TEACHING AND STUDYING TRANSLATION: A DUAL APPROACH / Tulkošanas mācīšana un mācīšanās: duāla pieeja. (In English; awaiting inclusion in WoS)

Jānis  Veckrācis

When translation is considered in the context of university studies, the key questions – how to teach and how to study translation – become two closely related perspectives, equally essential for teachers of translation. This close association between the perspectives of the teacher and the student is also linked to the requirement to be aware of the decision-making routines used by student translators. Teachers need to anticipate potential issues and equip students with problem-solving methods; in general terms, this means a specific way of thinking and acting for translators. Though highly individual, there are some common features and approaches. This paper is aimed at providing, based on brief references to theoretical literature, analytic insights into several aspects of teaching translation in tertiary education that make an essential contribution to enhanced competence of student translators. It does this by examining, first, the primary aspects of translation studies and translation to be discussed with students; second, a number of the most important approaches and techniques for ensuring productive studies; and third, illustrative translation units. The paper covers some key terminological, contextual, co-textual, and editorial considerations for developing student awareness regarding the prerequisites for efficient translation procedures and for quality translations. In practical terms, tertiary translation studies should be aimed at undertaking course activities that ensure advancement of students’ competence, including general background knowledge and specific skills. Structured theoretical and analytical insights into translation and ready-made sets of priorities and approaches save time for students in understanding the essence of translation and the factors that determine the quality of the target language-for-special-purposes or literary text. In particular, discussions should emphasise interpretative aspects, the poeticity of text, function-based, process-oriented, and product-based approaches, the technique of key focus areas, ways of encouraging flexibility and avoiding literal translation, contextual and co-textual considerations, and text revision.

HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIES AND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 https:/ / doi.org/ 10.22364/ htqe.2023.51 TEACHING AND STUDYING TRANSLATION: A DUAL APPROACH Janis Veckracis Ventspils University of Applied Sciences, Latvia ABSTRACT W h e n t r a n s l a t i o n is c o n s id e r e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f u n iv e r s i t y s tu d ie s , t h e k e y q u e s tio n s - h o w to t e a c h a n d h o w to s t u d y t r a n s l a t i o n - b e c o m e tw o c l o s e l y r e la t e d p e r s p e c t iv e s , e q u a ll y e s s e n t i a l f o r t e a c h e r s o f t r a n s l a t i o n . T h is c lo s e a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p e r s p e c t iv e s o f t h e t e a c h e r a n d t h e s t u d e n t is a ls o l in k e d to t h e r e q u i r e m e n t to b e a w a r e o f t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g r o u t i n e s u s e d b y s tu d e n t t r a n s l a t o r s . T e a c h e r s n e e d to a n t i c ip a t e p o t e n t ia l is s u e s a n d e q u ip s tu d e n ts w i t h p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e t h o d s ; i n g e n e r a l t e r m s , t h i s m e a n s a s p e c if ic w a y o f t h i n k i n g a n d a c t i n g fo r t r a n s l a t o r s . T h o u g h h i g h ly in d i v i d u a l , t h e r e a r e s o m e c o m m o n f e a tu r e s a n d a p p r o a c h e s . T h is p a p e r is a im e d a t p r o v id in g , b a s e d o n b r i e f r e f e r e n c e s to t h e o r e t i c a l l it e r a t u r e , a n a l y t ic in s ig h t s i n t o s e v e r a l a s p e c ts o f t e a c h i n g t r a n s l a t i o n i n t e r t i a r y e d u c a tio n t h a t m a k e a n e s s e n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n to e n h a n c e d c o m p e t e n c e o f s tu d e n t t r a n s l a t o r s . I t d o e s t h i s b y e x a m i n i n g , f i r s t , t h e p r i m a r y a s p e c t s o f tr a n s l a t i o n s tu d ie s a n d t r a n s l a t i o n to b e d is c u s s e d w i t h s tu d e n ts ; s e c o n d , a n u m b e r o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a p p r o a c h e s a n d t e c h n i q u e s f o r e n s u r i n g p r o d u c tiv e s t u d i e s ; a n d t h i r d , i ll u s t r a t iv e t r a n s l a t i o n u n it s . T h e p a p e r c o v e r s s o m e k e y t e r m i n o l o g i c a l , c o n t e x t u a l, c o - t e x t u a l , a n d e d i t o r i a l c o n s i d e r a t io n s f o r d e v e lo p in g s t u d e n t a w a r e n e s s r e g a r d in g t h e p r e r e q u i s i t e s fo r e ffic ie n t t r a n s l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s a n d fo r q u a lity t r a n s la tio n s . I n p r a c t ic a l te r m s , t e r t i a r y tr a n s la t io n s tu d ie s s h o u ld b e a im e d a t u n d e r t a k i n g c o u r s e a c t i v i t ie s t h a t e n s u r e a d v a n c e m e n t o f s t u d e n t s ’ c o m p e t e n c e , i n c lu d i n g g e n e r a l b a c k g r o u n d k n o w le d g e a n d s p e c if ic s k ills . S t r u c t u r e d t h e o r e t i c a l a n d a n a l y t i c a l i n s ig h t s i n t o t r a n s l a t i o n a n d r e a d y -m a d e s e t s o f p r i o r i t i e s a n d a p p r o a c h e s sa v e tim e fo r s tu d e n ts in u n d e r s ta n d in g th e e s s e n c e o f tr a n s la tio n a n d th e fa c to r s th a t d e te r m in e t h e q u a l it y o f t h e t a r g e t la n g u a g e - f o r - s p e c ia l - p u r p o s e s o r l i t e r a r y t e x t . I n p a r t i c u l a r , d is c u s s io n s s h o u ld e m p h a s is e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e a s p e c t s , t h e p o e t i c i t y o f t e x t , f u n c t i o n - b a s e d , p r o c e s s - o r ie n t e d , a n d p r o d u c t - b a s e d a p p r o a c h e s , t h e t e c h n i q u e o f k e y f o c u s a r e a s , w a y s o f e n c o u r a g in g f l e x i b i li t y a n d a v o id in g li t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n , c o n t e x t u a l a n d c o - t e x t u a l c o n s i d e r a t io n s , a n d t e x t r e v is io n . Keywords: s t u d y in g tr a n s la t io n , t e a c h in g t r a n s la t io n , tr a n s la t io n p e d a g o g y , tr a n s la t io n q u a lity , tr a n s la t io n s t u d ie s 645 Introduction I n p e d a g o g ic a l a n d d id a c t ic c o n s id e r a tio n s r e g a r d in g t r a n s la t io n s tu d ie s w h e r e k e y q u e s tio n s in c lu d e h o w to te a c h a n d h o w to st u d y t r a n s la t io n e ffic ie n tly , t e a c h in g a n d st u d y in g a re n o t o p p o s in g p o s it io n s . I n s te a d , th e s e p e r s p e c tiv e s h a v e s im ila r ro le s a n d fo r m a n ‘in t e r f a c e ’ ty p e re la tio n s h ip . M o re o v e r , in e v e r y n e w t r a n s la t io n o f a n L S P ( la n g u a g e f o r s p e c ia l p u r p o s e s ) o r lit e r a r y te x t, t e a c h e r s o f t r a n s la t io n w h o a re a ls o p r a c t i tio n e r s b e c o m e stu d e n ts a p p ro a c h in g th e ta s k fr o m a ‘z e ro ’ p o s itio n . T h e c lo se a s s o c ia tio n b e tw e e n th e p e r s p e c tiv e s o f te a c h e r s a n d st u d e n ts a ls o fo llo w s f r o m t h e n e e d to u n d e r s ta n d t h e d e c is io n - m a k in g p r o c e s s e s o f st u d e n t tr a n s la t o r s b y a p p ly in g th e m e th o d o f a n tic ip a t io n to p r o a c tiv e ly h ig h lig h t p o t e n t ia l issu e s a n d e q u ip st u d e n ts w ith e f fic ie n t p r o b le m -s o lv in g m e th o d s . T h e p r o b le m -s o lv in g t e c h n iq u e s im p ly t h a t t r a n s la t o r s h av e a s p e c ific w a y o f t h i n k in g a n d a c t in g - i.e ., a c o m p e t e n c e - b a s e d m o d e l fo r p r o c e s s in g s o u r c e t e x t t h r o u g h in fe r e n c e , u se o f lin g u is t ic r e s o u r c e s a n d t e c h n iq u e s , in tu itiv e u se o f la n g u a g e , a n d p r o d u c tio n o f a q u a lity ta r g e t t e x t b y a p p ly in g c re a tiv e a n d r e -c r e a tiv e te x t -b u ild in g a c tio n s . A t r a n s la t o r ’s w o r k in c lu d e s s e le c tio n a n d u se o f s p e c if ic le x ic a l u n its , s y n t a c tic c o n s t r u c t io n s , re fe r e n c e s, a n d a s s is ta n t m a te r ia ls in th e c o n t e x t o f u n c e r t a in t y c a u s e d , fo r in s t a n c e , b y in s u f f ic ie n t in f o r m a t io n , a t y p ic a l fe a tu r e o f a n y t e x t . T h u s , s p e c ia l im p o r t a n c e sh o u ld a ls o b e a s s ig n e d to g e t t in g a ‘ fe e l’ fo r t h e la n g u a g e a n d d e v e lo p in g a s k ill-b a s e d a w a re n e s s o f r e s t r ic t io n s a n d lim it s in s e a r c h o f b a la n c e d te x t m a n ip u la tio n s . T h e p a p e r is a im e d a t a n a ly s in g , b a s e d o n a b r i e f re v ie w o f t h e o r e t ic a l lite r a tu r e , so m e o f t h o s e a s p e c ts o f t e a c h in g t r a n s la t io n in t e r t ia r y e d u c a tio n w h ic h , as p ro v e d b y p r a c t ic a l e x p e r ie n c e , h a v e s u b s ta n tia l im p o r t a n c e in e n h a n c in g t h e c o m p e te n c e o f st u d e n t t r a n s la t o r s w h e n t h e y p r o c e s s so u rc e a n d ta r g e t te x ts . B a c k g r o u n d o f t h e a u th o r in t h e a b o v e c o n t e x t is th r e e fo ld : as a u n iv e r s ity st u d e n t o f t r a n s la t io n c o m p le tin g a d o c t o r a l t h e s is o n p o e t r y t r a n s la t io n ; as a t r a n s la t o r o f v a r io u s t e x ts r a n g in g f r o m p r in t e r m a n u a ls to e ssa y s w r itte n b y Jo s e p h B r o d s k y a n d a few p o e tr y t r a n s la t io n s ; a n d a s a te a c h e r o f tr a n s la t io n a t u n iv e r s ity fo r te n y e a rs . A t t h e u n iv e rs ity , t h e c o u r s e s o f th e a u th o r h av e in c lu d e d lite r a r y tr a n s la t io n a n d t r a n s la t io n o f L S P te x ts (c o m m e r c e t e x ts , le g a l t e x ts , E U te x ts ). E a c h o f th e s e ro le s h a s c o n t r ib u t e d to o u t lin in g a se t o f m in im u m s k ills a n d m o d e ls o f a c tio n s , w h ic h a re e ith e r im p o r t a n t to o r d e te r m in e t h e p o te n tia l o u tc o m e in a b so lu te te r m s . Methodology B y e m p ir ic a lly a n a ly s in g , fir s t, t h e p r im a r y a s p e c ts in h e r e n t in t r a n s la t io n s tu d ie s a n d in t r a n s la t io n i t s e l f to b e c o v e r e d in c o u r s e a c t iv it ie s w ith t r a n s la t io n s tu d e n ts ; s e c o n d , t h e t y p ic a l a p p ro a c h e s a n d t e c h n iq u e s t h a t m a y e n s u r e m o re p ro d u c tiv e s tu d ie s; a n d , t h ir d , il lu s tr a tiv e t r a n s la t io n u n its , t h is p a p e r p re s e n ts a d is c u s s io n o f c e r t a in k e y t e r m in o lo g ic a l, c o n t e x tu a l, c o - t e x t u a l, a n d e d ito r ia l c o n s id e r a tio n s t h a t a re e s s e n t ia l in d e v e lo p in g s tu d e n t a w a re n e s s o f th e m a in p r e r e q u is it e s o f e f fic ie n t a n d q u a lity HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIESAND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 J. Veckrācis. Teaching and studying Translation: a Dual Approach 646 tr a n s la tio n . T h e a n a ly s is is a lso a re s u lt o f o b s e r v a tio n s o f h o w stu d e n ts a c t, e ith e r d u r in g in - c la s s t r a n s la t io n s o r d u r in g d is c u s s io n o f t r a n s la t io n s , w h e r e t h e ir c o m m e n t s su g g e st t h e a s p e c ts t h e y c o n s id e r to b e im p o r t a n t a n d w h e r e t h e t e a c h e r ’s in p u t is to e m p h a sise a d d itio n a l fa c t o r s a n d p e r s p e c tiv e s in a d d re s s in g t h e s o u r c e a n d ta r g e t te x ts . T h u s, t h e m e th o d in c lu d e s e m p ir ic a l a n a ly s is o f st u d e n t tr a n s la t io n p r o c e d u r e s , c h o ic e s a n d d e c is io n - m a k in g p r o c e s s e s ; so m e c o n c lu s io n s a re a ls o b a s e d o n o b s e r v a tio n s o f st u d e n t a c tio n s . T h e t r a n s la t io n u n its u se d in t h i s p a p e r a s illu s t r a t io n s o f su c h c o n s id e r a t io n s a re so u r c e d fr o m p u b lish e d li te r a r y tr a n s la tio n s , st u d e n t t r a n s la t io n s o f L S P o r li te r a r y te x ts , a n d f r o m lite r a r y t e x t s t h a t h a v e n o t y e t b e e n t r a n s la te d b u t s u it d is c u s s io n n e e d s . S i m ila r ly to in - c la s s p r o c e d u r e s w h e re t h e t r a in in g c o n t e x t s o m e tim e s m a k e s t h e a s p e c t o f a u th o r s h ip ir r e le v a n t (e x c e p t, in m o s t c a s e s , in li t e r a r y t r a n s la t io n ) , o n ly s o m e o f t h e t r a n s la t io n u n its a n d e x a m p le s a n a ly s e d in t h is p a p e r in c lu d e s p e c ific in d ic a t io n o f t h e s o u r c e a n d a u th o r . A s t h e d is c u s s io n in c lu d e s a n e le m e n t o f c r it ic is m , t h e n a m e o f th e tr a n s la t o r w h o h a s p re se n te d a n a rg u a b le tr a n s la t io n is n o t re le v a n t - th e e m p h a se s is o n th e d is c u s s io n o f t h e c o n t e x t, im p lic a tio n s , a n d a lt e r n a tiv e s . T h o s e re a d e r s w h o w ish to id e n t if y a u th o r s h ip d e ta ils m a y d o so b a s e d o n t h e in f o r m a t io n a n d c lu e s p ro v id e d in t h is p ap e r. T h e sc o p e o f th e stu d y se ts c e r t a in lim it a tio n s : it d o e s n o t c o v e r e r r o r t y p o lo g ie s a n d m e t r ic s , p s y c h o lo g ic a l a s p e c ts , in - c la s s r o u tin e s , o r ty p e s o f in te r a c tiv e c o m m u n ic a tio n b e tw e e n t h e te a c h e r a n d stu d e n ts. F u r th e r m o r e , t h i s stu d y d o e s n o t in c lu d e c o n s id e r a t io n s r e g a r d in g t h e c o o p e r a t io n o f tr a n s la t o r s w ith e d ito r s a n d p u b lis h e rs . E a c h o f th e s e s u b je c ts r e q u ir e s se p a ra te d is c u s s io n . Discussion and results Theoretical insights as structured shortcuts to competence R e g a r d in g th e q u e s tio n o f w h e th e r t r a n s la t io n t h e o r y m a y b e o f a n y u s e in t r a n s la t io n p r a c t ic e a n d in t r a n s la t o r t r a in in g c o u r s e s , th e d is c u s s io n r a is e s t h e issu e w h ic h is s im ila r to t h e q u e s tio n o f w h e th e r it is p o s sib le to te a c h c re a t iv e w r itin g - w h e th e r it is p o ss ib le to a c tu a lly b e c o m e a w rite r. T h e h ig h lig h te d w o rd is a k e y a s p e c t o f c o n sid e r a tio n . T h e a u th o r h a s c o m p le te d t h e jo u r n e y o f b e c o m in g a t r a n s la t o r b o t h t h r o u g h a c a d e m ic s tu d ie s a n d d a ily t r a n s la t io n p r a c t ic e . It m a y b e e a s ily a s s u m e d t h a t p r a c t ic e is w h a t h a s d riv e n t h e p r o c e s s , b u t t h e c o n t r ib u t io n o f a c a d e m ic d is c u s s io n o f t r a n s la t io n is m u c h m o re c o m p lic a te d to g r a s p , a n a ly s e , a n d d e fin e . N e v e rt h e le s s , r e fle c tio n a n d a n a ly t ic a l th o u g h ts o n th e e s se n c e o f tr a n s la t io n , in c lu d in g d if fe r e n t w ay s in w h ic h t h e p r o c e s s a n d p r o c e d u r e s o f t r a n s la t io n a re s t r u c tu r e d a n d c la s sifie d , c o n tr ib u te to d e e p e r in s ig h ts a n d u n d e r s ta n d in g a n d , th u s , b o t h d ir e c tly a n d in d ir e c tly , to w a rd m o re p r e p a re d tr a n s la t io n s p e c ia lis ts a n d la te r p r o fe s s io n a ls , e n h a n c in g t r a n s la t io n q u a lity . T h e in it ia l p r a c t ic a l s ta n d p o in ts r e g a r d in g t h e a im s a n d ta s k s o f t e r t ia r y t r a n s la t io n s tu d ie s a re a p p a r e n t: b y u n d e r ta k in g c e r t a in a c tiv itie s , to e n h a n c e s tu d e n ts ’ c o m p e te n c e in tr a n s la t io n in te r m s o f t h e ir g e n e r a l b a c k g r o u n d k n o w le d g e a n d a se t o f s k ills . T h is HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIESAND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 J. Veckrācis. Teaching and studying Translation: a Dual Approach 6 47 a ls o im p lie s t h a t s tu d ie s s h o u ld e m p o w e r f u r t h e r p r o fe s s io n a l d e v e lo p m e n t in t h e p o s t g r a d u a te p e r io d . T h e o p p o s in g p o s itio n s t h a t “t r a n s la t o r s a re b o r n , n o t m a d e ” o r “m a d e , n o t b o r n ” (G ile , 2 0 0 9 , 7 ) o n ly p o s se s s v a lu e in t h e ir u s e as a t tr a c t iv e ‘e y e -c a t c h e r s ’ - w h ile ta le n ts a n d g ifts a re im p o r t a n t in e v e r y h u m a n e n d e a v o u r, t r a n s la t io n is n o t m a g ic b u t h a rd w o r k , w h e re m a s t e r y r e q u ir e s in te n s e p r a c t ic e (in m o s t c a s e s , y e a r s o f in te n s e p ra c tic e ), w h ic h m e a n s f u r th e r o p p o r tu n ity a n d c h a lle n g e as n o t r a n s la to r c a n e v er re a c h th e ‘d e s ti n a tio n ’ w h e re a ll p ro b le m s c a n b e e a s ily so lv e d a n d q u a lit y issu e s h av e b e c o m e irr e le v a n t. R e la t e d to t h is , a n in c lu siv e id e a is s h if t in g th e e m p h a s is f r o m te a c h in g st u d e n ts h o w to t r a n s la t e to h e lp in g t h e m to b e c o m e b e t t e r tr a n s la t o r s , m o re s p e c if ic a lly : a. to p ro v id e a q u a lif ic a tio n in lit e r a r y tr a n s la t io n ; b. to p r o v id e st u d e n ts w ith t h e m e a n s to s p e c u la te o n , to d is c u s s , a n d to c a r r y o u t c. to e n s u r e a c o m p e t e n c e t h a t a ss is ts in e s ta b lis h in g c o n t a c ts w ith o t h e r lite r a r y r e s e a r c h in to lit e r a r y tr a n s la t io n ; tr a n s la t o r s a n d w ith o r g a n is a tio n s , p u b lis h e r s , a n d a c a d e m ic s in t h e fie ld ; d. to h e lp st u d e n ts to t r a n s la t e b e t t e r ( B o a s e - B e ie r , 1 9 9 8 , 3 3 - 3 4 ) . T h e v a lu e o f t h e o r e t ic a l in s ig h ts fo r st u d e n ts lie s in s u g g e s tin g r e a d y -m a d e k e y id e a s a n d se ts o f p r io r itie s a n d a p p ro a c h e s t h a t d o n o t re q u ir e st u d e n ts th e m se lv e s to c a r r y o u t t im e - c o n s u m in g e m p ir ic a l r e s e a r c h . T im e is in d e e d a k e y a sp e c t. It is n o t p o s sib le to d w ell o n d e ta ils d u r in g t h e d is c u s s io n , e s p e c ia lly w ith re g a r d to t h e o r e t ic a l c o n s id e r a t io n s . A u s e fu l t e c h n iq u e m a y b e s e le c t io n o f p r im a r y c o n c e p t s fo r d is c u s s io n : la n g u a g e a n d s p e e c h ; s o u r c e /t a r g e t te x t; s o u r c e /t a r g e t la n g u a g e ; t h e c o n c e p t o f la n g u a g e c o n t a c ts a n d t h e ir im p a c t; t e x t as a v e r b a lis e d e x p r e s s io n o f c u lt u r e ( in c lu d in g its n o n -v e r b a l re p r e s e n ta tio n s ) a n d its a s p e c ts o f s t a n d a r d is a t io n o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d in v e n tio n a n d r u le - b r e a k in g o n th e o th e r ; t e x t ty p e s ; te x t u a lit y ; g e n re s , re g is te r s , a n d re s p e c tiv e fe a tu r e s ; sty le a n d p o e tic s (o r p o e tic it y ( G a r c ia - B e r r io 1 9 9 2 ); m e a n in g a n d s e n s e (fo r in s t a n c e , L’v o v sk a y a , 2 0 1 8 ); (n o n -)e q u iv a le n c e ; t a r g e t a u d ie n c e ; c o n t e x t; c o - t e x t ; fo r e ig n is a tio n a n d d o m e s tic a tio n (V e n u ti, 1 9 9 5 ); o v e r t a n d c o v e rt tr a n s la tio n (H o u se , 2 0 1 5 ); lo c a lis a tio n ; d ir e c t t r a n s la tio n (in c lu d in g b o r ro w in g , c a lq u e , a n d lite r a l tr a n s la t io n ) a n d o b liq u e t r a n s la t io n , in c lu d in g t r a n s p o s it io n ( g r a m m a t ic a l c h a n g e s w ith o u t c h a n g in g th e se n s e ) a n d m o d u la tio n ( s e m a n tic c h a n g e s w ith o u t c h a n g in g t h e se n s e ) (M u n d a y , 2 0 0 1 ) ; c o h e s io n a n d c o h e r e n c e ; o b lig a to r y a n d o p tio n a l s h if ts (v a n d e r B r o e c k , 2 0 1 4 , ), a n d so o n . A t t h i s p o in t, a n e x a m p le is in c lu d e d o f h o w , in a c o n c is e m a n n e r , t h e m e a n in g a n d se n s e o f a t e x t c o u ld b e d is c u s s e d in th e c o n t e x t o f t r a n s la t io n , b y o n ly n o t in g k e y s to n e t h e o r e t ic a l id e as: P r e m is e : th e s e m a n t ic s o f a te x t d e r iv e f r o m th e in te r a c tio n o f m e a n in g s o f v a r io u s e le m e n t s (w ord s, g r a m m a t ic a l f o r m s , s e n te n c e s tru ctu re s, p r o s o d y ) - i.e., m e a n in g is n o t r e la t e d o n ly to w o rd s b u t to a ll u n its o f lin g u istic c o n te x t; ev ery u n it is r e la t e d to o th e r s (L ’v o v s k a y a , 2018, 50). M e a n w h ile , th e s e n s e o f a tex t is a c o n t e x t u a l p h e n o m e n o n ; it is a ls o f o r m e d by n o n - v e r b a l c ir c u m s ta n c e s o r e x tr a -lin g u is tic fa c t o r s . HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIESAND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 J. Veckrācis. Teaching and studying Translation: a Dual Approach 648 M a in p r in c ip le s in tr a n s la tio n : (1) th e s a m e s e n s e m a y b e c o n v e y e d v ia v a r io u s m ea n in g s; a n d (2) th e s e m a n tic m e a n in g o f th e tex t m a y b e m a n ip u la t e d w ith o u t d e t r im e n t to th e s e n s e (ib id ., 5 2 -5 3 ). T his im p lie s t h a t th e s e m a n t ic m e a n in g o f a te x t is n o t a c le a r in d ic a t io n o f its s e n s e a n d t h a t f o r m a l e q u iv a le n c e , ev en w h e n it p o t e n t ia lly ex ists, d o e s n o t g u a r a n t e e a t t a in m e n t o f c o m m u n ic a tiv e e q u iv a le n c e (ib id ., 54). A t e x t ’s s e n s e is a n e x t r a - lin g u is t ic a n d s u b je c t iv e c a t e g o r y d e t e r m i n e d b y a n in d iv id u a l’s m o tiv e a n d p u r p o s e o f c o m m u n ic a t io n in a s p e c ific settin g , a n d th e r e la tio n s h ip o f lin g u istic m e a n in g a n d s e n s e is s im ila r to t h a t o f th e p h i l o s o p h ic a l co n cep ts o f f o r m a n d c o n ten t (ib id , 5 0 -5 1 ). T he c o m m u n ic a tiv e situ a tio n m o tiv a te s , d e te r m in e s , a n d a c t u a t e s th e s e n s e o f th e te x t (ib id ., 61). S p e c ia l a t t e n t io n s h o u ld b e p a id to t e x t in t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d its s u b je c t i v i t y w h e re t h e c o n c e p ts o f d ir e c t a n d im p lic it in f o r m a t io n , as w e ll as o f its b a la n c e , sta n d o u t as k e y to c o n t e x tu a lis e d c o n s id e r a tio n o f t h e s o u r c e a n d t a r g e t te x ts . F o r in s t a n c e , t r a n s la t io n s tu d ie s sh o u ld e n h a n c e s tu d e n ts ’ c a p a c ity to p r o v id e a d if fe r e n t le v e l o f in te r p r e ta tiv e ‘in p u ts ’ in lite r a r y te x t p r o c e s s in g w h e n c o m p a r e d w ith L S P t e x ts , as in te r p r e tiv e a c ts in lit e r a r y a n d n o n - lite r a r y (in s t r u m e n ta l) t e x t s a re d is t in c t (K h a r m a n d a r , 2 0 1 6 ). A s re g a r d s t r a n s la t io n q u a lity , a c o m p le x c o n c e p t in t r a n s la t io n r e s e a r c h a n d a q u e s t io n to w h ic h st u d e n ts u s u a lly e x p e c t c le a r a n sw e r s d u r in g p r a c t ic a l t r a n s la t io n c o u r s e s , t h e o r e t ic a l in p u ts c o u ld in c lu d e c o m m e n t s o n m a in t h e o r e t ic a l id e a s ( B it t n e r , 2 0 2 0 ; H o u se , 2 0 1 5 ; R e is s, 2 0 0 0 to m e n tio n ju s t a few ). H ow ev er, p r a c t ic a l e x a m p le s h ig h lig h te d d u r in g t r a n s la t io n d is c u s s io n a re u s u a lly m o r e im p o r t a n t as a c t u a l is su e s, w h ile c o n te x tu a l e x a m p le s h e lp to u n d e r st a n d c a u s e - e f f e c t re la tio n sh ip s a n d th e re s p e c tiv e te c h n iq u e s a n d so lu tio n s fa s te r t h a n a n y e x h a u s tiv e lis ts o f c la s s ific a tio n o f th e o r ie s o n t r a n s la t io n q u a lity a s s e s sm e n t o r ty p e s o f e r ro rs . I n th is reg a rd , a tim e -s a v in g a c tiv ity is th e s o -c a lle d c h a p te r r e a d in g s, w h e r e st u d e n ts a re a ss ig n e d to re a d s p e c ific p a r t s o f p u b lic a tio n s o n s u b je c ts d is c u s s e d in c la s s. A n im p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e o r e t ic a l d is c u s s io n s is b r in g in g t h e m c lo s e to t r a n s la t io n p r a c t ic e (m o s t o f t h e s e m in a l a n d im p o r t a n t p u b lic a tio n s in t r a n s la t io n s tu d ie s te n d to a ls o e m p lo y t h is p r a c t ic e - o r ie n t e d a p p ro a c h ). F o r in s t a n c e , w h e n c o n s id e r in g a r g u m e n ta tio n -b a s e d tr a n s la t io n q u a lit y a s s e ss m e n t (K h a r m a n d a r , 2 0 1 6 ), a n o th e r , to so m e e x te n t re la te d , p e r sp e c tiv e o n th e d is c u s s io n o f li te r a r y te x ts a n d th e q u a lit y o f t h e ir tr a n s la tio n s c o u ld b e w h a t is c a lle d th e a r g u m e n ta t io n o f p o e tic s . W it h i n t h i s p e r s p e c tiv e , t e x t a re e m b o d im e n t s o f s p e c ific fe a tu r e s (c re a te d a n d /o r a tta in e d b y t h e a u th o r t h r o u g h a p p li c a t io n o f c e r t a in t e c h n iq u e s a n d v e r b a l a n d n o n - v e r b a l ‘t o o l s ’) t h a t e n s u r e t h e t e x t ’s m u ltifa c e te d a e s th e t ic q u a lity . T h e s e q u a litie s o f t h e t e x t m a y a ls o b e c o n s id e r e d fr o m t h e p o in t o f v ie w o f th e t e x t ’s ‘p e r su a s iv e n e ss ’, a n a s p e c t d ir e c tly re la te d to t h e c o n c e p t o f r e a d e r r e s p o n se . T h e im p o r t a n c e o f t h i s a s p e c t m a y b e s t b e o b s e rv e d in a s itu a tio n w h e n st u d e n ts la c k re s p e c tiv e a w a re n e s s a n d tr a n s la t e , fo r in s t a n c e , a su b tle , e m o t io n a l to n e o f a lite r a r y t e x t in a h ig h ly t e c h n i c a l m a n n e r b y lo o k in g in to w h a t w o r d s a re u se d a n d n o t w h a t th e y a c t u a lly c on v ey . HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIESAND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 J. Veckrācis. Teaching and studying Translation: a Dual Approach 649 It is im p o r t a n t to d is c u s s a c t io n s p r io r to t h e t r a n s la t io n p h a s e . F o r i n s t a n c e , in t r a n s la t io n o f L S P t e x ts , t h e to u g h d e a d lin e s a n d t h e re s p e c tiv e ‘d e a d lin e -w a s -y e s te rd a y ’ r o u tin e su g g e sts t h a t it is n o t a lw ay s p o s sib le to fir s t re a d , a s t e x t b o o k s o n t r a n s la t io n s u g g e s t, t h e w h o le s o u r c e t e x t a n d u n d e r ta k e t h o r o u g h p r e - t r a n s l a t i o n a n a ly s is . It is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a t t r a n s la t o r s o f L S P t e x t s q u ic k ly lo o k t h r o u g h t h e s o u r c e t e x t to d e t e r m in e w h e th e r th e y a re a c t u a lly a b le to t r a n s la t e it a n d to p ro d u c e a q u a lit y ta r g e t t e x t ; to c o n s id e r te r m in o lo g y , re fe r e n c e s o u r c e s , t h e ir h ie r a r c h y a n d re lia b ility , a n d so o n . In s te a d , in lite r a r y tr a n s la t io n , in itia l ste p s in c lu d e g e ttin g a c q u a in te d w ith t h e t e x t ’s w o r ld , its fe a tu r e s , a n d t h e s p e c ific t e c h n iq u e s a n d d e v ic e s u se d b y t h e a u th o r, as th e s e p re p a ra tio n s a re e s s e n tia l p re re q u isite s o f t r a n s la tio n q u a lity . It sh o u ld b e n o te d , h o w ev er, th a t re fe r e n c e m a te ria ls c a n a lso b e u se fu l in li te r a r y tr a n s la tio n . F o r in s ta n c e , s o m e tim e s stu d e n ts sp e n d t im e c o n s id e r in g t r a n s lite r a tio n in a c o m p le x c a se o f p r o p e r n a m e , th o u g h t h e a u th o r h a s a lr e a d y b e e n t r a n s la te d in to t h e ta r g e t la n g u a g e a n d t h e s ta n d a r d v a r ia n t is a v a ila b le (e x c e p t w h e n t h e t r a n s lit e r a t io n is o b v io u s ly in c o r r e c t). T h e a p p r o a c h o f ‘s te p p in g b a c k ’ a n d lo o k in g a t t h e t e x t f r o m a d is t a n c e to g r a s p t h e c o n t e x t a n d to n e m a y b r in g im p o r t a n t b e n e fits . T h e o r e t ic a l d is c u s s io n is a n o t h e r f o r m o f s t e p - b a c k t e c h n i q u e u s e d to c o n s id e r , in a c o n d e n s e d , s t r u c t u r e d m a n n e r , t h e n a tu r e o f la n g u a g e , ( lite r a r y ) t e x t , c u ltu r e (s ), a n d t r a n s la t io n . I n v a r io u s p r a c t ic a l im p le m e n ta tio n s , t h i s st e p p in g b a c k e n s u r e s t h e a b ility to se e t h e b ig p ic tu r e , a n im p o r t a n t a s p e c t th a t is a ls o d is c u s s e d f u r th e r in th e p ap er. I n o th e r w o rd s, c o n te x tu a lis a tio n is k e y to m e a n in g f u ln e s s , b o t h in t h e o r e t ic a l a n d p r a c t ic a l d is c u s s io n o f t r a n s la t io n a n d in t h e t r a n s la t io n p r o c e s s . W h e n fa ls e fr ie n d s o f t h e t r a n s la t o r - w o rd s o f a n o t h e r la n g u a g e w h ic h m is le a d in g ly , th r o u g h a p p a r e n t a s s o c ia tio n s , su g g e st a ‘t r a n s p a r e n t ’ t r a n s la t io n a re d is c u s s e d , it is im p o r t a n t to n o t ju s t m e n t io n t h e m a n d lis t t y p ic a l e x a m p le s b u t to o u tlin e th e lin g u is t ic , e x t r a lin g u is t ic , a n d in t e r lin g u a l c o n t e x t o f t h is p h e n o m e n o n . W h e n t h e s u b je c t is s y n t h e t ic a n d a n a ly t ic la n g u a g e s , c o n t e x tu a lis a t io n su g g e sts c o m m e n ts o n th e t r a n s la tio n im p lic a tio n s , fo r in s ta n c e , t r a n s la tio n fr o m a n a n a ly tic la n g u a g e (E n g lis h ) to a s y n t h e t ic la n g u a g e (L a tv ia n , R u ss ia n ) m a y m e a n s y n t a c tic c h a n g e s in v ie w o f th e f u n d a m e n t a lly d if fe r e n t lin g u is t ic m e a n s a n d t e c h n iq u e s b y w h ic h g r a m m a t ic a l re la tio n s h ip s a re fo r m e d . W h e n a s y m m e t r y is fir s t d is c u s s e d in t h e c o n t e x t o f la n g u a g e ty p o lo g ie s, c o m m o n a n d d iffe r e n t g r a m m a t ic a l a n d le x ic a l fe a tu r e s n e e d to b e a d d re sse d , fo llo w e d b y a n in d ic a t io n o f th e r e s p e c tiv e t r a n s la t io n t e c h n iq u e s , in c lu d in g c re a tiv e s o lu tio n s e ith e r b y u sin g o n e ’s o w n la n g u a g e re s o u r c e s o r b o r r o w in g o th e r; th e n , re le v a n t c o n c e p t s w o u ld in c lu d e c a lq u e s , d o m e s tic a tio n v e rs u s fo r e ig n is a tio n , lo c a lis a tio n , a n d so o n . T h e a s p e c ts o f c u lt u r a l, s o c ia l, a n d t e x t u a l m e d ia tio n , b r id g in g , a n d t r a n s f e r m a y b e a d d re s se d u s in g t h e c o n c e p t o f n o d a l p o in t (B u s h , 1 9 9 8 ), as it h ig h lig h ts b o t h t h e a s p e c t o f re la tio n s h ip s a n d c o n n e c t io n s a n d th e a s p e c t o f t h e t e x t u a l fo r c e s t h a t a re fo r m e d b y th e s e c o n n e c t io n s . T h e t r a n s la t o r ’s t a s k is to m a in t a in , to a p r a c t ic a b le e x te n t, t h e re la t io n s h ip s , fo r c e s , a n d t h e i r b a la n c e . I n a b r o a d e r c o n t e x t , t h i s n e t w o r k in g a s p e c t is a ls o re la te d to a n a w a re n e s s t h a t lit e r a r y t e x t s e m b o d y t h e q u in te s s e n c e o f a la n g u a g e a n d t h e lite r a r y re p r e s e n ta tio n s o f a c u ltu r e (ib id , 4 ). T h e s e p r e m is e s , a n d n o t s p e c if ic HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIESAND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 J. Veckrācis. Teaching and studying Translation: a Dual Approach 650 lin g u is t ic m a n ip u la tio n s , r e p r e s e n t t h e e s se n c e b o t h o f w h a t t r a n s la t io n is a n d o f w h a t its m a in s u b s ta n c e o r w o r k m a te r ia l is. T h is s t a n d p o in t is illu s t r a t e d b y t h e s itu a t io n o b s e r v e d w i t h e v e r y n e w g ro u p o f t r a n s la t io n stu d e n ts , o f w h o m m a n y a re su r p r is e d a n d , in a w ay, fr u s t r a te d w h e n th e y n o t ic e t h a t p r a c t ic a l t r a n s la t io n c o u r s e s d o n o t s p e c if ic a lly a n d d ir e c tly c o n t r ib u t e to t h e ir fo r e ig n la n g u a g e sk ills . W h e n in s ig h ts in to t h e o r e t ic a l c o n c e p ts , c re a t iv e a n d a e s t h e t i c fe a tu r e s o f la n g u a g e a n d w r itin g , a n d in tu itiv e , im a g in a tiv e u s e o f la n g u a g e a re d is c u s s e d d u r in g c la s se s, it is n e c e s s a r y to e x p la in , fir s t, th a t in te r r o g a tin g , e x e r c is in g , a n d e x te n d in g c o m p e te n c e in tr a n s la t io n , e s p e c ia lly lit e r a r y tr a n s la t io n , im p lie s s p e c if ic a c tiv itie s a n d r o u tin e s t h a t a re f u n d a m e n t a lly d if fe r e n t f r o m t h e w ay s in w h ic h k n o w l e d g e is a c q u ir e d , fo r in s t a n c e , in n a tu r a l s c ie n c e s , a n d , s e c o n d , t h a t t r a n s la t io n s tu d ie s a re n o t th e s a m e a s la n g u a g e stu d ie s . I t s h o u ld a ls o b e n o te d t h a t st u d e n ts a re s im ila r ly su r p r is e d w h e n t h e y le a r n t h a t e v e r y t r a n s la t o r ‘s t a r t s ’ w ith t h e ir m o t h e r to n g u e as it is, in m o s t c a s e s , th e ta r g e t la n g u a g e , a n d ta r g e t la n g u a g e s k ills n e e d to b e a t t h e u tm o s t le v e l o f e x c e lle n c e . T h e a b o v e c o n s id e r a tio n s su g g e st th e im p o r t a n c e o f a s t r u c tu r e d st u d y c u r r ic u lu m , w h ic h , in a p e r fe c t w o r ld , s h o u ld s t a r t w ith a n in t r o d u c to r y c o u r s e o n tr a n s la t io n t h e o r ie s fo llo w e d b y c o u r s e s in li te r a tu r e a n d c re a tiv e w r itin g , in o rd e r to e q u ip stu d e n ts w ith t h e b a c k g r o u n d k n o w le d g e a n d s k ills t h a t a re e s s e n tia l in lit e r a r y tr a n s la t io n . P a st s tu d ie s s u g g e s t, f r o m t h e p e r s p e c tiv e o f s tu d e n ts , ‘s h o r t c u t s ’ fo r in f o r m e d a c t io n s to a c q u ir e t r a n s la t io n s k ills m o re r a p id ly a n d to fu lly r e a lis e t h e ir p o te n tia l; h o w e v e r, sp e c if ic in t e lle c t u a l c r it e r ia m u s t a ls o b e m e t a n d tr a n s la t o r s s h o u ld p o s s e s s c e r t a in p e r s o n a lity fe a tu r e s . T h e a lt e r n a tiv e ro a d , o n e w ith o u t t h e o r e t ic a l (a n d p r a c t ic a l) in s t r u c t io n , m a y in v o lv e m u c h g r o p in g in th e d a r k a n d t im e - c o n s u m in g le a r n in g b y t r ia l a n d e r r o r (G ile , 2 0 0 9 ) . T h is is t h e p e r s p e c tiv e w h e r e b o t h t h e t h e o r y f o r t r a n s la t io n a n d t h e o r y a b o u t tr a n s la tio n (R o u n d , 1 9 9 8 , 19) c o n tr ib u te to s tr u c tu r e d e x p e c ta tio n s ; in o th e r w o rd s, st u d e n ts a re p ro v id e d in s ig h ts in to th e m a in p o t e n t ia l p r o b le m a re a s t h a t n e e d s p e c ia l a t te n t io n a n d s c r u t in y in e v e ry tr a n s la t io n ta sk . Making the complicated simple A v a lu a b le m e th o d t h a t m a y h e lp st u d e n ts to l i n k th e m s e lv e s to t h e s p e c ific w o rld o f t r a n s la t io n is h ig h lig h tin g t h e e v e ry d a y c h a r a c t e r o f t r a n s la t io n in h e r e n t in a ll c o m m u n ic a tiv e a c ts , in a ll m e s s a g e s , w r itt e n , o r a l o r im p lie d . F u r th e r , t h is m a y b e e x te n d e d to t h e id e a o f c o m m u n ic a t io n a s t e x t , th u s illu s t r a t in g t h a t t e x t u a l e x p e r ie n c e a n d c o m p e te n c e is s o m e th in g s tu d e n ts a lr e a d y p o s s e s s e v e n i f t h e y a re n o t p a s s io n a te re a d e r s o r s k ille d lite r a r y tr a n s la t o r s . S im p le e v e ry d a y d ia lo g u e s illu s tr a te in t e r a c t io n b a s e d o n t h e e x c h a n g e o f d ir e c t a n d , m o s t im p o r ta n tly , im p lic it in f o r m a t io n t h a t in d iv id u a ls a re a b le to d e c o d e , in te r p r e t, a n d u n d e r s ta n d . T h e t e m p ta tio n o f th e in c o m p le te , u n s a id , a n d h id d e n is illu s tr a te d b y a e s th e t ic e n jo y m e n t o f sc e n e s o f m is t a n d fo g , a n d o f d e t e c tiv e st o rie s. A ll t e x t s b o t h h ig h lig h t a n d h id e in fo r m a tio n . A n o t h e r e x a m p le o f m a k in g t h e c o m p lic a te d sim p le is t h e im p o r t a n c e o f c o n t e x t, illu s tr a te d in d is c u s s in g t h e p o t e n t ia l q u a lity o f a d v ic e w h e n a t r a n s la t o r r e c e iv e s a c e ll HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIESAND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 J. Veckrācis. Teaching and studying Translation: a Dual Approach 651 p h o n e m e s sa g e f r o m a fr ie n d w h o a sk s h o w to t r a n s la t e a w o rd w ith o u t a n y r e fe r e n c e to t h e c o n t e x t - t h e t r a n s la t o r w o u ld , a t b e s t , b e a b le to su g g e st tr a n s la t io n v a r ia n ts . C la s s a c tiv itie s s h o u ld p re fe ra b ly a ls o b e a im e d a t d e v e lo p in g s tu d e n ts ’ a b ility to u se la n g u a g e fr e e ly a n d c re a tiv e ly , s im ila r ly to w r itt e n p r a c t ic e c o u r s e s w h e re st u d e n ts a re a s s ig n e d c re a tiv e w r itin g t a s k s th a t in v o lv e u se o f d if fe r e n t re g is te rs o r a n e le m e n t o f ru le b r e a k in g , w h e r e a ‘m is t a k e ’ is n o t a m is ta k e o r th e u s u a lly u n a c c e p ta b le is a p p ro p r ia te . F o r in s t a n c e , t h e y m ig h t b e a sk e d to u se , in a b a la n c e d m a n n e r , c o llo q u ia l s p e e c h u n its , in c lu d in g sla n g . T h e s e a c tiv itie s p ro v id e lin k s w ith t h e n e w a n d u n e x p e c te d , o t h e r n e s s , t e x t s w h e re t h e n o r m is s te p p in g a c r o s s t h e e s ta b lis h e d st a n d a r d s a n d ‘c o r r e c t ’ b o u n d a r ie s - a s p e c ts o f h ig h im p o r t a n c e w h e n lit e r a r y t e x t s a re c o n s id e re d . T h is a ls o h e lp s to u n d e r s t a n d t h e s p e c ific n a tu r e o f th e c o n c e p t o f ‘m is t a k e ’ w h e n u s in g a la n g u a g e : in sim p le te r m s , t h is im p lie s t h e u se o f su c h lin g u is t ic t e c h n iq u e s o r m e a n s w h ic h a re c o n t e x tu a lly in a p p r o p r ia te fo r t h e s p e c if ic p u r p o s e a n d n e e d s. M o r e g e n e ra lly , th e c o m b in e d fo rm a ts o f f u n c tio n - b a s e d , p r o c e s s -o r ie n te d , a n d p r o d u c t - b a s e d a p p r o a c h e s in t r a n s la t io n t r a in in g , in c lu d in g t h e t h e o r y d is c u s s io n p h a s e , p ro v id e d is t i n c t a n d a t ta in a b le b e n e f it s , s u c h as t r a n s la t io n s tr a te g ie s (o v e r a ll a c t io n p la n s) a n d t a c t i c s ( d e c is io n - m a k in g in c a se o f d iffic u ltie s) . I n t h is c o n t e x t, t e a c h e r s a re su g g e ste d to fo c u s o n th e p r o c e s s a n d d is c u s s lin g u is t ic a c c e p t a b ility a n d st a n d a r d s o f fid e lit y in m o re g e n e r a l te r m s r a t h e r t h a n fo c u s in g o n ly o n t h e p r o d u c t (st u d e n t t r a n s la tio n ), a n d o n t h e r e a s o n s fo r e r r o r s o r g o o d c h o ic e s r a t h e r t h a n o n t h e s p e c ific c h o ic e s m a d e b y th e st u d e n ts (G ile , 2 0 0 9 ; G o n z a le z D a v ie s, 2 0 0 5 ) . Individual versus pair work versus group work S tu d ie s sh o w t h a t t r a n s la t io n c o u r s e s fe a tu r e b o t h in - c la s s t r a n s la t io n s a n d t r a n s la t io n s t h a t a re d o n e a t h o m e a n d la te r d is c u s s e d in c la s s; t h e p r o p o r t io n s o f in d iv id u a l/ p a ir/g r o u p w o r k in in - c la s s fo r m a ts a ls o v a r ie s ( U lr y c h , 2 0 0 5 , 15). E a c h fo r m a t h a s s p e c ific in p u ts a n d b e n e fit s. In itia ll y , t h e fo c u s c o u ld b e o n p a ir o r g ro u p w o rk to g e n e r a te sh a r e d in sig h ts , d is c u s s io n o f t r a n s la tio n v a r ia n ts w ith p e e r s, a n d jo i n t d e c is io n - m a k in g , a ll o f w h ic h e n su re a n o p p o r t u n it y to e x p e r ie n c e a n d c o m p a r e d if fe r e n t v ie w p o in ts re g a r d in g th e sa m e t e x t u n it, t e c h n iq u e , o r li n g u is t ic m e a n s. Id eally , s tu d e n ts w o u ld b e d iv id e d so t h a t p a ir s a n d g r o u p s in c lu d e s tu d e n ts o f d iv e r se b a c k g r o u n d s a n d c a p a c it ie s ; t h i s c o n t r ib u t e s to d is s e m in a t io n o f k n o w le d g e . It is im p o r t a n t to su p e r v is e th e p r o c e d u r e s a p p lie d b y st u d e n ts so t h a t t h e r e a re n o p a ssiv e m e m b e r s . A n o t h e r r is k is d o m in a n c e o f o n e o p in io n , w h ic h p r e c lu d e s d is c u s s io n , s h a r in g , a n d le a r n in g h o w to d e v elo p d e c is io n - m a k in g c r ite r ia w h e n se v e r a l tr a n s la t io n v a r ia n t s a re su g g e s te d . A s v a r ia n t s r e p r e s e n t a n e s s e n tia l a s p e c t o f a n d in t r a n s la t io n (a n d e m b o d y t h e c o n c e p t o f t r a n s la t io n p ro b le m s) , t h e a b ility to se e se v e r a l v a r ia n t s fo r e v e r y u n it a n d th e s k ill o f p a ra p h ra s in g a re as im p o r ta n t as m a s te r y o f th e m o th e r to n g u e o r o f th e ta rg e t la n g u a g e . T h u s, p a ir /g r o u p w o rk is a n o t h e r s h o r t c u t to e n h a n c e d c o m p e te n c e . T h e s e tw o fo r m a ts a ls o e n c o u r a g e a re la x e d a tm o s p h e re . S u b je c tiv e ly , t h e a u th o r p r e fe rs p a ir ta s k s o v er g ro u p w o rk as th e la tte r p o s e s th e r is k o f lo s in g fo c u s. T h e s e c o n d p h a se is in d iv id u a l w o r k in c la s s o r a t h o m e ; h o w e v e r, t h is p h a s e c o u ld a ls o in c lu d e m ix e d fo rm a ts. HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIESAND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 J. Veckrācis. Teaching and studying Translation: a Dual Approach 652 W h il e d if fe r e n t p r a c t ic e s a re u se d in t r a n s la t io n d is c u s s io n (fo r in s t a n c e , ‘t r a n s la t io n d e fe n c e ’, w h e r e e v e r y st u d e n t d e fe n d s t h e ir tr a n s la t io n b y e x p la in in g t h e r e fe r e n c e s u se d a n d d e c is io n s m a d e ), t h e a u th o r p r e fe rs jo i n t d is c u s s io n o f a n o n y m o u s t r a n s la t io n v a r ia n ts p r e s e n te d o n a s c r e e n . A g a in , a r is k is t h a t o n ly so m e st u d e n ts a c tiv e ly e n g a g e a n d o th e r s r e m a in s ile n t, t h o u g h t h i s c o u ld b e so lv e d b y d ir e c tly a d d r e s s in g e v e r y st u d e n t in th e c la ss. A s to t h e le v e l o f in v o lv e m e n t o f t h e te a c h e r, t h e r e a re tw o c o n s id e r a tio n s : t h e id e a l w o r ld , a n d a c tu a l p r a c t ic e b a s e d o n w h a t is p o s sib le w ith in c h a lle n g in g tim e lim ita tio n s . I n g e n e ra l te r m s , th e a u th o r a g re e s w ith th e p o s it io n th a t t e a c h e r ’s f u n c t io n d u r in g t r a n s la t io n d is c u s s io n s h o u ld b e lim it e d to in d ic a t io n o f t h e ty p e o f m is ta k e s m a d e , w h ile c o r r e c t io n sh o u ld b e th e ta s k o f stu d e n ts; th e t e a c h e r re v ie w s t r a n s la tio n v a r ia n ts a n d th is c y c le is r e p e a te d u n t il a n a d e q u a te tr a n s la t io n is o b ta in e d (L’v o v sk a y a , 2 0 1 8 ). T h is p r o c e d u re is e ffic ie n t in c o u n t e r a c t in g th e r e a d in e s s o f s tu d e n ts to a c c e p t a v a r ia n t t o o q u ic k ly w ith o u t d u ly c o n s id e r in g o t h e r a c c e p ta b le o p tio n s . H o w e v er, a n im p o r t a n t s h o r t c o m in g o f t h is m e th o d is t h a t it is e x c e s s iv e ly t im e - c o n s u m in g . I n a c o u r s e o f s ix te e n c la s se s (1 .5 h o u r s e a c h ), t h i s w o u ld m e a n d is c u s s io n o f a v e r y s m a ll n u m b e r o f tr a n s la t io n s ; th u s , t h e d is c u s s io n p r o c e d u r e s w ill re q u ir e c o m p r o m is e a n d a d ju s tm e n t d e p e n d in g o n t h e s p e c ific fe a tu r e s a n d b a c k g r o u n d s o f th e g ro u p a n d g e n e r a l c ir c u m s t a n c e s . T h e n e x t p a r t o f t h e p a p e r in c lu d e s b r i e f c o m m e n t s o n p r a c t ic a l a s p e c ts e s s e n tia l in d e v e lo p in g s tu d e n t s ’ a b ilit y to t h i n k a b o u t t h e s o u r c e a n d t a r g e t t e x t s , ta s k s , a n d a c t iv it ie s in t h e c o n t e x t o f tr a n s la t io n , o r t h e ‘t r a n s la t o r - t y p e t h i n k i n g ’ t h a t is alw ay s re le v a n t. F o r in s t a n c e , a u s e fu l a p p ro a c h is t h e t e c h n iq u e o f ‘re d in d ic a t o r li g h ts ’ - e v e r y t r a n s la t o r s h o u ld d e v e lo p a lis t o f p r im a r y a s p e c ts t h a t n e e d t h e ir s p e c ia l a t te n t io n in e v e r y t r a n s la t io n ta s k , in c lu d in g : a. W o r d o rd e r (e.g., un tu r p a t 70 g a d u s v ē lā k n o m ir a - in L a tv ia n , tu r p a t m e a n s ‘in t h e s a m e p la c e ’ a n d , in c o llo q u ia l u s e , ‘a lm o s t ’, th u s t h e w o r d o rd e r m a y c a u s e c o n f u s io n , o n e p o s s ib le s o lu tio n is: s e p t iņ d e s m it g a d u s v ē lā k t u r p a t n o m ir a (in E n g lis h , lite r a lly : se v e n ty y e a rs la te r [he] h e d ie d th e re ). b. A lig n m e n t o f w o rd e n d in g s ( in c a s e t h e t a r g e t la n g u a g e is a s y n t h e t ic o n e ) o r p r o b le m s in s y n t a c tic r e la tio n s h ip s (e.g., s tr īd u g a d īju m ā , k a s s a is tīti (in E n g lis h , lite r a lly : in d is p u te c a se w h ic h a re re la te d [to ]) - th e issu e o f s y n t a c tic a lly a lig n in g t h e s in g u la r n o u n g a d īju m s a n d t h e p lu r a l v e rb s a is tīti t h o u g h in fa c t th e v e rb is re la te d to th e p lu ra l L a tv ia n w o rd s tr īd i (d isp u te s)); a p tu v e n i d iv u n o 5 6 k o d o l r e a k to ru j a u d a (th e issu e o f s y n t a c tic r e la tio n s h ip w h ic h is h e r e e x c e s siv e ly c o m p li c a te d ; a m o re p re fe ra b le v a r ia n t : j a u d a d iv o s n o 5 6 k o d o lr e a k t o r ie m (in E n g lis h , li te r a lly : p o w e r I tw o o f 5 6 n u c le a r r e a c to r s ); b r a u c a m p a r a jo n u , k u r š a t z a r o jie s n o m ie s tiņ a , k o p š n e e s m u te b iju si (in E n g li s h , li te r a lly : [we] c r o s s a n a re a t h a t ’s sp r e a d o u t f r o m t h e v illa g e s in c e I h a v e n ’t b e e n h e re ) - h e r e t im e c la u se k o p š ... ( s i n c e ...) is re la te d to t h e re s p e c tiv e v e rb a tz a r o jie s (is sp re a d o u t), n o t n o u n v illa g e w h ic h is n o t a p re fe ra b le s y n t a c tic o p tio n ; a su g g e ste d v a r ia n t w o u ld b e : b r a u c a m p a r a jo n u , k u r š n o m ie s t iņ a a t z a r o jie s , k o p š n e e s m u te biju si. HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIESAND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 J. Veckrācis. Teaching and studying Translation: a Dual Approach 653 c. E n s u r in g th a t, in L a tv ia n , s y n t a c tic a lly re la te d u n its a re p la c e d as c lo se to g e th e r as p o s sib le (w h ic h is n o t alw ay s n e c e s s a r y o r p o s sib le , fo r in s t a n c e , in E n g lish ). H o w ev er, w h e n t h is re q u ir e m e n t c a n n o t b e fu lfille d in th e s e n te n c e , re s p e c tiv e r e s tr u c t u r in g is n e e d e d to e n su re e a sie r p e r c e p tio n b y re a d e rs (e.g., a r ī p i e p ils ē t iņ a s , k u r a i b r a u c a m c a u r i, lu k s o fo r ie m d ie d e lē ž ē la s t īb a s d ā v a n a s - h e r e s y n t a c tic a lly d ir e c tly (th r o u g h a g e n itiv e ) re la te d u n its p i e p ils ē t iņ a s a n d lu k s o fo r ie m a re se p a ra te d b y a c la u se ; a so lu tio n is m a k in g th e re la tio n sh ip le ss d ir e c t, fo r in s ta n c e : a r ī p ils ē tiņ ā , k u r a i b r a u c a m c a u r i, p i e lu k s o fo r ie m d ie d e lē ž ē la s t īb a s d ā v a n a s ). d . W h e r e a p a r t o f a c o m p le x s e n te n c e is d is in te g r a te d a n d st a n d s a p a r t f r o m o t h e r p a r t s o r it e m s in t h e s e n te n c e . e. W o r d in e s s (e.g., p ē c b r īž a m ē s k ā p s im a u g š ā P r ā g a s k a ln ā - t h i s p a r t o f th e s e n t e n c e m a y b e e a s ily u n d e r s to o d w ith o u t t h e d e le te d w o rd ). f. T y p in g e r r o r s , m o s t im p o r t a n t ly w ith re g a r d to s u r n a m e s a n d n u m b e r s . Problem first, solution next I n m o s t c a s e s , w h e n a sk e d to c o m m e n t u p o n th e p r o b le m w ith re g a rd to a n it e m o r s e n te n c e in th e t r a n s la t io n c o n t e x t, st u d e n t tr a n s la t o r s te n d to ju m p to t h e s o lu tio n s a n d e x p la in w h a t c o u ld b e d o n e . It r e q u ir e s so m e e ffo r t to c o n v in c e t h e m t h a t t h e lo g ic a l o rd e r is n o t a f o r m a l p r o c e d u r e b u t c o u ld b r in g e ffic ie n c y b e n e fit s . C le a r in d ic a t io n o f t h e p r o b le m is s o m e tim e s h a l f o f t h e s o lu tio n - w ith o u t fir s t id e n t if y in g w h a t m u s t b e fix e d , it m a y t u r n o u t t h a t w e e ith e r sp e n d t im e a d d r e s s in g ir r e le v a n t is su e s , p ro v id e in a d e q u a te s o lu tio n s , o r m is s s o m e th in g o u t. T h e ‘p r o b le m f ir s t ’ p e r s p e c tiv e a ls o h e lp s to d e v e lo p s t r u c tu r e d p r o b le m -s o lv in g t e c h n iq u e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s t h a t d e p e n d o n r e c o g n is a b le p r e c e d e n t-b a s e d p a t t e r n s a n d s c e n a r io s . Understand the source sentence, forget the source sentence W h e n t h e t r a n s la t o r s t a r t s t h e a c t u a l t r a n s la t io n o f a t e x t , a u n i t o f a t t e n t io n is t h e s o u r c e - t e x t se n te n c e . It is u n lik e ly t h a t a q u a lit y tr a n s la t io n o f a s e n te n c e c o u ld b e p r o d u c e d w h e n t h e t r a n s la t o r d o e s n o t u n d e r s t a n d it. W h i l e s e v e r a l t e c h n iq u e s m a y b e a p p lie d (fo r e x a m p le , s p littin g t h e s e n te n c e u p in to m e a n in g f u l t r a n s la t io n u n its , o r u s in g e x p la n a to r y d ic t io n a r ie s ) , p r o d u c tiv e s o lu tio n s a ls o in c lu d e (1) a c lo se r e a d in g o f t h e s e n te n c e , se v e r a l t im e s , p a y in g a tte n tio n to e v e r y d e ta il a n d p o t e n t ia l c lu e to re la t io n s h ip s o f s e n t e n c e /m e a n in g u n its ; (2 ) m a k in g c e r t a in t h a t t h e s e m a n t ic f u n c t io n s o f g r a m m a t ic a l m e a n s a n d t e c h n iq u e s a re c le a r - in st u d e n t tr a n s la t io n s , m a n y issu e s a r is e re la te d to n o t u n d e r s t a n d in g s e n te n c e g r a m m a r (s o m e tim e s e v e n m in o r it e m s c a n su g g e st im p o r t a n t in f o r m a t io n (e.g., o n th e s h o r e s o f th e H u d s o n - w h ile t h e r e is a riv e r a n d se v e r a l la k e s in v a r io u s U .S . st a te s n a m e d H u d s o n , th e d e fin ite a r t ic le su g g e sts th a t h e re it is th e riv e r); (3) a g a in , t h e s t e p - b a c k a p p r o a c h to lo o k a t t h e s e n te n c e , its c a u s e e ffe c t r e la tio n s h ip s a n d o t h e r a s p e c ts f r o m a d is ta n c e , b y a ls o a p p ly in g t h e t e c h n iq u e o f ‘im a g in in g ’ th e s itu a tio n in th e s e n te n c e , w h ic h c a n b e p a r t ic u la r ly u s e fu l in u n c o v e r in g t h e c o n t e x t a n d im p lic a tio n s . HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIESAND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 J. Veckrācis. Teaching and studying Translation: a Dual Approach 654 S o m e t im e s , ‘i m a g in in g ’ is a n u n r e lia b le r e s o u r c e - fo r in s t a n c e , w h e n a t r a n s la t o r d e a ls w ith a s p e c ia lis e d le x is o r w h e n s p e c ific t e c h n i c a l d e ta ils a re d is c u s s e d : a p e r i m e te r o f c h a in - lin k f e n c i n g b a c k e d w ith le n g th s o f g r e e n s c reen . W h il e s p e c ia lis e d d ic t io n a r ie s a re c e r t a in ly h e lp fu l, h e re ‘im a g in in g ’ a ls o im p lie s v is u a lis in g . F o r t h i s p u rp o s e , r e s o u r c e s su c h a s G o o g le P ic t u r e s c a n b e h e lp fu l. A s s o o n a s t h is p h a se is c o m p le te d a n d th e t r a n s la t o r u n d e r s ta n d s t h e s e n te n c e , th e y sh o u ld , in a w ay, ‘ fo r g e t’ a b o u t it. A t t h is p o in t, t h e fo c u s s h if ts to w a r d t h e ta r g e t sid e la n g u a g e , c u lt u r e , c o n t e x t, t e x t , s e n te n c e , its w o rd s a n d s y n t a c t ic c o n s t r u c t i o n s . It is im p o r t a n t n o t b e t h e ‘sla v e ’ o f t h e s o u r c e t e x t a n d s o u r c e s e n t e n c e ; t h i s is, h o w e v e r, fr e q u e n tly o b s e rv e d to b e th e c a s e in st u d e n t t r a n s la t io n s w h e r e p r o b le m s a ris e a ro u n d t h e d if fic u lt y t r a n s f e r r in g w o r d s a n d t h e ir c o llo c a t io n s in e x a c t ly th e w a y t h e y a re p r e se n te d in th e s o u r c e s e n te n c e . ‘Caged, no ambition’ versus ‘sailing in terra nullius’ or the level of freedom in translation S u s a n B e r n o f s k y (2 0 1 3 , 2 3 2 ) n o te d h o w m u c h f r e e d o m t r a n s la t o r s a re r e q u ir e d to e x e rc is e in o rd e r to tr a n s la te in a “ f a it h f u l” w ay. T r a n s la tio n s b y st u d e n ts ty p ic a lly re p re s e n t tw o o p p o s ite tr e n d s - e ith e r th e y se rv e th e s o u r c e s e n te n c e to o d ir e c tly a n d lite ra lly , o r t h e y a re e x c e s s iv e ly ‘ f r e e ’ in m a n ip u la t in g t h e s o u r c e m a t e r ia l a n d ‘t h e fr e e b ir d s g e t lo s t ’. W h il e t h e la t t e r is e s p e c ia lly u n a c c e p ta b le , fo r in s t a n c e , in t r a n s la t io n o f le g a l t e x t s , a b a la n c e d a p p ro a c h is n e e d e d in e v e r y t r a n s la t io n , in c lu d in g lit e r a r y tr a n s la t io n . E v e n m o s t e x p e r ie n c e d tr a n s la t o r s w o u ld h a r d ly b e a b le to e x p la in , in a r e a s o n a b le w ay, t h e ‘r ig h t ’ lim it s o f fr e e d o m a n d , e v e n m o r e so , w ay s o f a t ta in in g t h is b a la n c e . It is a m a t t e r o f p r a c t ic e , e x p e r ie n c e , a n d ta le n t. H o w e v er, so m e c lu e s c a n b e id e n tif ie d b a s e d o n e x a m p le s f r o m st u d e n t t r a n s la tio n s . I n a n a r r o w se n s e , lite r a l (o r c lo s e ) tr a n s la t io n o r m is tr a n s la t io n a t t h e le v e l o f le x is , in c lu d in g te r m s , m a y b e a r e a s o n a b le fir s t le v e l o f a tte n tio n (h e r e a g a in , as a c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e , th e c o n c e p t o f fa lse frie n d s o f t r a n s la to r c o u ld b e m e n tio n e d ). F o r in s ta n c e , a n illu s t r a t iv e e x a m p le is t h e t r a n s la t io n in a L a t v ia n t o u r is m b r o c h u r e w r i t t e n in E n g lis h , w h ic h fe a tu r e d f r e e - a i r s ta g e fo r t h e L a t v ia n le x ic a l u n it b r īv d a b a s s k a t u v e (‘o p e n - a ir s ta g e ’). A n o t h e r e x a m p le is t h e L a tv ia n in f o r m a l t e r m b r īv ie ū d e ņ i fo r w h ic h , o n se v e ra l o c c a s io n s , th e tr a n s la t io n f r e e w a te r s h a s b e e n o b se rv e d in s te a d o f t h e m o re a c c e p ta b le ‘in t e r n a t io n a l w a te r s ’, ‘h ig h s e a s ’, ‘n o m a n ’s la n d ’, e tc . A t t h e le x ic a l le v e l, s tu d e n ts o f te n f a ll in to t h e tr a p o f t h e s o - c a l le d ‘s t a n d a r d ’ o r t h e m o s t t y p ic a l t r a n s la t io n - in o t h e r w o r d s , t h e t r a n s la t io n v a r ia n t t h a t is u s u a lly t h e f ir s t m e a n in g in d ic a t e d in le x ic o g r a p h i c s o u r c e s . C o n s e q u e n t ly , in t h e s e n te n c e E m e r g in g f r o m c o lo n ia l ru les, m a n y d e v e lo p in g c o u n tr ie s f a c e d lo w a n d u n s ta b le p r ic e s st u d e n ts t y p ic a lly t r a n s la t e c o lo n ia l r u les as k o lo n iā lie n o t e ik u m i ( ‘c o lo n ia l r e g u la tio n s ’), as th e s ta n d a r d L a tv ia n t r a n s la t io n fo r r u le is n o te ik u m s . H o w e v er, e v e n b e fo r e e x a m in a t io n o f le x ic o g r a p h i c s o u r c e s , s tu d e n ts c o u ld b e u r g e d to c o n s id e r o t h e r c o n t e x t u a l t r a n s la t io n s ; fo r in s t a n c e , t h e t r a n s la t io n o f S o v ie t r u le (ty p ic a lly , p a d o m j u v a r a , p a d o m j u rež īm s). S im ila rly , t h e E n g lis h w o rd ses s io n , w h ic h is a s e e m in g ly sim p le c a se HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIESAND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 J. Veckrācis. Teaching and studying Translation: a Dual Approach 655 fo r t r a n s la t io n , c o u ld b e a u s e fu l p r o m p t fo r a s k in g st u d e n ts to su g g e s t, w ith o u t u sin g le x ic o g r a p h ic r e fe r e n c e s , L a t v ia n t r a n s la t io n v a r ia n t s , w h ic h in c lu d e s a n ā k s m e , s ē d e , s e s ija , a p s p r ie d e (s im ila r ly , E n g lis h s y n o n y m s fo r s e s s io n in c lu d e m e e tin g , sittin g , d is c u ssio n , e t c .) ; fo r t h e v e rb im p ly - ietver, p a r e d z , n o z īm ē , iz r ie t (in E n g lis h th e s e in c lu d e m e a n , su ggest, en v isa g e e tc .), e tc . U tilis in g th e r ic h n e s s o f t h e tr a n s la t o r ’s o w n v o c a b u la r y is, fir s t, t im e - s a v in g , as it is n o t a lw ay s n e c e s s a r y to lo o k up d ic t io n a r ie s , a n d , s e c o n d , m a y a c t u a lly d e te r m in e t h e a b ility to p ro d u c e t h e b e s t tr a n s la t io n , as d ic t io n a r y v a r ia n ts (e sp e c ia lly w ith re g a rd to sy n o n y m s) a re li m ite d a n d d o n o t p ro v id e th e d iv e r s ity n e e d e d , fo r in s t a n c e , in lit e r a r y t r a n s la t io n . A n o t h e r ty p ic a l le x ic a l issu e is st u d e n t c o n f u s io n a b o u t s e m a n tic d if fe r e n c e s in p lu r a l fo r m u s e s o f n o u n s , w h ic h a re t y p ic a lly s in g u la r in E n g lis h (e.g., b u sin ess a n d b u sin esses, d e v e lo p m e n t a n d d e v e lo p m e n t s , c o n tr o l a n d co n tr o ls ). I n m o s t c a s e s , t h i s p a r t o f a s e n t e n c e - th e c o m p a n y h a r d ly b e n e fit e d f r o m t h e s e s c h e m e s - is tr a n s la te d , w ith m in o r v a r ia tio n s , q u ite lite ra lly , as: u z ņ ē m u m s n eg u v a īp a šu la b u m u n o š īm s h ē m ā m . T h o u g h th e tr a n s la t io n is g e n e r a lly a c c e p ta b le , it is im p o r t a n t to e n c o u r a g e st u d e n ts to c o n s id e r o t h e r m o d u la tio n s , fo r in s t a n c e , u z ņ ē m u m a ieg u v u m s n o s h ē m ā m b ija n e b ū t is k s /n e b ija lie ls /b ija n iecīg s (in E n g lis h , lite r a lly : c o m p a n y ’s b e n e fit f r o m th e s c h e m e s w a s in s ig n if ic a n t /q u it e s m a ll) , d e p e n d in g o n t h e c o n te x t. U s e fu l in - c la s s a c t iv it ie s to in c r e a s e f le x ib ility a n d a v o id lit e r a l t r a n s la t io n s c o u ld in c lu d e p a r a p h r a s in g t a s k s , w h ic h r e q u ir e m o r e c o n s id e r a b le m a n ip u la t io n w ith o u t c h a n g in g th e se n s e o f t h e s e n te n c e a n d w ith o u t d e c r e a s in g tr a n s la t io n q u a lity . I n th i s c o n t e x t, tr a n s la t o r c o m p e te n c e m e a n s in s is te n t a p p lic a tio n o f, fir st, t h e c h e c k t h e - d ic t io n a r y - t w ic e a p p r o a c h (s o m e tim e s s im ile s c a n b e u se fu l: w h ile h is to r ia n s lo o k u p h is to r io g r a p h ic s o u rc e s , tra n s la to r s /te r m in o lo g is ts a n a ly s e d a ta a v aila b le in le x ic o g r a p h ic s o u rc e s ) a n d , s e c o n d , c la r if y in g , to t h e e x te n t p o s s ib le , t h e in d ic a t io n s o f t h e fr e e d o m p o te n tia l a n d its lim it s , s t a r t in g f r o m th e g e n e ra l t e x t-ty p e /g e n r e /s ty le /r e g is te r a s p e c t up to th e s p e c ific in d ic a to r s w it h in t h e s e n te n c e , p a r a g r a p h , a n d te x t. H o w e v e r, it is a ls o i m p o r t a n t to e x p la in a n o t h e r p e r s p e c tiv e r e g a r d in g lit e r a l a n d ‘f r e e ’ t r a n s la t io n , p a r t ic u la r ly in p ro se t r a n s la t io n : a t r a n s la t io n t h a t is v e r b a lly c lo se to t h e s o u r c e t e x t d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e t r a n s la t io n p r o c e s s a n d th e re s p e c tiv e s e le c tio n a n d d e c is io n -m a k in g p ro c e d u re s a re b a se d o n a sim p lifie d , lite r a l a p p ro a c h . T h e a c c e p ta b ili t y o f a lite r a l t r a n s la t io n m a y b e a re s u lt o f a d e t a ile d c o n tr a s tiv e a n a ly s is . ‘The trap of the face value’ or the approach of ‘positive or beneficial doubts’ T h e n e e d fo r t h e t r a n s la t o r to c h a lle n g e t h e ir fir s t id e a o f t h e m e a n in g o f t h e s o u rc e t e x t u n it o r w h a t t h e t r a n s la t io n is c a n b e illu s tr a te d b y tw o e x a m p le s . A c o m m o n issu e is t h e a b ility to id e n t if y p o t e n t ia l fa ls e fr ie n d s o f t r a n s la t o r in t h e ir v a r io u s fo r m s . A n e f fic ie n t t e c h n iq u e fo r t h i s is c o n s u lt in g d ic t io n a r ie s . M o r e g e n e ra lly , p o t e n t ia l p r o b le m a r e a s c o u ld b e id e n tif ie d as t h o s e t h a t re q u ir e s p e c ia l a t te n t io n p e r s e , fo r in s t a n c e , a c u lt u r e - s p e c if ic le x is a n d n o m in a t io n s w h o s e fo r m s e e m in g ly ‘su g g e s ts ’ t h e tr a n s la t io n . HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIESAND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 J. Veckrācis. Teaching and studying Translation: a Dual Approach 656 M is le a d in g im p lic a t io n s m a y a ls o b e p re se n te d b y p la c e n a m e s . T h e to p o n y m A le k - sa n d r o v s k iy s a d ( A le x a n d e r G a rd en ) is tr a n s la te d in t h e fo llo w in g w ay s in o n e o f th e E n g lis h t r a n s la t io n s o f th e p o e m C h r is tm a s B a lla d b y Jo s e p h B ro d s k y : M o s c o w ’s A le k s a n d r o v P a r k . T h e c o n te x t su g g e sts, h o w ev er, t h a t (1) th is to p o n y m a c tu a lly re fe rs b o t h to M o s c o w a n d , im p lic itly , S a in t-P e te r s b u r g ; (2 ) th e A le x a n d e r G a r d e n s h o u ld n o t b e c o n fu s e d w ith a n o t h e r lo c a tio n in t h is c ity , t h e A le x a n d e r P a rk . B y tr a n s la t in g th e s o u r c e - t e x t to p o n y m a s A le x a n d e r G a r d e n , t h e im p lic it a m b ig u ity w o u ld b e p re se rv e d in v ie w o f th e fa c t th a t M o s c o w h a s a s im ila r ly n a m e d lo c a tio n (ty p ic a lly tr a n s la te d as “A le x a n d e r G a r d e n ”, n o t “A le x a n d e r P a r k ”). B y a d d in g m o re s p e c ific in f o r m a t io n (M o s c o w ’s A le k s a n d r o v P a rk ), t h e b a la n c e o f e x p lic it a n d im p lic it in f o r m a t io n in t h e t e x t is u p se t. N e ith e r o f t h e c itie s is e x p lic it ly n a m e d in t h e p o e m - a n in t e n t io n a l c h o ic e b y t h e a u th o r (see f u r t h e r in V e c k r ā c is , 2 0 2 0 , 2 2 4 ). I n th e s e n te n c e M y s is te r th rew u p o n th e d o o r so th a t it b a n g e d a g a in s t th e little c o n s o le t a b le s h e k e p t by th e e n tr a n c e t h e s p e c if ic ite m c o n s o le t a b le w a s t r a n s la te d in a lite r a l m a n n e r : k o n s o le s g a ld iņ š , y e t c o n t e x tu a lis a t io n c o u ld su g g e st, th r o u g h th e d o m e s tic a tio n p e r s p e c tiv e , t h e t r a n s la t io n ž u r n ā lg a ld iņ š . S im ila r ly , t h e L a tv ia n tr a n s la t io n E s iz v ilk u te le fo n u un p ie z v a n īju ā tr a jie m (lite ra lly : ‘I t o o k o u t m y p h o n e a n d c a lle d th e a m b u la n c e ’) o f t h e E n g lis h s o u r c e - t e x t s e n te n c e I t o o k o u t m y p h o n e a n d c a lle d 911, is d o m e s tic a tio n , d u e to th e fa c t t h a t th e e m e r g e n c y p h o n e n u m b e r in L a tv ia is d if fe r e n t a n d ā t r ie is a t y p ic a l u s a g e in s im ila r situ a tio n s . A n o t h e r p o t e n t ia l p itfa ll c a n b e a m is le a d in g a n a lo g y . F ir s t, it s h o u ld b e n o te d th a t a n e s se n tia l e le m e n t o f th e d is c u s s io n o f L S P t e x t tr a n s la t io n is th e a s p e c t o f te rm in o lo g y , te r m s , s p e c ia lis e d le x is , a n d id e n tif ic a tio n o f t h e ir u s e in t h e s o u r c e te x t, as th e s e u n its re q u ir e sp e c ia l a tte n tio n a n d p ro c e s s in g te c h n iq u e s t h a t a re fu n d a m e n ta lly d iffe r e n t fro m th o s e a p p lie d to g e n e r a l le x is. I n a c la s s, m o s t o f t h e st u d e n ts t r a n s la te d t h e le g a l t e r m j u s t e n r ic h m e n t in a lite r a l m a n n e r : ta is n īg a ie d z īv o š a n ā s . T h e p r o b le m a r is e s f r o m t h e d iffe r e n c e s in p o ly s e m ic m e a n in g s . I n E n g li s h , t h e w o rd e n r ic h m e n t m a y re fe r to b o t h p o s it iv e a n d n e g a tiv e p r o c e ss e s, as illu s tr a te d b y its u se s ( d a t a e n r ic h m e n t , p e r s o n a l e n r ic h m e n t , u r a n iu m e n r ic h m e n t, e tc .), in c lu d in g le g a l te r m s ju s t/u n ju s t e n r ic h m e n t. H o w e v er, in L a tv ia n , t h e le g a l t e r m ie d z īv o š a n ā s is o n ly u se d in t h e c o n t e x t o f m is c o n d u c t ; fo r in s t a n c e , a tp r a s īju m s ie d z īv o š a n ā s d ē ļ ( ‘r e c la im d u e to e n r ic h m e n t ’), n e p a m a t o t a ie d z īv o š a n ā s ( ‘u n ju s t if ie d e n r i c h m e n t ’), n e lik u m īg a ie d z īv o š a n ā s ( ‘ i l l i c i t e n r i c h m e n t ’), n e t a is n a ie d z īv o š a n ā s ( ‘u n ju s t e n r ic h m e n t ’), ie d z īv o š a n ā s u z d ie n e s t a s t ā v o k ļa r ē ķ in a ( ‘g r a f t ’). T h u s , ta is n īg a ie d z īv o š a n ā s is a t r a n s la t io n c a u s e d b y a fa ls e a n a lo g y . I n t h i s c a s e , st u d e n ts s h o u ld b e a sk e d to d e v is e o t h e r t r a n s la t io n v a r ia n t s , su c h as taisn īg s la b k l ā j ī b a s p ie a u g u m s ( lite r ally, ‘ju s t in c r e a s e in w e llb e in g ’). F ro m a n o th e r p e rs p e c tiv e , s e m a n tic h y p e rt ro p h y h a s b e e n o b se r v e d as a n in c re a s in g ly c o m m o n lin g u is t ic p h e n o m e n o n in L a tv ia n d u e to t h e in fe r e n c e re la te d to th e n e w d o m in a n t c o n t a c t la n g u a g e , E n g lis h . D e s p it e v a r io u s m e a n in g s o f t h e E n g lis h v e rb d ev e lo p , d e p e n d in g o n t h e a r e a a n d c o n t e x t o f its u se , L a tv ia n s te n d to u se a sin g le t r a n s la t io n fo r a ll o f th e s e : a ttīs tīt ( d e v e lo p a c o u n tr y -> a ttīs tīt v a ls ti ; d e v e lo p a p r o d u c t -> a ttīs tīt HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIESAND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 J. Veckrācis. Teaching and studying Translation: a Dual Approach 657 p r o d u k t u in s te a d o f iz s t r ā d ā t p r o d u k t u ) (B a ld u n č ik s , 2 0 1 5 , 2 8 0 - 2 8 1 ) . T h e sa m e o b s e r v a t io n a p p lie s to p r o d u c t a n d p r o d u k ts , w h e re st u d e n ts c o u ld b e u rg e d to u se o t h e r v a r ia n ts in L a tv ia n (p r e c e , iz s tr ā d ā ju m s , r a ž o ju m s , d a r in ā ju m s , e tc . (sim ila rly , in E n g lis h , th e s e in c lu d e g o o d s , m a n u fa c t u r e , c o m m o d ity , e tc .). A g a in , t h e fir s t ste p is n o t b e in g s a tis fie d w ith o n e ’s in it ia l id e a a b o u t t h e p o te n tia l c o r r e c t tr a n s la t io n . A n e le m e n t o f d o u b t a n d a n e v e ry d a y a p p ro a c h o f d o u b le - c h e c k in g h e lp to id e n tify p o te n tia lly s e r io u s m is ta k e s in sim p le t r a n s la t io n situ a tio n s . T h is is a k e y t a s k in t r a n s la t io n s tu d ie s - h e lp in g st u d e n ts b e c o m e a c c u s to m e d to th e a p p lic a tio n o f th e s e r o u tin e s in e v e ry t r a n s la t io n a n d ev e n in e v e r y w r itin g a c tiv ity . F o r in s t a n c e , m a n y issu e s a re re la te d to th e u n w illin g n e s s o f stu d e n ts to c o n s u lt e x p la n a to r y d ic tio n a r ie s a n d th e s a u r u s e s , b a s e d o n a n a ttitu d e t h a t e ith e r ‘I k n o w m y n a tiv e la n g u a g e ’ o r ‘I w rite w h a t se e m s to b e a p p r o x im a te ly c o r r e c t ’, w h ic h is n o t a r e lia b le t e c h n iq u e . Contextual and co-textual considerations W h e n it c o m e s to t h e a c t u a l t r a n s la t io n a c tiv it y , m a s t e r y in t r a n s la t io n m e a n s , to a la rg e e x te n t, m a s t e r y o f c h o ic e - a s k ill t h a t is c lo s e ly re la te d to s itu a tio n a l a n d c o m m u n ic a tiv e c o n t e x t (th e n o n -v e r b a l ‘e n v ir o n m e n t ’ o f a n u tte r a n c e ) a n d to t h e lin g u is t ic c o - t e x t (th e lin g u is t ic c ir c u m s t a n c e s a r o u n d o r in t h e c lo se v ic in it y o f a n ite m ). I n m a n y c a s e s , r e s tr u c t u r in g (s ta n d a r d p r o c e d u r e s in c lu d e t r a n s p o s it io n a n d /o r m o d u la tio n ) is n e e d e d to m a k e a n u tt e r a n c e o r s e n te n c e ‘s o u n d g o o d ’, i.e ., t h e r e is a d e g r e e o f in t e r lin g u a l a s y m m e tr y . I n t h i s w ay, u s in g t h e t r a n s p o s it io n t e c h n iq u e , th e E n g lis h s e n te n c e r e m e m b e r in g i t s e l f w a s in ju ry a n e w ( in L a t v ia n , lite r a lly : ‘p a t i a t c e r ē š a n ā s b ija ja u n s ie v a in o ju m s ’) b e c o m e s p a t i a t c e r ē š a n ā s [v iņ u ] ie v a in o ja n o j a u n a (in E n g lis h , lite r a lly : ‘r e m e m b e r in g it s e lf a g a in in ju r e d [ h im ] ’). A t y p ic a l e x a m p le o f c o - t e x t u a l c o n s id e r a tio n s is a v o id in g s a m e - s te m w o rd s p la c e d n e x t to e a c h o th e r o r c lo se to e a c h o th e r w ith in a se n te n c e o r u tt e r a n c e (ie z īm e n o z īm ē ja tw o a d ja c e n t w o rd s o f t h e s a m e s te m - z īm - ) , as t h is is c o n s id e r e d in a p p r o p r ia te sty le in L a tv ia n , e x c e p t w h e r e t h e r e a re s p e c ific n e e d s o r a la c k o f o p tio n s . A n o t h e r e x a m p le o f c o - t e x t u a l c o n s id e r a tio n s is: B ija la ik s , k a d m ē s a r p u iš ie m g ā j ā m tu rp p a ē s t , k a d visu n a k t i b ijā m b a llē ju š ie s . E x c e p t w h e n tw o a d ja c e n t s a m e -ty p e c la u se s (h e r e : k a d . . . k a d ) a re in te n d e d to b e p a r a lle l s t r u c tu r e s (c o o r d in a te h o m o g e n e o u s p a r t s o f se n te n c e ), th e y ad d c lu m s in e s s to t h e s e n te n c e a n d r e s tr u c t u r in g is n e e d e d ; fo r in s t a n c e : S a v u la ik m ē s a r p u iš ie m g ā jā m tu rp p a ē s t , k a d v isu n a k t i b ijā m b a llē ju š ie s . D u e to c o - t e x t u a l c o n s id e r a t io n s , t h i s p a r t o f a tr a n s la t e d s e n te n c e - v is m a z v iņ a r o k a s ir v ie d a s , tā s k u s ta s p ā r m a n i k ā a k l ā r o k a s - n e e d s r e s tr u c t u r in g , as it fe a tu r e s e x c e s siv e u s e o f L a tv ia n w o r d s in - a ( ā ) s f o r m a n d th e w o rd r o k a s is u se d tw ic e w ith in t h e s a m e s e n te n c e , w h ic h is t y p ic a lly a c c e p te d o n ly e ith e r fo r s ty lis tic p u r p o s e s o r w h e n t h e r e p e tit io n c a n n o t b e a v oid e d . T h e n e c e s s ity fo r m o d u la tio n c a n b e illu s tr a te d b y a p o t e n t ia l lite r a l L a tv ia n t r a n s la t io n o f a u n it f r o m a n e s sa y w r itt e n b y Jo s e p h B r o d s k y : a ll th e n a v a l m ig h t t h a t R u s s ia h a s a m a s s e d t o d a y - v is a j ū r a s v a r e n īb a , k o K r ie v ija t a g a d ir u z a u d z ē ju s i. T h e m a in ‘p r o b le m a r e a ’ is j ū r a s v a r e n īb a (in E n g lis h , lite r a lly : p o w e r o f t h e se a , m ig h t in e s s o f HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIESAND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 J. Veckrācis. Teaching and studying Translation: a Dual Approach 658 t h e se a ), w h ic h d o e s n o t m a k e se n s e in L a tv ia n a n d c a n b e m is le a d in g . A v a r ia n t a fte r m o d u la tio n is: K r ie v ija , k a s k ļu v u s i p a r v a r e n u j ū r a s v a lsti (in E n g lis h , lite r a lly : R u ss ia w h ic h h a s b e c o m e a m ig h ty n a v a l c o u n tr y ) C o n te x t u a l c o n s id e r a tio n s a re n e c e s s a r y in t h e t r a n s la t io n o f t h i s p a r t o f a se n te n c e : in slip s d e a t h w ith scy th e, h a m m e r , a n d s ic k le (in L a tv ia n : ‘ā m u r s u n s ir p is ’) - in L a tv ia n , th e s e tw o S o v ie t sy m b o ls d e p ic te d o n th e S o v ie t fla g a re t y p ic a lly re fe r re d to as ‘s ir p is u n ā m u r s ’ (sic k le a n d h a m m e r ) , a n d m u c h m o re r a r e ly in th e o p p o s ite o rd e r. T h is m e a n s t h a t t h e o rd e r o f w o rd s sh o u ld a ls o b e c h a n g e d in th e L a tv ia n tr a n s la t io n . T h is s e e m in g ly sim p le s e n t e n c e in a n e s sa y w r i t t e n b y J o s e p h B r o d s k y b r in g s u p s o m e c o m p le x c o n s id e r a t io n s : s h e l o o k e d p o s it iv e ly stu n n in g . L e x ic o g r a p h ic s o u r c e s e x p la in t h a t t h e E n g lis h a d v e rb p o s it iv e ly is ‘u se d to e m p h a s is e t h e t r u t h o f a s t a t e m e n t, e s p e c ia lly w h e n t h i s is s u r p r is in g o r w h e n it c o n t r a s t s w ith a p re v io u s s t a t e m e n t ’ (se e w w w .o x fo r d le a r n e r s d ic t io n a r i e s .c o m /d e f in i t i o n /e n g l is h /p o s it iv e ly ). A p p a r e n tly , a lite r a l t r a n s la t io n (p o z itīv i s a t r ie c o š a ) is n o t a p p ro p ria te - in L a tv ia n t h e w o rd p o z itīv s d o e s n o t p o s se s s t h e n e c e s s a r y m e a n in g . A t r a n s la t io n v a r ia n t c o u ld b e : v iņ a iz s k a t ījā s - u n p a r to n e b ija n e k ā d u š a u b u - s a t r ie c o š i (in E n g li s h , lite r a lly : ‘sh e lo o k e d - a n d th e r e w a s n o d o u b t a b o u t th is - s t u n n in g ’). H o w e v er, k n o w in g th e s p e c ific c o n t e x t o r im p lic a t io n s o f B r o d s k y ’s sty le a n d h is u se o f t h e ‘e c o n o m y o f la n g u a g e ’ a p p ro a c h , w h e re le x ic a l e la b o r a tio n is a llo w e d o n ly w h e n it c a r r ie s p o e t ic w e ig h t, a m o re lik e ly t r a n s la t io n is, fo r in s t a n c e : v iņ a iz s k a t ījā s a b s o lū t i s a t r ie c o š i (in E n g li s h , lite r a lly : ‘sh e lo o k e d a b so lu te ly s t u n n in g ’). ‘Zoom in, zoom out and step forward, step back’, or translation as an iterative activity T h e p re v io u s d is c u s s io n o f c h o ic e in t r a n s la t io n a n d t h e c o - t e x t u a l a n d c o n t e x tu a l im p lic a t io n s a r e , in m o r e g e n e r a l t e r m s , r e la te d to t h e b ig /s m a ll p ic t u r e o f t h e t e x t , w h ic h is f u r t h e r lin k e d w ith t h e im p o r t a n c e o f ‘p ic t u r e u p d a te s ’. T r a n s l a t io n is, in m a n y re g a rd s , a n ite ra tiv e a c tiv ity . I n sim p le te r m s , t h i s m e a n s t h e se q u e n c e w o r d -s e n te n c e -p a r a g r a p h -te x t is c o n sid e r e d in b o t h d ir e c tio n s . A se n te n c e is tr a n s la te d b y k e e p in g a n ey e to t h e p re v io u s u n it, p a r a g r a p h , a n d p a r t o f th e t e x t w h ile a ls o lo o k in g fo rw a rd to th e f u r t h e r p a r ts o f th e te x t. T h e n e x t ste p a g a in r e q u ir e s th e sa m e p r o c e d u r e w ith c o n tin u o u s ‘u p d a te s’ - a lig n m e n t, s u b s titu tio n o f w o r d s in la r g e r tr a n s la t io n u n its , a n d n e w p a r a p h r a s e d v a r ia n t s in v ie w o f t h e fe a tu r e s o f t h e ir r e la tio n s h ip s . T e x t is a v e r b a l illu s t r a t io n o f t h e c o n c e p t o f n e tw o r k in g , a n d n o e le m e n t m a y b e re g a rd e d o r p r o c e s s e d in is o la t io n f r o m t h e o t h e r s . It is a t t h i s p o in t t h a t t h e o r e t ic a l c o n c e p t s lik e c o g e n c y , c o h e r e n c e , a n d c o h e s io n (G o n z a le z D a v ie s, 2 0 0 4 ) b e c o m e ‘p r a c t ic a l’ a n d re q u ir e c o n t e x t u a lis e d e x p la n a tio n a n d a p p lic a tio n . S tu d e n ts a re u s u a lly p re d is p o s e d to h a n d lin g se p a ra te m ic r o - t e x t u n its a n d it e m s b u t d e v e lo p in g t h e ir a b ility to k e e p t h e b ig t e x t u a l p ic tu r e in sig h t n e e d s a d d itio n a l in s t r u c t i o n a n d t r a in in g , w ith th e p r o v is io n o f m e a n in g f u l e x a m p le s t h a t d e m o n s tr a te t h e im p o r t a n c e o f th e s e p ro c e d u r e s . C o n s id e r a tio n o f t h e b ig /s m a ll p ic tu r e is a ls o a p r e r e q u is it e fo r a b a la n c e d a p p ro a c h . T h e r e q u ir e m e n t o f b a la n c e a n d c o m p e n s a t i o n d e riv e s f r o m t h e b a s ic t r a n s l a t i o n HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIESAND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 J. Veckrācis. Teaching and studying Translation: a Dual Approach 6 59 te c h n iq u e s . A t y p ic a l t r a n s la t io n t e c h n iq u e su g g e sts t h a t a s t y lis t ic a lly m a r k e d s o u r c e t e x t u n it n e e d s a s t y lis t ic a lly m a r k e d u n it in t h e ta r g e t te x t. T h e im p lic a tio n s o f b a la n c e a n d c o m p e n s a tio n f u r t h e r re q u ir e th a t , fir s t, t h e s ty lis tic fe a tu r e s a n d in te n s ity o f th e s e fe a tu r e s s h o u ld b e p r e se rv e d at t h e le v e l o b s e rv e d in t h e s o u r c e t e x t a n d , s e c o n d , w h e n e v e r a s t y lis t ic a lly m a r k e d u n it is n o t a v a ila b le o r is in a p p r o p r ia te in th e ta r g e t c o n te x t, t h e s t y lis t ic e le m e n t is p ro v id e d in a n o t h e r t e x t u n it in c o m p e n s a tio n . A n o t h e r o p tio n is to c h o o s e a s t y lis t ic r e s o u r c e o f a n o t h e r ty p e . S im ila r ly , th e b a la n c e o f im p lic it a n d e x p lic it in f o r m a t io n s h o u ld b e p re se rv e d o r a d d re ss e d t h r o u g h s p e c ific c o m p e n s a tio n t e c h n iq u e s w h e n so m e in t e r lin g u a l a s y m m e t r y is o b se r v e d . Revision - the task of to-be-or-not-to-be importance I f t h e r e w e re g o d s w h o d e c id e t h e fa te s o f t r a n s la t o r s , a g o d s itt in g n e x t to Z e u s t h e T r a n s l a t o r w o u ld c e r t a i n l y b e t h e G o d o f R e v is io n . T h is c a n b e e x p la in e d b a s e d o n p e r s o n a l e x p e r ie n c e . I t h a s n e v e r o c c u r r e d to t h e a u th o r t h a t h e w o u ld n o t m a k e c o r r e c t io n s w h e n p r o o fr e a d in g a n d r e v is in g th e t r a n s la t io n - t h e r e a re n o p r o s p e c ts fo r a q u a lit y t r a n s la t io n w h e n t h e r e is n o t e x t r e v is io n . T h is a ls o m e a n s t h a t w h e n y o u n g t r a n s la t o r s a ss e ss , e s p e c ia lly d u r in g t h e e a rly p h a se o f t h e ir c a r e e r s , t h e ir c a p a b ilit y to tr a n s la te a t e x t w ith in a tim e lim it , th e y sh o u ld a lso in c lu d e th e tim e n e e d e d fo r th o r o u g h r e v is io n w o rk . R e v is io n t e c h n iq u e s v a r y a c c o r d in g to p e r s o n a l p r e fe r e n c e s a n d r o u tin e s . T h e r e a re few p e o p le w h o a re a b le, w ith o u t s p e c ia l t r a in in g , to m a in t a in th e re q u ir e d le v e l o f a tte n t io n t h r o u g h o u t a la rg e a m o u n t o f te x t. A s id e f r o m o t h e r im p o r t a n t a s p e c ts o f re v is io n , th is a lso n e ed s so m e c o n sid e ra tio n . S tu d e n ts u su a lly m e n tio n th a t c h a n g e o f a c tiv ity , ev en fo r a s h o r t t im e , is a n e f fic ie n t t e c h n iq u e to r e g a in fo c u s w h e n th e y r e t u r n to re v is io n . S o m e re a d th e p a g e f r o m b o t t o m to to p - b y u s in g t h i s t e c h n iq u e , t h e illo g ic a l flo w o f t h e t e x t h e lp s t h e m to r e m a in fo c u s e d . M o s t im p o r ta n tly , e v e r y t r a n s la t o r s h o u ld h av e a c le a r id e a o f h o w to e n s u r e q u a lity in p r o o fr e a d in g a n d re v is io n . A n o t h e r s o u r c e o f c o m p lic a t io n s is t h e fa c t t h a t it is c o n s id e r a b ly m o re d if fic u lt to n o t ic e o n e ’s o w n m is ta k e s t h a n th o s e in a t e x t w r itt e n o r t r a n s la te d b y s o m e b o d y e lse . T h u s, a n o t h e r p r o c e d u r e in a n id e a l t r a n s la t o r ’s r o u t in e w o u ld b e g iv in g t h e t e x t to a c o m p e te n t p e e r fo r t h e m to c h e c k th e tr a n s la t io n . T h o s e p e e rs w o u ld , h o w e v e r, a lso n e e d to so lv e t h e p r o b le m o f m a in ta in e d fo c u s. A te c h n iq u e th e a u th o r u se s a n d su g g e sts to s tu d e n ts is r e a d in g , as t h o r o u g h ly as p o s s ib le , e v e r y s e n te n c e im m e d ia te ly a fte r it is tr a n s la te d . T h is w ay, t h e t r a n s la t o r s t ill h a s a c le a r id e a o f t h e c o n t e x t in t h e s o u r c e te x t a n d n e e d s to fo c u s o n t h a t o n e s e n te n c e . T h o u g h t h i s b y n o m e a n s im p lie s t h a t th e fin a l r e v is io n o f th e w h o le tr a n s la t io n c o u ld b e o m itte d , it d o e s m e a n t h a t so m e m is ta k e s a n d m is s p e llin g issu e s w ill a lr e a d y h a v e b e e n re s o lv e d . Ambiguity in assessment - a brief note S tu d e n ts a re n a tu r a lly q u ite se n s itiv e to t r a n s la t io n q u a lity a s s e s sm e n t. It is c o m m o n fo r le c t u r e r s to b e re p r o a c h e d fo r u n c le a r c r it e r ia , e v e n w h e n t h e y a re lis te d e ith e r at t h e b e g in n in g o f th e c o u r s e o r fo r e v e r y s p e c ific te x t. C le a r - c u t c r it e r ia a re e s s e n tia l b u t HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIESAND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 J. Veckrācis. Teaching and studying Translation: a Dual Approach 660 it w o u ld b e p s e u d o - c la r it y to p r o p o s e t h a t a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e q u a lity o f la n g u a g e u se in g e n e r a l, o r in its t r a n s la tio n c o n te x ts , im p lie s b la c k -a n d -w h ite m is ta k e c la s s if ic a tio n w ith re s p e c tiv e g ra d e s . H o w d o y o u q u a n t if y th e w e ig h t o f a s tu d e n t’s a ttit u d e felt in th e t r a n s la te d t e x t in v a r io u s d ir e c t a n d in d ir e c t w a y s? A ttitu d e is, p a r t ic u la r ly in t h e t r a in in g p h a s e , a k e y in d ic a t o r o f a s tu d e n t’s p o t e n t ia l to b e c o m e a g o o d t r a n s la t o r w h o p r o d u c e s q u a lity tr a n s la t io n s , e v e n i f th e s p e c ific t e x t in c lu d e s s o m e m is ta k e s a n d e rr o rs . A ttitu d e is a n im p o r t a n t ‘i m p lic it ’ c o m p o n e n t o f th e q u a lit y o f a s tu d e n t’s w o rk , w h ic h n e e d s at le a s t so m e c re d it. In d e e d , t h e sa m e m is ta k e in st u d e n t t r a n s la t io n s o f t h e s a m e s o u rc e t e x t m a y h av e d iffe r e n t im p lic a tio n s re g a r d in g th e q u a lit y o f t h e ir w o rk a n d c o m m itm e n t. T h is n e e d s to th e e x te n t p o ss ib le , c le a r e x p la n a tio n . M y e x p e r ie n c e sh o w s t h a t a fte r b e in g in tr o d u c e d to t h i s c o n s id e r a tio n , st u d e n ts u n d e r s ta n d it, b u t t h e y a re n o t a lw ay s t h e m se lv es a w a re o f t h is a sp e c t. Conclusions I n a n in c lu siv e id e a a b o u t h o w to te a c h a n d h o w to stu d y t r a n s la t io n , t h e tw o p e r sp e c tiv e s o f t e a c h in g a n d st u d y in g a re n o t o p p o s in g p o s itio n s b u t in s te a d fo r m a c lo se ‘in t e r f a c e ’ ty p e r e la tio n sh ip . S tr u c tu r e d th e o r e t ic a l r e fle c tio n a n d a n a ly tic a l in sig h ts in to t r a n s la tio n c o n tr ib u te , in a c o n d e n s e d , t im e - s a v in g w ay, to a m o r e in - d e p t h u n d e r s t a n d in g o f t h e n a tu r e o f t r a n s la tio n , a n e s s e n tia l c o n d it io n fo r p r o d u c in g q u a lity ta r g e t te x ts . T h e o r e tic a l id e a s su g g e st re a d y -m a d e se ts o f p r io r it ie s a n d a p p ro a c h e s. A u s e fu l t e c h n iq u e m a y b e th e s e le c tio n o f p r im a r y c o n c e p ts fo r d is c u s s io n b y f u r t h e r e la b o r a tin g o n a n d e x p la in in g t h e ir p r a c tic a l, c o n t e x tu a l r e le v a n c e . A s p e c ia l e m p h a s is in in - c la s s d is c u s s io n s h o u ld b e p la c e d o n in te r p r e ta tiv e a s p e c ts , in c lu d in g a t e x t ’s d ir e c t a n d im p lic it in f o r m a t io n , as w e ll as o n its b a la n c e ; th e s e in te r p r t a tio n s a re k e y to a c o n t e x tu a lis e d a n a ly s is o f th e s o u r c e t e x t a n d t r a n s la tio n . A r g u m e n ta tio n o f p o e tic s is a n o th e r p e r sp e c tiv e th a t e x p la in s th e v e r b a l a n d n o n -v e r b a l ‘f a b r ic ’ o f a t e x t . T e x ts c o m p r is e s p e c if ic fe a tu r e s t h a t in f o r m t h e t e x t ’s a e s t h e t ic q u a lit y ; th e s e q u a litie s e n su re t h e t e x t ’s a e s th e t ic s t r e n g t h w h ic h d e te r m in e s , to so m e e x te n t, t h e r e a d e r ’s re s p o n s e . T h e im p o r t a n c e o f t h i s p e r s p e c tiv e is illu s tr a te d b y s itu a t io n s w h e n st u d e n ts tr a n s la t e a t e x t w ith d is re g a rd fo r its a e s th e tic fe a tu r e s , th u s m a k in g in a p p r o p r ia te le x ic a l c h o ic e s (fo r in s t a n c e , e x c e s siv e ly n e u tr a l o r fo r m a l, ‘c o r r e c t ’ le x is) a n d a p p ly in g o t h e r t e c h n iq u e s t h a t a re d e t r im e n t a l to t r a n s la t io n q u a lity . T h e a p p r o a c h o f lo o k in g a t t h e t e x t a s i f f r o m a d is t a n c e m a y e n s u r e a d d it io n a l in s ig h ts in to th e t e x t ’s w o rld . M e a n w h ile , t h e o r e t ic a l d is c u s s io n is a w a y to g ra s p t h e b ig p ic tu r e a n d to c o n sid e r la n g u a g e , (lite ra ry ) te x t, c u ltu re (s ), a n d tr a n s la tio n in a n in c lu siv e m a n n e r . A n o t h e r p e r s p e c tiv e f r o m w h ic h to o b t a in th e b ig p ic tu r e is a w e ll- s t r u c tu r e d st u d y c u r r ic u lu m , w h ic h s h o u ld e q u ip , th r o u g h a s p e c ific c o u rs e se q u e n c e a n d fo llo w -u p p h a se s , s tu d e n ts w ith b a c k g r o u n d c o m p e te n c e . I n -c la s s d is c u ss io n s u s u a lly e m p lo y c o m b in e d fo rm a ts o f f u n c tio n -b a s e d , p r o c e s s - o r i e n te d , a n d p ro d u c t-b a se d a p p r o a c h e s t h a t a lso e x p la in p r a c tic a l t r a n s la tio n str a te g ie s a n d HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIESAND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 J. Veckrācis. Teaching and studying Translation: a Dual Approach 661 s p e c ific t a c t ic s fo r e a c h te x t. In d iv id u a l a n d p a ir w o r k b r in g d is t in c t b e n e fits su g g e s tin g p r e fe r e n c e fo r v a r ie d in - c la s s fo rm a ts. A u s e fu l a p p ro a c h is th e te c h n iq u e o f ‘red in d ic a to r lig h ts ’; th e s e a re a s p e c ts a n d ta sk s th a t e v e r y tr a n s la t o r lis ts a m o n g th e k e y fo c u s a r e a s in e v e ry tr a n s la tio n . B e n e fic ia l a c tiv itie s to e n c o u ra g e fle x ib ility a n d av oid lite r a l tr a n s la t io n te c h n iq u e s in c lu d e p a ra p h ra s in g ta s k s , w h ic h re q u ir e se n te n c e -le v e l m a n ip u la t io n w ith o u t c h a n g in g t h e se n s e o f th e t e x t a n d w ith o u t d e c r e a s in g tr a n s la t io n q u a lity . I n t h is c o n t e x t, tr a n s la t o r c o m p e te n c e m e a n s a p p lic a tio n o f th e d o u b le -c h e c k in g te c h n iq u e to av oid a m is le a d in g p e r c e p tio n o f th e te x t a n d in a p p r o p r ia te ‘ f r e e d o m ’ (u n n e c e s s a r y o r u n a c c e p ta b le m a n ip u la tio n s ), a n d s e c o n d , id e n tify in g , to t h e e x t e n t p o s sib le , th e in d ic a tio n s o f th e p o te n tia l a n d lim it s o f fre e d o m . T h e c h o ic e s a n d s e le c tio n s m a d e b y t r a n s la t o r s a re re la te d to s itu a tio n a l a n d c o m m u n ic a tiv e c o n t e x t a n d to th e lin g u is t ic c o - t e x t , p a r tic u la r ly w h e n a n y in te r lin g u a l a s y m m e t r y is id e n tifie d . C o - t e x t u a l a n d c o n t e x tu a l c o n s id e r a tio n s a re ty p ic a lly b a s e d o n th e b ig / s m a ll p ic tu r e o f th e t e x t a n d , m o re n a rro w ly , s e n te n c e a n d f u r t h e r u p d a te s o f t h e a c tu a l ‘s itu a tio n ’ in t h e te x t. A t a s k o f tr a n s la t io n s tu d ie s is e n c o u r a g in g th e a p p lic a tio n o f t h o s e te c h n iq u e s w h ic h p r o d u c tiv e ly e n s u r e q u a lit y in t h e f o r m o f e v e ry d a y r o u t in e s , a n o t h e r p e r s p e c tiv e o f t h e ite ra tiv e n a tu r e b o t h o f t r a n s la t io n s tu d ie s a n d t r a n s la t io n itse lf. C le a r ly d e fin e d q u a lity a s s e s s m e n t c r it e r ia a re a n e s s e n tia l c o n s id e r a tio n w h e n s tu d e n t t r a n s la t io n s a re d is c u s s e d . H o w e v er, a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e q u a lity o f la n g u a g e u se in g e n e r a l o r in a t r a n s la t io n a ls o in v o lv e s c e r t a in f a c t o r s t h a t c a n h a r d ly b e e x a m in e d w ith in t y p ic a l ty p o lo g ie s o f t r a n s la tio n m is ta k e s a n d e r ro rs . F o r in s ta n c e , a ttitu d e , w h ic h c a n b e felt i n stu d e n t t r a n s la tio n s , re v e a ls, in a sp e c ific a n d in d is p e n s a b le w ay, a s tu d e n t ’s p o te n tia l. T h o u g h le ss a p p a r e n t in th e t r a n s la t io n , it is s till a n im p o r t a n t in d ic a t o r o f c o m m it m e n t a n d t h e v a lu e o f t r a n s la t io n in t h e t r a in in g c o n te x t. REFERENCES B a ld u n č ik s , J. ( 2 0 1 5 ) . A N ew T r e n d in th e T r a n s la tio n o f P o ly se m o u s E n g lis h W o r d s in to L atv ia n : S e m a n tic H y p e rtro p h y o f th e B a s ic E q u iv a le n t. In B lo c h -R o z m e j, A ., D ra b ik o w a, K. (e d s.). W ithin L an g u ag e, B ey o n d T h eories (Vol II). S tu dies in A p p lie d Linguistics. N e w c astle u p o n T yn e: C a m b rid g e S c h o la rs P u b lish in g . B e rn o fsk y , S. (2 0 1 3 ) . T ra n sla tio n a n d th e A r t o f R e v ision . In A lle n , E ., B ern o fsk y , S. (e d s.). Tran slation. T ranslators on T heir W ork a n d W h a t It M ean s, 2 2 3 - 2 3 3 . B ittn e r , H . (2 0 2 0 ) . E v alu tatin g th e E valu ato r. A N ov el P ersp ectiv e on T ran slation Q u ality A ssessm en t. L o n d o n , N e w Y ork: R ou tled ge . E -b o o k . B ro e c k v an d en , R a y m o n d (2 0 1 4 ) . S e c o n d T h o u g h ts o n T ra n sla tio n C r itic ism . A M o d e l o f Its A n a ly stic F o r m a tio n . In H e rm a n s, T (e d .). T he M an ip u lation o f L iteratu re. Stu dies in L itera ry T ranslation. N ew Y ork: R ou tled ge, 5 4 - 6 2 . B o a se -B e ie r , J. (1 9 9 8 ) . C a n y o u T ra in L ite ra r y T ran sla to r? In B u sh , P., M a l m k j^r , K. (e d s.) R im b a u d ’s R a in b o w . L ite r a r y T ran slation in H ig h er E d u ca tio n . A m ste r d a m /P h ila d e lp h ia : Jo h n B e n ja m in P u b lish in g C o m p a n y , 3 3 - 4 2 . B u sh , P. (1 9 9 8 ) . In tr o d u c tio n . In B u sh , P., M a lm k jA lr, K . (e d s.) R im b a u d ’s R ain bow . L itera ry Translation in H ig h er E d u cation . A m ste rd a m /P h ila d e lp h ia : Jo h n B e n ja m in P u b lish in g C o m p an y , 1 - 1 0 . G a rc ia -B e rr io , A. (1 9 9 2 ) . A T h eory o f th e L itera ry Text. B e r lin : W a lte r de G ru y ter. HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIESAND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 J. Veckrācis. Teaching and studying Translation: a Dual Approach 662 G ile , D . ( 2 0 0 9 ) . B a s ic C on cep ts a n d M o d els f o r In terp re ter a n d T ran slator (re v ise d e d .). A m ste r d a m / P h ila d e lp h ia : Jo h n B e n ja m in P u b lish in g C o m p a n y G o n z a le z D av ies, M . (2 0 0 4 ) . M u ltip le Voices in th e T ranslation C lassroom . A ctivities, tasks a n d p rojects. A m ste r d a m /P h ila d e lp h ia : Jo h n B e n ja m in P u b lish in g C o m p an y . G o n z a le z D av ies, M . (2 0 0 5 ) . M in d in g th e p ro c e s s, im p ro v in g th e p ro d u c t. A lte rn a tiv e s to tra d itio n a l tr a n sla to r tra in in g . In T e n n e n t, M . (e d .). T rain in g f o r th e N ew M illen iu m . A m ste rd a m /P h ila d e lp h ia : Jo h n B e n ja m in P u b lish in g C o m p an y , 6 7 - 8 2 . H o u se, J. (2 0 1 5 ) . T ranslation Q u ality A ssessm ent. P a st an d P resen t. L o n d o n , N ew Y ork: R o u tle d g e. K h a rm a n d a r, M. A. (2 0 1 6 ). A r g u m e n t a t io n - b a s e d l it e r a r y tr a n s l a t i o n q u a lity a s s e s s m e n t: A m u ltid is c ip lin a r y m o d e l. In Jo u r n a l o f A rg u m en ta tio n in C on text, 5 ( 2 ) , 1 3 9 - 1 5 6 . A m ste r d a m / P h ila d e lp h ia : Jo h n B e n ja m in P u b lish in g C o m p an y. L’vo v sk ay a, Z . (2 0 1 8 ) . S ov rem en n y e p r o b le m y p e r e v o d a [C o n te m p o ra r y Issu es in T ran slation ]. M o sk v a: U RSS. M u n d ay , J. (2 0 0 1 ) . In trod u cin g T ranslation Studies. L o n d o n , N ew Y o rk : R ou tled g e. R eiss, K. (2 0 0 0 ) . T ranslation C riticism - The P oten tials & L im itation s. L o n d o n a n d N ew Y ork: R o u tle d g e. E -b o o k . R o u n d , N . (1 9 9 8 ) . M o n u m e n ts , M a k a rs an d M o d u le s: A B ritish E x p e r ie n c e . In B u sh , P , M a l m k j^r , K. (e d s.) R im b a u d ’s R a in b o w . L itera ry T ranslation in H ig h er E d u cation . A m ste rd a m /P h ila d e lp h ia : Jo h n B e n ja m in P u b lish in g C o m p an y , 1 1 - 2 0 . U lr y c h , M . (2 0 0 5 ) . T r a in in g tra n sla to rs: P r o g ra m m e s, c u rric u la , p ra c tic e s . In T e n n e n t, M . (e d .). Training f o r th e N ew M illen iu m . A m ste rd a m /P h ila d e lp h ia : Jo h n B e n ja m in P u b lish in g C o m p a ny , 3 - 3 4 . V e c k rā c is, J. (2 0 2 0 ) . L in gu istic a n d T ran slatological A spects o f P o etry Translation. Jo s ep h B ro d sk y ’s Texts in R ussian, English a n d L a tv ia n . B ru ssels: P e te r L ang. V en u ti, L. (1 9 9 5 ) . The T ran slator’s Invisibility. L o n d o n , N e w Y ork: R o u tle d g e. About Author Jānis Veckrācis , A s s o c i a t e P r o fe s s o r , D r. p h il o l., V e n t s p ils U n iv e r s i t y o f A p p lie d S c i e n c e s . R e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s in c lu d e l i t e r a r y t r a n s l a t i o n , t e x t l in g u i s t i c s , p o e t r y t r a n s l a t i o n , t e r m i n o l o g y , c o m p a r a t i v e a n d c o n t r a s t iv e l i n g u is t i c s E - m a i l : ja n i s .v e c k r a c i s @ g m a i l .c o m . HUMAN, TECHNOLOGIESAND QUALITY OF EDUCATION, 2023 J. Veckrācis. Teaching and studying Translation: a Dual Approach 663

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