FEDERATION INTERNATIONALE DES lNsTITUTS D'ETUDES M:EDIBVALES Federation Intemationale des Instituts d'Etudes Medievales TEXTES ET ETUDES DU MOYEN AGE, 75 Presidents honoraires : L.B. BoYLE '(t) (Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana et Commissio Leonina, 1987-1999) L. HoLTZ (lnstitut de Recherche et d 'Histoire des Textes, Paris, 1999-) President: J. HAMEssE (Universite Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve) Vice-President: G. DINKOVA BRUUN (Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, Toronto) Membres du Comite : O.R. CONSTABLE (t) (University of Notre Dame) M. HoENEN (Universitat Basel) M.J. Mu&oz JIM:ENEz (Universidad Complutense de Madrid) R.H. PICH (Pontificia Universidade Catolica do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre) LA TYPOLOGIE BIBLIQUE COMME FORME DE PENSEE DANS L'HISTORIOGRAPHIE MEDIEVALE Sous la direction de Marek Thue KRETSCHMER Secretaire : P. CANlzAREs (Universidad Complutense de Madrid) Editeur responsable : A. G6MEz RABAL (lnstituci6n Mila y Fontanals, CSIC, Barcelona) Coordinateur du Diplome Europeen d 'Etudes Medievales : G. SPINOSA (Universita degli Studi di Cassino) President de l 'Association des Anciens Etudiants du Diplome : M. PAVON RAMfREz (Roma) BREPOLS 2014 TABLE DES MATIERES Avant-propos © 2014, Brepols Publishers n.v., Turnhout, Belgium Marek Thue KRETSCHMER: Y a-t-il une 'typologie historiographique'? Francesco SIBLLA: L'historiographie en vers de l'epoque carolingienne: la typologie politique des peintures d'Ingelheim Luigi Russo : Continuite et transformations de la typologie des Maccabees jusqu'aux origines du mouvement des croisades Sigbjszlm S0NNESYN : Eternity in Time, Unity in Particularity: The Theological Basis of Typological Interpretations in TwelfthCentury Historiography Julian FOHRER : Hugues de Fleury : L'histoire et la typologie Jeff RIDER: The Bible as Narrative Model for Galbert of Bruges Greti DINKOVA-BRUUN: Biblical Typology in Walter Map's De nugis curialium Thomas FOERSTER: Crusaders andApostles:-.Structural and Typological Elements in Otto of St. Blasien's Chronicle Sverre BAGGE : Typologie biblique et ideologie royale en Norvege au xme siecle Jonas WELLENDORF: Forerunners and Fulfillers: Structuring the Past in Old Norse Historiography Roman HANKELN : Intertextual Strategies in the Chants of Medieval Saints' Offices (historiae) Jean-Claude ScHMITT : Les images typologiques au Moyen Age : Apropos du Speculum humanae salvationis Lucie DoLEZALovA : Passion and Passion: Intertextual Narratives from Late Medieval Bohemia between Typology, History and ｾ＠ All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. D/2014/0095/214 ISBN: 978-2-503-55447-1 Index des manuscrits Citations bibliques Index general vn 1 25 53 77 97 119 137 151 167 179 197 219 w 267 269 271 GRETI DINKOVA-BRuUN* BIBLICAL TYPOLOGY IN WALTER MAP'S DE NUGIS CURIALIUM1 Walter Map's De nugis curialzum is a large collection of stories whose content and style represent a wonderful mixture of historical fact and literary invention2 • Map himself distinguishes between historia and fabula linking the first to the stories of the Bible and the second to the narratives of classical antiquity. Each type of narration, while different, possesses a similar method and intention ( unus utrimque narracionum mos et intencio) 3 • Both historia, which is founded on truth (veritate nititur), as well as fabula, which weaves together fictional elements (ficta contexit), o needs are present in the narrative as moral examples for the reader to regulate his life by a salutary mixture of hope and fear. This statement is indeed Map's justification for including in his book biblical quotations and scriptural comparisons, classical tales and mythological references, folk legends and strange stories of apparitions, ghosts and fairies, creating in the process a text that occupies a liminal space between the real and the imaginary. Map is, however, very careful to guard himself against the Wf * Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies. Toronto. greti.dinkova.bruun@ utoronto .ea. 1 I would like to thank Professor Jennifer A. Harris who provided insightful comments on an earlier draft of this paper. 2 For an interesting discussion on the theme of medieval fiction writing, see M. 0ITER, Inventiones: Fiction and Referentiality in Twelfth-Century English Historical Writing, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill 1996. The fullest description of the manuscript that contains the De nugis (i. e. Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Bodley 851, saec. XIV, Ramsey) is found in A.G. RIGG, «Medieval Latin Poetic Anthologies (II)», Mediaeval Studies, 40 (1978) 387-407, see esp. 396. Map's text appears on fols. 7r-77r of the first part of this composite codex. 3 De nugis, Dist. I, c. 31, cf. M.R. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium: Courtiers' Trifles, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1983, p. 128: «Fabule nobis eciam commonitorie Atreum et Theseum, Pelopem et Licaona, multosque similes eorum proponunt, ut vitemus eorum exitus, et sunt historiarum sentencie non inutiles; unus utrimque nan·acionum mos et intencio. Nam historia, que veritate nititur, et fabula que ficta contexit, et bonos fine florenti beant, ut ametur benignitas, et fedo malos dampnant interitm>. All references to the De nugis in this article are from JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium. 138 ｾ｣ｵｳ｡ｴｩｯｮ＠ GRETI DINKOVA-BRUUN that he invents things. He is sharply aware of the fact that the writing history and telling an entertaining story is a thin one, ｷｾＱ｣ｨ＠ is the.reason why he takes pains to assure his audience that he is not a har. He rmght be «a tasteless and imbecile writer» as well as «a foolish and. dull po.et» (to use Map's own mock acceptance of the charges leveled at him by his detractors) but a dissembler he is not, for «he does not lie who repeats a tale, but he who makes it» 4 • These few words capture the essence of Walter's creative approach to history writing and his elastic sense of ｳｯｵｾ｣･＠ admissibility. In brief, truthful reporting of events and compelling fictional accounts seem to have the same historical value for the author of the De nugis. The intertwining between these two discourses is indeed what creates the unique narrative fabric of the· work. Interestingly, the arguments on what does and does not constitute a ｾｲｩ･＠ ｾｦｬｩ･ｳ＠ (jalsigraphus) are presented at the end of Chapter 25 of the first distmction of the treatise. This account provides a revealing example of biblical ｴｹｾｯｬｧ＠ that ｮ･ｾ､ｳ＠ to be discussed in more detail. It has been suggested that this chapter,_ entitled A. Digression of Master Walter Map on Monkery, was ｰｲｯ｢ｾｬｹ＠ wntte? as an mdependent pamphlet similarly to the satirical tract on marnage, the widely known A Dissuasion of Valerius to Rufinus that he should not take a Wife, which is now found as Chapter 3 of the fourth distinction of the 5 De nugis ·The relative autonomy of these chapters underscores their important status within the rather confused structure of the work. Map's biting and often outrageous invective against the avarice and cruelty of the religious orders of his time, especially the Cistercians, is well ｾｯｷｮﾷ＠ What is seldom discussed in detail, however, is the fact that ｴｨｾ＠ ･ｾｴｲ＠ chapter on the monks' objectionable way of life is contextualized w1thm the. familiar motif from Exodus (12, 35-36), where the despoiling of the Egyptian oppressors of the Jews is sanctioned by God6: ｉｭｾ＠ ｢･ｾｷｮ＠ . D' e ｾｵｧｩｳＬ＠ 1.st. ｉＬｾﾷ＠ 25, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 112: «... eciam ｾ､ｩｯｴ｡＠ sum. non admvemo, non adulor; et insipidus: quia sal in fetore non proficit ｭ･ｾｴｵ＠ me ｾ｡ｴ･ｯｲＮ＠ et insulsum poetam, at non falsigrafum; non enim mentitur qui ｲ･｣ｩｾ｡ｴＬ＠ sed qm fing1t» · For a perceptive discussion on the position of the Liar in the De nugis, 0ITER, lnventiones, pp. 111-12. : See De nugis, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 84, n. 1. «Feceruntque .filii Israhel sicut praeceperat Moses et petierunt ab Aegyptiis vasa argentea ｾｴ＠ aurea vestemque plurimam. Dedit autem Dominus gratiam populo coram. Aegyptus ut commodarent eis et spoliaverunt Aegyptios». See also OTTER Inventwnes, pp. 66-69. ' . 4 BIBLICAL TYPOLOGY IN WALTER MAP'S DE NUGIS CURIALIUM 139 The Israelites did as Moses instructed and asked the Egyptians for articles of silver and gold and for clothing. The Lord had made the Egyptians favorably disposed toward the people, and they gave them what they asked for; so they despoiled the ｾｧｹｰｴｩ｡ｮｳＮ＠ This somewhat perplexing statement, which has elicited numerous explanations of the despoiling motif from both Christian and Jewish exegetes7 , is stripped from its original ambiguity by Map and, as might be expected from an unconventional writer like himself, infused with surprising new meaning. The Biblical Hebrews, who take riches from the Egyptians with God's blessing, are likened by the author of the De nugis to the contemporary Cistercians who, while styling themselves as God's servants, are in fact greedy, cruel and unscrupulous. He states bitterly: «They call themselves Hebrews and us Egyptians, themselves the children \ of light, us the children of darkness» 8 • Map clearly includes himself among the despoiled Egyptians, but whom does he mean really? In most general terms, the new Egyptians are men who are not among the powerful and the rich and who, because of their low social status and empty purses, are both treated with contempt and robbed without compunction by the new Hebrew race, that is, the members of the Cistercian order. In order to illustrate the despicable behaviour of these ne':-:' Hebrews, Map presents a series of examples that paint a bleak and distressing picture, the veracity of which is often difficult to establish9 • Thus, one Egyptian knight (miles Egipcius) at. Coxwold in Yorkshire lost a portion of his property when the tree marking its boundary was cut down in the middle of the night by his Hebrew neighbours, that is, the monks of Byland Abbey 10 • Two other Egyptians also lost their fields coveted by the local Hebrews, the first after his meadow was sprinkled with salt and made sterile, the second after his land was manured and tilled during one night and thus D 7 For some of the proposed meanings of the story, see B.S. CHILDS, The Book of Exodus: A Critical, Theological Commentary, Westminster Press, Philadelphia 1974, pp. 175-77. 8 De nugis, Dist. I, c. 25, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 96: «qui se dicunt Hebraeos, nos autem Egiptios, se filios lucis, nos tenebrarum». 9 Some of the stories found in Map are also told by Gerald of Wales, which however does not make them more trustworthy. See De nugis, Introduction, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. xliv. 10 De nugis, Dist. I, c. 25, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 104, n. 2. GRETI DINKOVA-BRUUN 140 unlawfully appropriated. In other cases the Hebrews used the semblance of , legality to secure what they coveted. So they produced documents obtained from corrupt officials that either made them heirs of the desired property or increased the quantity of what they had been given, in one instance from 16 to 100 acres. But «these incidents we need not recall», states Map after describing them in some detail. They are humorous deceits, «and in the words of their perpetrators 'works of good intention', not done to injure others, but to benefit themselves» 11 • Indeed, the Hebrews are capable of much worse. Stealing and lying can perhaps be excused or at least explained, but the same cannot be said about murder. The point is exemplified by a story about the monks of Tintern Abbey who hanged a poor hungry man for taking some of their apples and like Moses in Exodus hid the body of the victim in the sand 12 • The merciless killers are called by Map imitatores Moysi, a comparison that further underscores the already established analogy with the biblical Hebrews. However, if Moses resorted to murder to save one of his people from his tormentors, the new Hebrews slew a helpless person out of spite and meanness 13 • The new Hebrews, even though called imitatores Moysi, are in fact quite different from their proposed biblical counterparts. This is also evident from the story about the dishonesty of the monks of Pontigny, another Cistercian foundation. When accused of trying to cheat the buyers of their ham, the abbot of Pontigny, feigning ignorance, blamed the foolishness of the abbey's lay brothers for the mischief of squeezing the ham dry 14 • This is a typical occurrence, states Map, for the cloistered monks have the habit of pretending to know nothing of what is going on outside the walls of their own monasteries. The abbots, however, should be responsible for the deeds of the people placed under their jurisdiction. They need to keep in 11 De nugis, Dist. I, c. 25, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 106: «Horum non sit memoria, quia doli faceti sunt, et ut ipsi dicunt 'bone intencionis opera'; non enim hec faciunt ut aliis noceant, sed ut sibi prosint». 12 Ex. 2, 12. See De nugis, Dist. I, c. 25, cf JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 106. 13 A further example of slaughter and ruthless behaviour is the story about how the monks of Byland (Hebrei quidem de Belanda) removed a neighbour, whose estate they wanted to appropriate; see De nugis, Dist. I, c. 25, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, pp. 106-8. 14 De nugis, Dist. I, c. 25, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, pp. 108-10. BIBLICAL TYPOLOGY IN WALTER MAP'S DE NUGIS CURIALIUM 141 mind the example of Eli, who failing to correct his sons, became the ｣｡ｾｳ･＠ of their death15 • They should have learned justice and fairness from Kmg David who orders equal shares for both the soldier who goes into .battle and the one who toils with the supply train16 • They cannot turn a bhnd eye to what is happening around them and if they hear a rumour, should they not · · . ht?. 17 ThｾｳＬ＠ follow Tobias's example and suspect that thmgs are not ｱｵｾ＠ 'te ng Map makes it clear that the contemporary Cistercians are JU.st the ｯｰｳｩｾ･＠ of David and Tobias. Indeed, not only are they unfair and blmd, they are m fact incapable of learning from the examples the Bible provides ｦｾｲ＠ them. / This is serious accusation indeed, considering how important the Bible was in shaping all aspects of medieval life. . . From the discussion presented so far it becomes apparent that m his chapter On Monkery Walter Map uses his chosen biblical parallels in t:"o different ways. The first one is rather straightforward, namely, presenting characters from the Bible as exempla for moral or immoral conduct: In this context, Eli, David and Tobias are proposed as models of behaviour either to be avoided (Eli) or followed (David and Tobias). The ｳ･ｾｯｮ､＠ usage of biblical comparisons is much more ｳｯｰｨｩｴ｣｡ｾ･､＠ and ingemous. This is seen in the Hebrews vs. Egyptians analogy, which both advances the typ?logical connections and shapes Map's argument. In this ｩｮｳｴ｡ｾ｣･Ｌ＠ take a double turn, carrying meaning that is the opposite of what the ｾ･｡､ｲ＠ might expect. In a traditional typological narrative, it would be logical to assume that those compared to the biblical Hebrews would be the poor and obedient servants of their rich Egyptian lords. This clearly is no.t the case with the new Hebrews, a.k.a. the Cistercians. Also, the Hebrews m Exodus are the heroes of the story who are protected and helped by God, while the Egyptians are the villains justly punished by ｨｩｾＮ＠ Here ｴｾ･＠ ｈ･｢ｲｾｷｳ＠ have become the villains who to Map's surprise contmue to enjoy Gods ｦ｡ｶ＿ｾｲＮ＠ In brief, in the De nugis the conventional understanding of the fannhar biblical tales is often cleverly twisted by Map who in the process creates a comparative arc that allows him to use both good and bad examples from 1s F . t the Bible to show how evil the new Hebrews really are . or ms ance, J Samuel 3-4. J Samuel 30, 24. 17 . Tobit 2, 13. . . «Walter 18 On Map's tendency to misapply and distort his sources, see A.G. RIGG, Map, the Shaggy Dog Story, and the Quaestio Disputata», in J. HAMEss: (ed.),Romk, magistra mundi. Itineraria culturae medievalis: Melanges offerts au Pere L. E. Boye 15 16 i; 1 i )JJ· 142 GRETI DINKOVA-BRUUN BIBLICAL TYPOLOGY IN WALTER MAP'S DE NUGIS CURIALIUM ｨ･ｮ＠ｾ the Cistercian monks are compared to Moses killing the enemy of his people the reader understands that these new Hebrews are in fact quite unlike Moses because they murder their own fellow Christians out of greed and malice. In contrast, when they are likened to the biblical Hebrews because they despoil the Egyptians, quarrel with God when he does not give ｴｾ･ｭ＠ what they want (as at the rock of Horeb or the waters of Meribah) 19 , disobey Moses by hoarding provisions 20 , and suffocate with spittle the righteous Hur who opposes the making of the golden calf2 1, the reader understands these references to the transgressions of the biblical Israelites against the Lord22 as examples that parallel precisely the behaviour of the new Hebrews. demonic deceits and portents )23 , in the middle of which no poet can ever hope to find the necessary peace of mind to write anything of worth. In Map's own words 24 : This double-edged parallelism allows Map to place the new Hebrews in a situation from which they can never emerge in a positive light. We are not dealing here with straightforward biblical types and anti-types that serve as moral exempla that are to be followed or avoided; neither are the typological connections in the De nugis of the usual exegetical kind in which prefiguration and fulfillment play a central role. Rather, we are presented with biblical analogies, which through their satirical and ridiculing nature permit Map to use both the positive and the negative as ammunition for his attack on the contemporary religious orders. This is indeed a skillful manipulation of well-known biblical topoi, which in Map's subversive prose often do not behave as expected. Furthermore, Map downplays his cleverness in a typical humorous ｾ｡ｳｨｩｯｮＮ＠ In fact, the motif of his ineptitude as a poet appears repeatedly m the De nugis, being closely linked with the author's scathingly critical depiction of King Henry II's court. Indeed, Map appears to be a somewhat disgruntled member of the royal curia, being both «bound in it and banished to it» (in hac religatum et ad hanc relegatum). Thus he asserts that Henry's court is filled with lusus, demonum illusiones, and portenta (that is, tricks, a l'occasio;i de son 75e anniversaire, Brepols, Turnhout 1998, pp. 723-35, esp. p. 725 (Textes et Etudes du Moyen Age, 10). 19 See Exodus 17, 6 and Numbers 20, 13. 20 Exodus 16, 19-20. 21 This story is found in Peter Comestor, Historia Scholastica, Exodus, c. 73, cf. PL, vol. 198, col. 1189. 22D . D'1st. I , c. 25, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 104. The e nugzs, reference is to Ps. 94, 10. 143 Engaging in literary pursuits (poetari) is an activity for the quiet and collected mind. The poets want a home that is·whole, safe and continuous. Not even the best state of body and circumstances is helpful, if the mind is not peaceful from inside. You are asking an inexperienced and unskilled man to write, and to write from the court: it is to demand no less a miracle than, if you bade a fresh set of Hebrew children to sing out of the furnace of a fresh Nebuchadnezzar. The courts are generally boisterous places where the Muses do not thrive but they have been spurned and renounced in particular in the court of Henry II, where vexation does not allow sleep, let alone study 25 • In fact, for Map the royal curia is a place of affliction, anger and punishment; a kind of cloudy, stinky and filthy Hell, where he toils among hissing serpents, groans and tears like another ineffectual and desperate Tantalus 26 • The hopelessness of the situation of any courtier who is expected to poetari, philosophari et scribere is underscored by two further examples, this time borrowed not from classical mythology as in the case of Tantalus, but from the Bible. 23 De nugis, Dist. I, c. 12, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 34. De nugis, Dist. I, c. 10, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 24: «Quiete mentis est et ad unum simul collecte poetari. Totam volunt et tutam cum assiduitate residenciam poete, et non prodest optimus corporis et rerum status, si non fuerit intema pace tranquillus animus; unde non minus a me poscis miraculum, hinc scilicet hominem ydiotam et imperitum scribere, quam si ab alterius Nabugodonosor fomace novos pueros cantare iubeas». 25 De nugis, Dist. IV, c. 2, cf ｊｾｳ＠ (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 284. 26 De nugis, Dist. I, c. 10, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 24; and Dist. V, c. 7, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 510. See, in contrast, the laudatory, idealized and somewhat nostalgic description of the court of Henry I, which in Map's opinion presents a model for imitation and an example for admiration. This court was a place «sine cura, tumultu et confusione», a rare occurrence indeed and clearly quite different from the contemporary situation; see De nugis, Dist. V, c. 5, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, pp. 436-39 and Dist. V, c. 6, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, pp. 470-73. Further discussion on this topic is found in A. CooPER, «Walter Map on Henry I: The Creation of Eminently Useful History», in J. DREsVINA-N. SPARKS (eds.), The Medieval Chronicle VII, Rodopi, Amsterdam 2011, pp. 103-113, esp. pp. 108-11. 24 144 GRETI DINKOVA-BRUUN BIBLICAL TYPOLOGY IN WALTER MAP'S DE NUGIS CURIAL/UM In the first instance the impossible feat of writing in court is like asking for the miracle of the three Hebrew youths thrown into the burning furnace by King Nebuchadnezzar and surviving the fire unharmed27 to occur again, while in the second Map uses Numbers, chapter 22, where the story of Balaam and his ass is narrated, comparing himself to the animal and the friend who urges him to write to its rider. He states 28 : while asking for divine intervention and declaring the impossibility of the task, Walter Map produces fine prose and witty narrative that exhibits great command of both classical and biblical knowledge, albeit somewhat lacking in organization and logic. An example of Map's stylistic accomplishments is seen in a striking but not isolate alliteration device which he uses to describe his imagined metamorphosis from a poet into an ass. The phrase «me ruditus ruditas ridiculum reddiderit», to which we cannot fully pay justice in English, is hardly a sign of the insufficient skill of a childish author, as Map wants us to think of him. Similar examples of untranslatable puns abound in the De nugis30 • As any good storyteller Walter Map is prone to exaggeration, a trait that is also seen in the way he manipulates the biblical material. For example, when he describes the young King Henry (d. 1183), the untrustworthy and rebellious son of Henry II, Map compares him to the biblical figure of Absalom, another impulsive and treacherous young man who fought against his royal progenitor, King David (2 Sam. 14-18). As is expected from a courtier in his father's service, Map first praises the outstanding qualities of the prince whose eloquence, beautyJand charm win everybody to his side, even his father's most trusted men. In this he was indeed like Absalom whose cause David's counselor Ahithophel joined, but the young King Henry outshines Absalom, because the biblical hero «had but one Ahithophel, while Henry had many» and further more Absalom had among his advisors Hushai, a man who was faithful to David and working to counter Ahithophel's plans, while no such man is to be found among the young Henry's followers 31 . Thus, it becomes apparent that the compliment paid by Map to Henry II's son is in fact a thinly veiled insult. The young It seems to me that you are using Balaam's spurs on me - the spurs with which he drove his ass to speak: for what other would avail anyone into writing poetry? I am much afraid that my stupidity will cause our parts mine of the ass, and yours of Balaam - to be reversed, so that when you try to make me speak I shall begin to bray, as the other spoke instead of braying, and you will have made an ass out of the man whom you needed to make into a poet. Well, an ass I will be, since you wish it: but beware, should the brainlessness of my braying render me ridiculous, lest the irreverence of your request proves you to lack modesty. As with the Hebrews vs. Egyptians analogy, the biblical examples of Nebuchadnezzar's furnace and Balaam's ass do not work in a straightforward manner when applied to Map's situation. Clearly, it is nobody's intention to transform him into a braying ass by demanding that he become a poet - just the opposite, really - but by feigning stupidity and declaring that he is simply obeying orders Map manages to tum the tables on any potential detractor who might accuse him of meager knowledge and childish language (macies sciencie et lingue infancia )29 • Map admits to these failings with feigned distress and in the process disclaims responsibility for everything he writes. If some people think that he brays like an ass, it is not his fault surely. His subject matter is so difficult and the range of material so vast and unwieldy that no ordinary human effort can organize it into a coherent story; only a wielder of miracles can accomplish such a wondrous deed. However, 27 Daniel 3. De nugis, Dist. I, c. 12, cf. JAMES (ed.),De nugis curialium,pp. 34-36: «Videris me calcaribus urgere Balaam quibus in verba coegit asinam. Quibus enim aliis possit quispiam induci stimulis in poesim? At valde timeo ne michi per insipienciam cedat in contrarium asine, et tibi in contrarium Balaam, ut dum me loqui compellis incipiam rudere, sicut illa pro ruditu locuta est, fecerisque de homine asinum, quern debueras facere poetam. Fiam tamen asinus pro te, quia iubes; tu caveas, si me ruditus ruditas ridiculum reddiderit, ne te iussionis irreverencia probet inverecundum». 29 De nugis, Dist. I, c. 12, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 36. 28 30 145 See for example the phrases «prodigialis proditor ipse prodigusque malorurn» in the description of the young Henry in De nugis, Dist. IV, Prologus, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 282, or «serpenti similis serotino» and «vacua viribus vanis» in the description of the queen in the story of Sadius and Galo in De nugis, Dist. III, c. 2, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 244. See also the following ingenious wordplay in the same story: «Educatum aiunt Galonern inter advenas, sed ad venas et cor penetrat» in De nugis, Dist. III, c. 2, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 240, and «Hee me fecit meditacio stupidum in mensa, quia michi terribilis et immensa» in De nugis, Dist. III, c. 2, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 230. 31 - De nugis, Dist. IV, Prologus, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. ＲＸｾＺ＠ «Absalom eurn, si non maior hie vero fuit, cornparare possis: ille unurn habmt Architophel, hie multos, et nullum Chusi». 146 GRETI DINKOVA-BRUUN BIBLICAL TYPOLOGY IN WALTER MAP'S DE NUGIS CURIALIUM man is indeed greater than the biblical figure he is compared to (maior vero fuit), but this greatness is simply a mark of even more deeply ingrained wickedness and immorality. If the biblical Absalom is animo patricida 32 , his modem incarnation is even more so. Walter Map definitely considers himself a historian of modem times, a reliable eyewitness of the described events and an honest reporter of what he has heard; the idea of objectivity and neutrality is clearly as important to him as it is to any ancient or medieval historian. At the same time, however, Map also cleverly re-negotiates his role as an author33 • Like his other colleagues he is writing for the moral improvement of his audience (ad mores instruccio) but in difference with them he also offers amusement (ludi et recreacionis gratia )34 • The place of the reader in this process is also re-defined. He is not just a passive recipient of what is put in front of him by the author of the work. In fact, Map is only the huntsman (venator) who brings to the table the game, while the individual participants in the feast (singuli lectores) are expected to choose from the bountiful display and make dishes that suit their own particular tastes 35 • Map, in addition, insists that both the biblical stories and the fictional narratives are instructive for the contemporary reader if understood intellectu mistico36 • In this context Map presents what are perhaps the most conventional examples of biblical typology in the entire treatise. His intellectu mistico basically means reading history tropologice, that is, for moral edification and for attaining virtue. Thus, he urges the reader to reflect «upon Cain the envious, upon the men of Gomorrah and Sodom, not one but all to a man saturated with lust, upon Joseph sold, Pharaoh punished with so many plagues, the people with its golden calf-idol, rebelling against God and the Lord's chosen (i.e. Moses) through the multiple pure meals in the desert, upon the pride of Dathan, the rashness of Zimri, the perjury of Ahithophel, the avarice of Nabal, and the innumerable portents that have gone on from the first times down to our own» 37 • These biblical characters clearly represent failings that have to be avoided; after all, at least four of these moral transgressions are counted among the seven deadly sins, i.e. superbia (Dathan), luxuria (the Sodomites), avaritia (Nabal), and invidia (Cain). Sin comes from the Devil3 8 , both in biblical times and in Map's world, so the cautionary tale for the readers of the De nugis would have been impossible to miss. The moral lesson is reinforced by classical examples added to the biblical ones. This classico-biblical exemplarity is at the heart of the treatise, underlying Map's own ambivalence towards the parameters ofJfiction and history. Since the De nugis stands firmly in the fluid intersection between the two, it is not surprising that classical mythology and biblical narrative coexist happily in it. However, what is unexpected, at least in the context of this particular example, is the choice of classical figures mentioned: «Admonitory stories set before us Atreus and Thyestes, Pelops and Lycaon, and many like them, that we may shun their ends» 39 • At first glance it is difficult to fathom what possible moral lesson can be learned from Lycaon killing Zeus's offspring and feeding it to him; from Tantalus dismembering his son Pelops and offering it to the gods at a banquet; or from Atreus murdering his own nephews and serving them to their father Thyestes. 32 De nugis, Dist. IV, c. 6, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 316. See 0ITER, Jnventiones, pp. 118-28, and S. ECHARD, «Map's Metafiction: Author, Narrator and the Reader in De nugis curialium», Exemplaria, 8 (1996) 287314. 34 De nugis, Dist. III, Prologus, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 210. 35 De nugis, Dist. II, Conclusio, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 208: «Venator vester sum: feras vobis a:ffero, fercula faciatis». 36 De nugis, Dist. I, c. 31, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, pp. 126-28: «historias ab inicio ad nos usque deductas habemus, fabulas etiam legimus, et que placere debeant intellectu rnistico novimus». 33 37 147 De nugis, Dist. I, c. 31, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 128: «Attende Cairn invidum, Gomorre cives et Sodome, non unum dico sed ad unum omnes luxu perfluidos, Ioseph venditum, Pharaonem per tot punitum plagas, populum vitulo ydolo aureo Deo et electo Dornini per deserti purissimas exibiciones rebellem, superbiam Datan, protervitatem Zambri, periurium Architophel, avariciam Nabal, et quorum non est numerus monstra nostris a primo continuata temporibus». 38 A similar example to the one already discussed, but emphasizing the role of Satan in the damning deeds performed by the biblical characters, is included by Map in Distinction IV, chapter 6, which describes how Eudo was eventually deceived by the Devil in De nugis, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 316: «Tu quis es? Nonne tu nostrum Eve tuis persuasisti consiliis exilium? Qui armasti Cairn in Abel, qui Cam patris fecisti derisorem, Pharaonem tyrannum in populum Israel, populum ｯ｢ｳｴｩｮ｡ｾｭ＠ in Moysen, Datan invidum in Aaron, Architopel periurum in Dauid, Absalon ammo patricidam, Jezabel facto detestabilem tuis adinvencionibus reddidisti? Quid ｡ｵｴ･ｾ＠ tuarum conor agrnina fallaciarum enumerare, cum innumera sint, et cum nee una sit vel fuerit quam tu non creaveris?» 39 De nugis, Dist. I, c. 31, cf. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium, p. 128: ﾫｾ｡ｵｬ･＠ nobis commonitorie Atreum et Thiestem, Pelopem et Licaona, multosque similes eorum proponunt, ut vitemus eorum exitus». GRETI DINKOVA-BRUUN BIBLICAL TYPOLOGY IN WALTER MAP'S DE NUGIS CURIALIUM However, if one remembers how severely these men were punished by the gods for believing that their monstrous deeds would remain hidden from the omniscience of the Olympians, the cautionary tale becomes more transparent. Still, the same point could have been made by better-known examples of the Greco-Roman gods' wrath and omnipotence. Why select these gruesomely cannibalistic tales? It is not difficult to imagine that Map yet again is going for the comic effect, warning his reader to take pains in avoiding a highly unlikely event, that is, being chopped to pieces and served as food at dinner; unless, of course, the reader is to understand this metaphorically as referring to what can actually happen to a guest at the royal court's banquets where the savage attacks of a courtier's enemies can result in his being reduced to food for entertainment. However, it is known that the gods are quick to punish such heinous crimes. Thus, the question is: whom is Map warning really? The victims or the crime perpetrators? Could these examples be understood as a clever threat against Map's own enemies and tormentors? Again, a careful reading of the De nugis reveals multiple layers of possible meanings; little is ever ｡ｾ＠ it seems in Map's work. In conclusion, even though Walter Map uses biblical typology on several occasions in his composition, for his sardonic wit it is often not enough to simply present the biblical exempla. More often than not, the biblical characters are meant to invoke hidden and contradictory associations, humorous and satirical denunciations, truthful and not so truthful authorial personifications. This multilayered use of biblical as well as classical lore is what makes the De nugis curialium such an unusual and exciting work to read. Map's new Hebrews and new Absalom are definitely not the fulfillment of their 0 Id Testament counterparts but in Map's satirical account they certainly supercede them in wickedness and sinful behaviour. In this element at least, the rules of typological interconnectedness traditionally found in biblical exegesis are exemplified perfectly, even if probably not intentionally. The heart of the matter is that biblical typology, when used in historical writings, breaks the usual inter-biblical bonds of reference. Here the biblical context is connected to a post-biblical historical reality, in which the biblical characters are presented as paragons of moral or immoral behaviour. However, the Bible is not the only source of stories that can be used as lessons for posterity. As we have seen with Walter Map, classical mythology as well as folklore tales can be employed in precisely the same way. In historical works the Bible seems to stand on par with any other source that is deemed pertinent and useful for the reader's moral benefit. Biblical characters, classical heroes, ghosts and apparitions all seem to serve the same purpose in Map's historical accounts. This is why his fantastic. stories and outrageous 'lies' are perfectly admissible as 'historical' evidence, not because their origin is grounded in reality and objectivity, but because they play the same exemplary role in the narrative. Confabulation might not be factual, but its moral value for the reader is equal to lessons provided by events that have really occurred. ThiJ is how f abula has become part of historia. 148 149 Bibliography CHILDS, The Book of Exodus: A Critical, Theological Commentary, Westminster Press, Philadelphia 1974. A. CooPER, «Walter Map on Henry I: The Creation of Eminently Useful History», in J. DRESVINA - N. SPARKS (eds.), The Medieval Chronicle VII, Rodopi,Amsterdam 2011, pp. 103-113. S. EcHARD, «Map's Metafiction: Author, Narrator and the Reader in De nugis curialium», Exemplaria, 8 (1996) 287-314. M.R. JAMES (ed.), De nugis curialium: Courtiers' Trifles, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1983. M. OTTER, Inventiones: Fiction and Referentiality in Twelfth-Century English Historical Writing, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill 1996. A.G. RIGG, «Medieval Latin Poetic Anthologies (II)», Mediaeval Studies, 40 (1978) 387-407. A.G. RIGG, «Walter Map, the Shaggy Dog Story, and the Quaestio Disputata», in J. HAMESSE (ed.), Roma, magistra mundi. Itineraria culturae medievalis: Melanges offerts au Pere L. E. Boyle a!'occasion de son 75e anniversaire, Brepols, Turnhout 1998, pp. 723-35 (Textes et Etudes du Moyen Age, 10). B.S.