto n, P. a nd Ro se Ke rr, Kiln Site s o f Anc ie nt C hina , Re c e nt Find s o f Po tte ry a nd Po rc e la in , Lo nd o n, The O rie nta l C e ra m ic So c ie ty, 1980. O rie nta l C e ra m ic So c ie ty o f Ho ng Ko ng , Fung Ping Sha n Muse um , Jing d e zhe n Wa re s, The Yua n Re vo lutio n , Ho ng Ko ng , 1984. 189 So uthe a st Asia n C e ra m ic So c ie ty, C hine se C e la d o ns a nd O the r Re la te d Wa re s in So uthe a st Asia , Sing a p o re , Arts O rie nta lis, 1979. So uthe a st Asia n C e ra m ic So c ie ty, So ng C e ra m ic s, Sing a p o re , 1983. Ye We nc he ng , Q ing b a i kilns in Yiya o a nd Q ing ya o , Ming q ing Xia n, Fujia n in Ho C huim e i, e d ., Anc ie nt Kiln Te c hno lo g y in Asia , Ho ng Ko ng , C e ntre o f Asia n Stud ie s, Unive rsity o f Ho ng Ko ng , 1990, p p . 60-73. Za inie , C ., Ha rrisso n, T., Ea rly C hine se Sto ne wa re s Exc a va te d in Sa ra wa k, 1947-67, The Sa ra w a k Muse um Jo urna l, Vo l. XV/ 30-31 (July-De c e m b e r 1967) p p . 30-87. 190 PROJECT PERSONNEL Bill Ma the rs Mike Fle c ke r Nig e l Ke rr Ra hma n Je ff Nic kla so n Antho ny Ho lle y Jo hn Miksic Iwa n Suma ntri Musta r Ba sri Ro hili Sa nima t Juna id i Na sa n Yusup Mug e ni 256 Musta fa Ismuna nto He ria nto Ra sid i Ma t Do lla Ba hro ni Ha sb a lla h Tjip to Suka rd i Amin Da ya t Ya p ih 257

RELATED PAPERS

RELATED TOPICS

Log In

Archaeological Recovery of the JAVA SEA WRECK

Archaeological Recovery of the JAVA SEA WRECK

Related Papers

RELATED PAPERS

RELATED TOPICS